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Having a fixed mindset can damage learning and your mental state. Change your "I can't" to "I can't yet".

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The Decision Lab - Behavioral Science, Applied.

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A behavioral design think tank, we apply decision science, digital innovation & lean methodologies to pressing problems in policy, business & social justice

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Having a growth mindset is so beneficial in every part of your life, especially in your academic life. Keep an open mind, all the time, especially while learning.

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Scholars are deeply gratified when their ideas catch on. And they are even more gratified when their ideas make a difference - improving motivation, innovation, or productivity, for example. But popularity has a price: People sometimes distort ideas and therefore fail to reap their benefits. This has started to happen with my research on "growth" versus "fixed" mindsets among individuals and within organizations.

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What Having a "Growth Mindset" Actually Means

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While good sleep is important for health and well-being, it is also imperative for good learning.

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Get the Rest You Need

Sometimes, the pace of modern life barely gives you time to stop and rest. It can make getting a good night's sleep on a regular basis seem like a dream.

But sleep is as important for good health as diet and exercise. Good sleep improves your brain performance, mood, and health.

Not getting enough quality sleep regularly raises the risk of many diseases and disorders. These range from heart disease and stroke to obesity and dementia.

There's more to good sleep than just the hours spent in bed, says Dr. Marishka Brown, a sleep expert at NIH. "Healthy sleep encompasses three major things," she explains. "One is how much sleep you get. Another is sleep quality-that you get uninterrupted and refreshing sleep. The last is a consistent sleep schedule."

People who work the night shift or irregular schedules may find getting quality sleep extra challenging. And times of great stress-like the current pandemic-can disrupt our normal sleep routines. But there are many things you can do to improve your sleep.

Sleep for Repair

Why do we need to sleep? People often think that sleep is just "down time," when a tired brain gets to rest, says Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, who studies sleep at the University of Rochester.

"But that's wrong," she says. While you sleep, your brain is working. For example, sleep helps prepare your brain to learn, remember, and create.

Nedergaard and her colleagues discovered that the brain has a drainage system that removes toxins during sleep.

"When we sleep, the brain totally changes function," she explains. "It becomes almost like a kidney, removing waste from the system."

Her team found in mice that the drainage system removes some of the proteins linked with Alzheimer's disease. These toxins were removed twice as fast from the brain during sleep.

Everything from blood vessels to the immune system The system that protects your body from invading viruses, bacteria, and other microscopic threats. uses sleep as a time for repair, says Dr. Kenneth Wright, Jr., a sleep researcher at the University of Colorado.

"There are certain repair processes that occur in the body mostly, or most effectively, during sleep," he explains. "If you don't get enough sleep, those processes are going to be disturbed."

Sleep Myths and Truths

How much sleep you need changes with age. Experts recommend school-age children get at least nine hours a night and teens get between eight and 10. Most adults need at least seven hours or more of sleep each night.

There are many misunderstandings about sleep. One is that adults need less sleep as they get older. This isn't true. Older adults still need the same amount. But sleep quality can get worse as you age. Older adults are also more likely to take medications that interfere with sleep.

Another sleep myth is that you can "catch up" on your days off. Researchers are finding that this largely isn't the case.

"If you have one bad night's sleep and take a nap, or sleep longer the next night, that can benefit you," says Wright. "But if you have a week's worth of getting too little sleep, the weekend isn't sufficient for you to catch up. That's not a healthy behavior."

In a recent study, Wright and his team looked at people with consistently deficient sleep. They compared them to sleep-deprived people who got to sleep in on the weekend.

Both groups of people gained weight with lack of sleep. Their bodies' ability to control blood sugar levels also got worse. The weekend catch-up sleep didn't help.

On the flip side, more sleep isn't always better, says Brown. For adults, "if you're sleeping more than nine hours a night and you still don't feel refreshed, there may be some underlying medical issue," she explains.

Sleep Disorders

Some people have conditions that prevent them from getting enough quality sleep, no matter how hard they try. These problems are called sleep disorders.

The most common sleep disorder is insomnia. "Insomnia is when you have repeated difficulty getting to sleep and/or staying asleep," says Brown. This happens despite having the time to sleep and a proper sleep environment. It can make you feel tired or unrested during the day.

Insomnia can be short-term, where people struggle to sleep for a few weeks or months. "Quite a few more people have been experiencing this during the pandemic," Brown says. Long-term insomnia lasts for three months or longer.

Sleep apnea is another common sleep disorder. In sleep apnea, the upper airway becomes blocked during sleep. This reduces or stops airflow, which wakes people up during the night. The condition can be dangerous. If untreated, it may lead to other health problems.

If you regularly have problems sleeping, talk with your health care provider. They may have you keep a sleep diary to track your sleep for several weeks. They can also run tests, including sleep studies. These look for sleep disorders.

Getting Better Sleep

If you're having trouble sleeping, hearing how important it is may be frustrating. But simple things can improve your odds of a good night's sleep. See the Wise Choices box for tips to sleep better every day.

Treatments are available for many common sleep disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy can help many people with insomnia get better sleep. Medications can also help some people.

Many people with sleep apnea benefit from using a device called a CPAP machine. These machines keep the airway open so that you can breathe. Other treatments can include special mouthguards and lifestyle changes.

For everyone, "as best you can, try to make sleep a priority," Brown says. "Sleep is not a throwaway thing-it's a biological necessity."

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Does getting a good night's sleep seem like a dream? Find tips for getting a better night's sleep.

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Thinking about thinking. The knowledge and thought process around learning.

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Metacognition is the process by which learners use knowledge of the task at hand, knowledge of learning strategies, and knowledge of themselves to plan their learning, monitor their progress towards a learning goal, and then evaluate the outcome.

The literature on expertise highlights the importance of metacognitive skills. Experts possess more knowledge that is better organized and integrated than novices, but they also have highly developed metacognitive skills. They are more aware of themselves as learners and regularly reflect to understand why their chosen strategy is working (or not). They also monitor their progress and know when to check for inconsistencies or errors, which allows them to more productively redirect their efforts (NRC, 2000; Berliner 1994).

Many researchers describe metacognition as having two basic components: a knowledge component and a regulatory component (Ertmer & Newby, 1996; Schraw, 1998).

Metacognitive knowledge

Metacognitive knowledge encompasses knowledge of oneself as a learner (e.g., strengths, weaknesses, prior knowledge/experience in the area, preferred time of day for study, preferred study location) and how the human brain encodes, stores, organizes, and retrieves information (Pintrich, 2002). Thus, students should learn about effective learning strategies and how, when, and why to use them (Serra & Metcalfe, 2009).

Metacognitive knowledge also includes knowledge of the task to be completed and effective strategies to complete the task. For example, the metacognitive knowledge to solve textbook engineering problems includes strategies for diagramming the system and determining which governing or constitutive equations apply. Students with more metacognitive knowledge learn better than those with less metacognitive knowledge.

Self-regulation

Self-regulation of learning involves the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate the learning process. It is a skill set that students can develop to learn more effectively and better monitor their progress towards learning goals. You can find out more about self-regulation here.

Why is it important?

Consider 2 MIT students in the same subject that are both novices in a given topic. They participate in the same learning activities (e.g., problem sets) and access the same textbooks and web resources. However, one of these students performs better on the exam than the other. Why?

One possible reason (there are many) is that this student may be more aware of themselves as a learner. They may be more reflective and more strategic in their use of learning strategies and how to match them with the task at hand.

If one goal of higher education is to help students become expert learners, helping students develop metacognitive skills should be an explicit part of the curriculum.

Practices that support development
Pre-assessments to help students plan
Pre-assessments that help students understand their existing knowledge about a topic can help them plan their learning approach. The pre-assessment could take the form of homework, a quiz, or clicker questions. Timely and specific feedback is key.
Regulatory checklists
An explicit list of prompts about planning, monitoring, and evaluating can help students better regulate their learning (Schraw, 1998):

Planning

What is the nature of the task?

What is my goal?

What information, resources, and strategies do I need?

How much time will I need?

Monitoring

Do I have a clear understanding of what I am doing?

Does the task make sense?

Am I reaching my goals?

Do I need to make changes to my plan?

Evaluating

Have I reached my goal?

What worked?

What didn't work?

What would I do differently next time?

Reflecting on learning experiences
Reflecting on learning experiences is an important part of metacognition. Reflection helps learners build and fine-tune their metacognitive knowledge and self-regulation skills.

A learning experience can include a class session or a student receiving a completed assignment, project, or exam with feedback. After a learning experience, self-regulated learners will reflect on their learning strategies and their resultant performance to better inform their approach to future learning experiences. This reflection can be facilitated by:

Asking students to write a question or a statement that identifies a topic or concept that is still unclear (i.e., the "muddiest" point). Students should be encouraged to develop a plan and monitor their progress towards achieving clarity on that point (Tanner, 2012).

Encouraging students to journal or write a letter to their future selves (Tanner, 2012).

Asking students to share their evaluation of 1-2 study strategies they used with their peers (Tanner, 2012).

Distributing "exam wrappers": post-exam questionnaires with a mixture of close-ended and open-ended questions. Exam wrappers ask students how they studied for the exam, which concepts gave them trouble on the exam, and what they will do to prepare for the next exam. Those who use exam wrappers recommend having students turn them in for points so that the teaching staff can look for general trends in student responses (Lovett, 2016).

Implementation examples
Strategic Resource Use Intervention
A study by Chen and colleagues (Chen, Chavez, Ong, & Gunderson, 2017) presents an external intervention that can be paired with any course without relying heavily on faculty buy-in or involvement.

In the study, undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory statistics course were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions. Students in the treatment condition were provided a list of resources, determined in collaboration with the teaching faculty, and asked to select those they thought would facilitate their studying for an upcoming exam. Students were also asked open-ended questions about why each resource would be useful and how they planned to use each resource. Students in the control condition only received a message stating that their exam was coming up, and they should prepare for it.

Students in the treatment condition outperformed the students in the control condition by one-third of a letter grade. Students in the treatment condition actually used fewer resources when studying and were hypothesized to be more strategic in their approach.
Detailed Timesheets
MIT Professor Stephan L. Chorover asked students to complete detailed timesheets of their learning activities in 9.68: Affect: Neurobiological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Counterparts of Feelings. On the timesheets, students documented the amount of time they spent on various activities and their level of effort and engagement. Students were asked to fill in their timesheets at least 3x/week and bring them to class.
Journaling
MIT Professor Stephan L. Chorover required students in 9.68 and 9.70: Social Psychology to keep journals to document their progress throughout the subjects and to record their thoughts, feelings, and questions about the subjects. Professor Chorover stressed the utility of journaling in preparing for in-class and study group discussions. Out of respect for personal privacy, the journals were not collected or graded.
Reflecting on learning experiences
MIT Senior Lecturer Anjali Sastry's project-based subject 15.S07: Global Health Lab intentionally allots time in the syllabus for students to come together and reflect on their projects - what worked well, what did not, which assumptions were valid, which were not, what they learned overall, and how their projects connect to bigger themes.
Portfolios
Olin Professor Helen Donis-Keller has students in her introductory biology course complete a portfolio instead of a final exam. The portfolio is intended to encourage a mastery orientation towards learning and provide opportunities to engage in metacognition. Students are required to include quizzes and selected assignments in their portfolio. Students are asked to reflect on the questions/assignments they had difficulty with, submit corrections, and then reflect on what they learned in making their corrections. Students also self-assess their progress towards the measurable outcomes of the course and provide evidence to support their assessment.

Caveats

The accuracy of metacognitive monitoring hinges upon accurate judgments of learning

As described above, metacognition relies heavily on self-assessment. Self-assessment is prone to error and bias, so students should be informed of conditions and practices that may lead to more accurate judgments of learning. In general, as described below, judgments of learning following a delayed retrieval attempt from memory will lead to more accurate monitoring of learning (Dunlosky & Nelson, 1992).
Errors due to Familiarity
Students may conflate their general familiarity with a subject with their actual understanding of the specific content at hand (Serra, Metcalfe, Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 2009). For example, if a student has a calculus exam and a physics exam coming up and generally feels more knowledgeable in math than physics, they may devote more study time to physics. However, this could be a faulty study approach if the student does not have a solid understanding of the specific calculus subtopics to be covered on the exam. Engaging in regular retrieval practice will also help to mitigate familiarity bias.

Another common pitfall related to familiarity that students may encounter is in their comprehension of texts. A student may skim the key terms list of a chapter and overestimate their knowledge of the chapter content because the terms seem familiar. Responding to end-of-chapter comprehension questions immediately after reading a text can also lead to illusions of knowing. A more accurate self-assessment of learning can be made when the learner attempts to define key terms, describe how they are related to each other, and answer comprehension questions about the chapter after a delay (> 30 minutes after reading the chapter). Summarizing texts or generating keywords from a text after a short delay (without referring to the text) has been shown to lead to more accurate judgments of learning (Thiede & Anderson, 2003).
Foresight bias
Prediction about one's ability to retrieve information at a future time (e.g., during an exam) can suffer from foresight bias when the prediction is made in the presence of the correct answer (e.g., while studying) (Koriat & Bjork, 2005). Within the context of a given book chapter or a given problem set, students may be practicing a limited number of concepts or procedures. This may lead a student to inaccurately believe that the tasks are easy. On an exam covering a wide array of concepts, discerning which concepts apply to which questions may be more difficult. Instead of studying one topic at a time, students should be encouraged to create practice tests where concepts to be covered on the exam are interleaved. Instructor supplied practice tests could also be useful here.

Other Factors to Consider

Novices are not as good at self-evaluating their comprehension, so build in opportunities for formative assessment.

Since MIT students were so successful in their K-12 education, they may be overconfident in their use of metacognitive skills, and their habits may be difficult to change. Research indicates that longer-term interventions may be necessary for university students. There may be no noticeable short-term gain from an intervention targeting metacognition because some "un-learning" of previous, ineffective study habits needs to occur (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996; Hofer, Yu, & Pintrich, 1998).

The evidence suggests that metacognitive training should be provided in the context of the disciplines to promote deeper learning. If used consistently in teaching and learning contexts, metacognitive strategies can be reinforced throughout the curriculum. However, if faculty do not consistently embed metacognitive training in their curriculum, the transfer of metacognitive skills between contexts may still be an issue (Hattie et al., 1996).

In laboratory studies, subjects allocated more study time to materials they thought were more interesting (Son & Metcalfe, 2000). This suggests that motivational factors influence metacognitive control. Highlighting the real-world applications of content or making explicit ties between the content at hand and other disciplines may increase student interest.

References

Butler, & Winne. (1995). Feedback and Self-Regulated Learning: A Theoretical Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65(3), 245-281. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245

Chen, Chavez, Ong, & Gunderson. (2017). Strategic Resource Use for Learning: A Self-Administered Intervention That Guides Self-Reflection on Effective Resource Use Enhances Academic Performance. Psychological Science, 095679761769645. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617696456

Hofer, B., Yu, S., & Pintrich, P. (1998). Teaching College Students to be Self-Regulated Learners. In Self-Regulated Learning - From Teaching to Self-Reflective Practice. New York: The Guilford Press (pp. 57-85).

Koriat, & Bjork. (2005). Illusions of Competence in Monitoring One's Knowledge During Study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(2), 187. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.31.2.187

Lovett, M. (2016). Exam Wrappers. Retrieved from https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/teach/examwrappers/

McKeachie, Pintrich, & Lin. (1985). Teaching Learning Strategies. Educational Psychologist, 20(3), 153. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2003_5

Pintrich. (2002). The Role of Metacognitive Knowledge in Learning, Teaching, and Assessing. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 219-225. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104_3

Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting General Metacognitive Awareness. Instructional Science, 26, 113-125.

Schunk. (1990). Goal Setting and Self-Efficacy During Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 71-86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_6

Serra, M., Metcalfe, J. (2009). Effective implementation of metacognition. In D. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of metacognition and education (pp. 278-298). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Metacognition is the process by which learners use knowledge of the task at hand, knowledge of learning strategies, and knowledge of themselves to plan their learning, monitor their progress towards a learning goal, and then evaluate the outcome. The literature on expertise highlights the importance of metacognitive skills.

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Put it away while studying, your brain will thank you. Don't use it right before you sleep, your brain will thank you.

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Nearly three years into the COVID-19 pandemic, screen usage has increased exponentially, especially among children. The average amount of time children spend staring at screens has risen 52 percent since the beginning of the pandemic, according to a recent study published in JAMA Pediatrics.

Even before the pandemic, the average American adult spent about 3 hours and 30 minutes a day using mobile internet in 2019, an increase of about 20 minutes from a year earlier, according to measurement company Zenith. (You probably already know this if you get one of those "screen time usage" reports weekly from your phone.)

Smartphones are an integral part of our lives, but what effect does all this scrolling and staring have on our brains? What can we do to protect ourselves and our children?

Here's what we know.

Smartphones May Affect How We Think

Although there is not yet clear evidence that smartphones have a long-term negative effect on the brain, health experts are concerned that excessive use can be harmful-especially to children whose brains are not yet fully developed.

For example, research has shown that smartphones may adversely affect cognition (but more study is needed to understand the connection). Cognition is the process of acquiring and applying knowledge through thought, experiences and the senses.

A study in the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research found that cognitive capacity was significantly reduced whenever a smartphone is within reach, even when the phone is off.

With smartphones, you no longer need to memorize a phone number or find your way around town using a map-your smartphone does these things for you. Research shows this overreliance on your phone can lead to mental laziness.

Modern connectedness also could be rewiring our brains to constantly crave instant gratification.

"Social media, in my view, provides the user with inconsistent positive reinforcement, similar to gambling. When the user posts a message, the number of likes serve as a reward, and the chance of more likes increases with one more scroll or one more message. The user is not always rewarded with likes and positive responses, but these are quite satisfying when occurring. In fact, the user may unconsciously change their views to appease friends who provide likes, and select a friend population with shared values," says UNC Health neurologist Jorge L. Almodóvar-Suárez, MD.

Smartphones May Affect How We See

Since the beginning of the pandemic, there has been an increase in children with myopia (nearsightedness), says UNC Health neuro-ophthalmologist Maja Kostic, MD, PhD.

Nearsightedness is an eye condition in which people can view objects up close clearly, but things farther away appear blurry.

"We are currently doing studies to measure the effect of smartphone usage on children's long-distance vision," Dr. Kostic says. "If kids are looking at phones at a near distance for long hours without any break, then we think this could lead to more and more progression with myopia."

Smartphones Can Impair Social and Emotional Skills

The more time you spend looking at a screen, the less time you spend interacting in person with others. This makes it more difficult to establish interpersonal connections and strong relationships, which are important for mental health and the health of the community at large.

Using screens to zone out or decompress is fine in moderation, but there can be a negative effect if excessive.

"Anything that is done out of moderation is cause for concern," says UNC Health pediatric and adult neurosurgeon Carolyn Quinsey, MD. "For children, they are learning early in life to engage in passive activities instead of being actively engaged, which can become a habit as they grow older."

That lack of face-to-face interaction can lead to depression. Health experts are also concerned that excessive social media use-especially among teens-can lead to depression and anxiety.

"We know that social media can be linked to depression and anxiety," Dr. Almodóvar-Suárez says. "When we go into social media and post, we're posting a manufactured life-picking the best pictures of ourselves or the nicest picture from our trip. We're not showing an ugly part of the trip, like a four-hour bus ride or an unflattering picture. The problem is that when we see that from other people, we start to question why we can't be having that same experience. We feel like something is missing."

Concern about the long-term effects of technology and social media use on teen social and emotional development was the impetus for a new research center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill that will study the impact of technology and social media on adolescent brains.

How to Protect Your Brain from Your Phone

You don't have to swear off your phone completely to improve your brain health. The important thing is to be aware of how you use your phone and other devices and to prioritize other activities and in-person interactions whenever possible.

"The first thing adults or children can do is create some awareness around it. A lot of people aren't aware of how much time they're spending on a particular activity that involves a screen," Dr. Quinsey says.

Most smartphones allow you to track your average screen time hours. Pay attention to how much time you are spending.

"If you feel like that's a problem for you or your child, make adjustments," Dr. Quinsey says.

"We can be more purposeful about the time that we're using a screen, rather than it being so habitual."

Some people find it helpful to delete social media apps from their phone or to download software that limits the time they're permitted on a particular site. Others designate hours of the day "phone-free" to protect family time. It can be empowering to trade screen time for reading a book or working on a hobby.

As you scale back your phone time, the increase in your mental clarity or mental health might be motivation enough to keep it up.

To avoid harmful side effects of screen usage on the eyes, adults and children should practice "screen hygiene," a set of best practices for using screens. To start, hold digital media at least 18 to 25 inches from your face.

Also, practice the 20/20/20 rule: Every 20 minutes, look up from your device at something 20 feet ahead for 20 seconds. This relaxes your eyes. For example, look out the window between rounds of Candy Crush or after a chapter or two of an e-book.

Forgoing any use of technology is not realistic, but it's important to set boundaries and time limits-your brain will thank you.
Talk to your doctor if you have concerns about the effect your devices are having on your brain. If you need a doctor, find one near you.
Jorge L. Almodóvar-Suárez, MD, is a UNC Health neurologist. He is division chief and an associate professor of General Neurology and Headache Disorders.

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What Your Phone Might Be Doing to Your Brain | UNC Health Talk

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Here's what researchers know about how smartphones affect your mind-and your eyes.

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Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, And Time-Bound. Those are the key elements to a smart goal.

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Evaluating, Planning, and Monitoring are the key things for metacognition regulation. Always try to think about what you're doing and what the benefits may be.

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Metacognition is often described as "thinking about thinking." It is a crucial cognitive process that allows individuals to regulate and improve their learning, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities. Metacognition plays a fundamental role in education, self-development, and professional settings, as it helps individuals reflect on their thought processes and make strategic adjustments to enhance their understanding and performance.

Metacognition is not a single skill but a combination of multiple cognitive processes that work together to optimize learning and critical thinking. By understanding the different types of metacognition, individuals can develop strategies to become more effective learners and thinkers.

Key Insights

What is Metacognition?

Metacognition is often described as "thinking about thinking"-a crucial skill that allows individuals to be aware of, regulate, and refine their cognitive processes. It plays a vital role in learning, problem-solving, and decision-making, enabling individuals to assess their own understanding, recognize when they need to change strategies, and develop better approaches to tackling complex tasks. Whether in an academic setting , a professional environment, or everyday life, metacognition empowers individuals to become more self-sufficient, independent learners.

The concept of metacognition has been widely studied in cognitive psychology, education, and neuroscience, with research showing that students who develop strong metacognitive skills tend to perform better academically, retain information more effectively, and demonstrate greater resilience when faced with challenges. Beyond the classroom , metacognition is linked to intellectual growth, as it fosters adaptability, creativity, and problem-solving skills-traits that are essential for success in an increasingly complex and fast-paced world.

Metacognition is generally divided into three core components:

Each of these components plays a crucial role in cognitive development and self-improvement. By actively engaging in metacognitive thinking , individuals enhance their ability to think critically, solve problems efficiently, and develop a more profound understanding of complex topics. As a result, metacognition is not just a learning tool-it is a lifelong skill that fosters continuous growth and success.

The 3 Types of Metacognition

Metacognition is a multi-faceted concept that goes beyond simple self-awareness, encompassing different types that shape how individuals think, learn, and problem-solve. By understanding the various types of metacognition , individuals can develop more effective learning strategies, improve decision-making, and enhance their overall cognitive flexibility.

1. Metacognitive Knowledge

Metacognitive knowledge involves being aware of one's cognitive processes and understanding how different strategies can enhance learning. It includes three subtypes:

Example: A student preparing for an exam recognizes that they struggle with memorization, so they decide to use flashcards as an effective recall strategy.

2. Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive regulation refers to the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's learning and cognitive processes. It consists of three stages:

Example: A student notices that they struggle with understanding a textbook chapter, so they switch to watching an educational video on the topic and take notes.

3. Metacognitive Experiences

Metacognitive experiences involve reflecting on past learning situations and using those reflections to inform future decisions. It includes recognizing moments of confusion, confidence, or realization during learning.

Example: A person solving a difficult math problem recalls a similar question they encountered before and applies the same problem-solving strategy.

Why is Metacognition Important?

Metacognition enhances learning efficiency by allowing individuals to adapt their approaches to different challenges. It is particularly beneficial in:

Education: Helps students develop independent learning habits and improve academic performance.

Problem-Solving: Enables individuals to evaluate potential solutions and choose the most effective one.

Decision-Making: Encourages self-reflection, reducing impulsive choices and fostering strategic thinking.

Professional Development: Supports educators in improving their skills and adapting to workplace challenges.

Studies have shown that students who practice metacognitive strategies perform significantly better in academics compared to those who do not actively monitor their learning .

How to Improve Metacognitive Skills

Enhancing metacognition requires conscious effort and practice. Here are some effective ways to develop metacognitive skills:

Encourage Self-Questioning: Ask reflective questions such as "What do I already know about this topic?" and "What strategies can I use to understand this better?"

Practice Reflection: Keep a learning journal to document experiences, challenges, and strategies that worked.

Use Effective Learning Strategies: Implement active reading techniques, summarization, and self-explanation.

Seek Feedback: Learn from mistakes and make adjustments to improve performance.

The Bottom Line

Metacognition is a powerful cognitive tool that enhances learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. By understanding the different types of metacognition-metacognitive knowledge, regulation, and experiences-individuals can take control of their cognitive processes and optimize their performance in academic, professional, and personal settings. Whether applied in education, business, or daily life, metacognition fosters adaptability, strategic thinking, and continuous self-improvement.

FAQs

1. How does metacognition help students?
Metacognition helps students regulate their learning, improve retention, and become more independent learners by encouraging self-awareness and strategic thinking.

2. What are the three components of metacognition?
The three components are metacognitive knowledge (understanding one's learning strategies), metacognitive regulation (planning and monitoring learning processes), and metacognitive experiences (reflecting on past learning experiences).

3. Can metacognition be taught?
Yes, teachers can integrate metacognitive strategies such as self-reflection, goal-setting, and active monitoring into lessons to help students develop these skills.

4. How does metacognition differ from cognition?
Cognition refers to thinking and processing information, while metacognition involves being aware of and regulating those cognitive processes.

5. What role does metacognition play in problem-solving?
Metacognition allows individuals to assess their understanding, adjust strategies, and reflect on past experiences to improve future problem-solving efforts.

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The 3 Types of Metacognition Explained | Schools That Lead - Schools That Lead

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Metacognition is not a single skill but a combination of multiple cognitive processes that work together to optimize learning and critical thinking.

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Collect, Organize, Rehearse, and Evaluate. These are the best ways to study for a test, use them in any order.

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Get the most important things in your day done first. By doing that, you'll still have room for everything else that you need to do.

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Rocks, Pebbles and Sand: Prioritizing Your Life

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Taking information that you've learned and making a memory trace for it, is one of the most valuable ways to remember something.

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Encoding Thoughts Into Memory | BetterHelp

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Discover how encoding thoughts transforms information into long term memory. Learn about memory encoding, term memory, and how the mind processes thoughts.

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Adding details to information - another way of making a memory trace stronger.

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Hidden Curriculum is an element of school that is expected of students, but never communicated.

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The term "hidden curriculum" refers to an amorphous collection of " implicit academic, social, and cultural messages ," " unwritten rules and unspoken expectations ," and " unofficial norms, behaviours and values " of the dominant-culture context in which all teaching and learning is situated.

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Thinking critically about ones own learning process and experiences to inform future actions.

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How well do you know yourself? Do you think about why you do the things you do? Self-reflection is a skill that can help you understand yourself better.

Self-reflection involves being present with yourself and intentionally focusing your attention inward to examine your thoughts, feelings, actions, and motivations, says Angeleena Francis, LMHC, executive director for AMFM Healthcare.

Active self-reflection can help grow your understanding of who you are, what values you believe in, and why you think and act the way you do, says Kristin Wilson, MA, LPC, CCTP, RYT, chief experience officer for Newport Healthcare.

This article explores the benefits and importance of self-reflection, as well as some strategies to help you practice it and incorporate it into your daily life. We also discuss when self-reflection can become unhealthy and suggest some coping strategies.

Why Is Self-Reflection So Important?

Self-reflection is important because it helps you form a self-concept and contributes toward self-development.

Builds Your Self-Concept

Self-reflection is critical because it contributes to your self-concept, which is an important part of your identity.

Your self-concept includes your thoughts about your traits, abilities, beliefs, values, roles, and relationships. It plays an influential role in your mood, judgment, and behavioral patterns.

Reflecting inward allows you to know yourself and continue to get to know yourself as you change and develop as a person, says Francis. It helps you understand and strengthen your self-concept as you evolve with time.

Enables Self-Development

Self-reflection also plays a key role in self-development. "It is a required skill for personal growth," says Wilson.

Being able to evaluate your strengths and weaknesses, or what you did right or wrong, can help you identify areas for growth and improvement, so you can work on them.

For instance, say you gave a presentation at school or work that didn't go well, despite putting in a lot of work on the project. Spending a little time on self-reflection can help you understand that even though you spent a lot of time working on the project and creating the presentation materials, you didn't practice giving the presentation. Realizing the problem can help you correct it. So, the next time you have to give a presentation, you can practice it on your colleagues or loved ones first.

Or, say you've just broken up with your partner. While it's easy to blame them for everything that went wrong, self-reflection can help you understand what behaviors of yours contributed to the split. Being mindful of these behaviors can be helpful in other relationships.

Without self-reflection, you would continue to do what you've always done and as a result, you may continue to face the same problems you've always faced.

Benefits of Self-Reflection

These are some of the benefits of self-reflection, according to the experts:

Increased self-awareness: Spending time in self-reflection can help build greater self-awareness, says Wilson. Self-awareness is a key component of emotional intelligence. It helps you recognize and understand your own emotions, as well as the impact of your emotions on your thoughts and behaviors.

Greater sense of control: Self-reflection involves practicing mindfulness and being present with yourself at the moment. This can help you feel more grounded and in control of yourself, says Francis.

Improved communication skills: Self-reflection can help you improve your communication skills, which can benefit your relationships. Understanding what you're feeling can help you express yourself clearly, honestly, and empathetically.

Deeper alignment with core values: Self-reflection can help you understand what you believe in and why. This can help ensure that your words and actions are more aligned with your core values, Wilson explains. It can also help reduce cognitive dissonance, which is the discomfort you may experience when your behavior doesn't align with your values, says Francis.

Better decision-making skills: Self-reflection can help you make better decisions for yourself, says Wilson. Understanding yourself better can help you evaluate all your options and how they will impact you with more clarity. This can help you make sound decisions that you're more comfortable with, says Francis.

Greater accountability: Self-reflection can help you hold yourself accountable to yourself, says Francis. It can help you evaluate your actions and recognize personal responsibility. It can also help you hold yourself accountable for the goals you're working toward.

When Self-Reflection Becomes Unhealthy

Self-reflection is a healthy practice that is important for mental well-being. However, it can become harmful if it turns into rumination, self-criticism, self-judgment, negative self-talk, and comparison to others, says Wilson.

Here's what that could look like:

Rumination: Experiencing excessive and repetitive stressful or negative thoughts. Rumination is often obsessive and interferes with other types of mental activity.

Self-judgment: Constantly judging yourself and often finding yourself lacking.

Negative self-talk: Allowing the voice inside your head to discourage you from doing things you want to do. Negative self-talk is often self-defeating.

Self-criticism: Constantly criticizing your actions and decisions.

Comparison: Endlessly comparing yourself to others and feeling inferior.

Kristin Wilson, LPC, CCTP

Looking inward may activate your inner critic, but true self-reflection comes from a place of neutrality and non-judgment.

- Kristin Wilson, LPC, CCTP

When anxious thoughts and feelings come up in self-reflection, Wilson says it's important to practice self-compassion and redirect your focus to actionable insights that can propel your life forward. "We all have faults and room for improvement. Reflect on the behaviors or actions you want to change and take steps to do so."

It can help to think of what you would say to a friend in a similar situation. For instance, if your friend said they were worried about the status of their job after they gave a presentation that didn't go well, you would probably be kind to them, tell them not to worry, and to focus on improving their presentation skills in the future. Apply the same compassion to yourself and focus on what you can control.

If you are unable to calm your mind of racing or negative thoughts, Francis recommends seeking support from a trusted person in your life or a mental health professional. "Patterns of negative self-talk, self-doubt, or criticism should be addressed through professional support, as negative cognitions of oneself can lead to symptoms of depression if not resolved."

How to Practice Self-Reflection

Wilson suggests some strategies that can help you practice self-reflection:

Ask yourself open-ended questions: Start off by asking yourself open-ended questions that will prompt self-reflection, such as: "Am I doing what makes me happy?" "Are there things I'd like to improve about myself?" or "What could I have done differently today?" "Am I taking anything or anyone for granted?" Notice what thoughts and feelings arise within you for each question and then begin to think about why. Be curious about yourself and be open to whatever comes up.

Keep a journal: Journaling your thoughts and responses to these questions is an excellent vehicle for self-expression. It can be helpful to look back at your responses, read how you handled things in the past, assess the outcome, and look for where you might make changes in the future.

Try meditation: Meditation can also be a powerful tool for self-reflection and personal growth. Even if it's only for five minutes, practice sitting in silence and paying attention to what comes up for you. Notice which thoughts are fleeting and which come up more often.

Process major events and emotions: When something happens in your life that makes you feel especially good or bad, take the time to reflect on what occurred, how it made you feel, and either how you can get to that feeling again or what you might do differently the next time. Writing down your thoughts in a journal can help.

Make a self-reflection board: Create a self-reflection board of positive attributes that you add to regularly. Celebrate your authentic self and the ways you stay true to who you are. Having a visual representation of self-reflection can be motivating.

What to Do If Self-Reflection Makes You Uncomfortable

You may avoid self-reflection if it brings up difficult emotions and makes you feel uncomfortable, says Francis. She recommends preparing yourself to get comfortable with the uncomfortable before you start.

Think of your time in self-reflection as a safe space within yourself. "Avoid judging yourself while you explore your inner thoughts, feelings, and motives of behavior," says Francis. Simply notice what comes up and accept it. Instead of focusing on fears, worries, or regrets, try to look for areas of growth and improvement.

"Practice neutrality and self-compassion so that self-reflection is a positive experience that you will want to do regularly," says Wilson.

Incorporating Self-Reflection Into Your Routine

Francis suggests some strategies that can help you incorporate self-reflection into your daily routine:

Dedicate time to it: it's important to dedicate time to self-reflection and build it into your routine. Find a slot that works for your schedule-it could be five minutes each morning while drinking coffee or 30 minutes sitting outside in nature once per week.

Pick a quiet spot: It can be hard to focus inward if your environment is busy or chaotic. Choose a calm and quiet space that is free of distractions so you can hear your own thoughts.

Pay attention to your senses: Pay attention to your senses. Sensory input is an important component of self-awareness.

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How Self-Reflection Can Improve Your Mental Health

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This article explores the benefits and importance of self-reflection, as well as some strategies to help you practice it and incorporate it into your daily life.

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Having a healthy mindset is so beneficial. Your mindset is how you think about and handle things that come your way.

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BeWell spoke to Dr. Jacob Towery, adjunct clinical instructor in the department of psychiatry, about how shifting your mindset can improve your health, decrease stress and help you overcome life’s challenges.

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Learning is the process of acquiring the ability to do something new. Learning in a healthy environment is very beneficial.

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What Is Learning?

Learning is a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience. It is the acquisition of information, knowledge, and skills. When you think of learning, it's easy to focus on formal education that takes place during childhood and early adulthood. But learning is an ongoing process that takes place throughout life and isn't confined to the classroom.

Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the early part of the twentieth century as behaviorism rose to become a major school of thought. Today learning remains an important concept in numerous areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social, and developmental psychology.

Learning Is an Active Process

Even if you learn something relatively quickly, it is still a multi-step process. To learn, you must encounter new information, pay attention to it, coordinate it with what you already know, store it in your memory, and apply it.

For example, say you want to fix a running toilet. You might search for a how-to video, watch it to see if it addresses your need, and then use the instructions to make the repair. Or, consider a time when you came across an unfamiliar word while reading. If you stopped to look up the meaning, then you learned a new word.

Learning Leads to Lasting Change

Learning means retaining the knowledge that you gained. If you see that new vocabulary word in another context, you will understand its meaning. If the toilet starts running again in the future, you may need to watch the video again to refresh your memory on how to fix it, but you have some knowledge of what to do.

Learning Occurs As a Result of Experience

The learning process begins when you have a new experience, whether that is reading a new word, listening to someone explain a concept, or trying a new method for solving a problem. Once you've tried a technique for boiling eggs or a different route to work, you can determine whether it works for you and then use it in the future.

Learning Can Affect Attitudes, Knowledge, or Behavior

There's far more to learning than "book learning." Yes, you can learn new words, concepts, and facts. But you can also learn how to do things and how to feel about things.

It's important to remember that learning can involve both beneficial and negative behaviors. Learning is a natural and ongoing part of life that takes place continually, both for better and for worse.

Sometimes learning means becoming more knowledgeable and leading a better life. In other instances, it means learning behaviors that are detrimental to health and well-being.

How Learning Works

The process of learning is not always the same. Learning can happen in a wide variety of ways. To explain how and when learning occurs, psychologists have proposed a number of different theories.

Learning Through Classical Conditioning

Learning through association is one of the most fundamental ways that people learn new things. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered one method of learning during his experiments on the digestive systems of dogs. He noted that the dogs would naturally salivate at the sight of food, but that eventually the dogs also began to salivate whenever they spotted the experimenter's white lab coat.

Later experiments involved pairing the sight of food with the sound of a bell tone. After multiple pairings, the dogs eventually began to salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

An unconditioned stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response is paired with an neutral stimulus. Eventually, an association forms and the previously neutral stimulus becomes known as a conditioned stimulus that then triggers a conditioned response.

Learning Through Operant Conditioning

The consequences of your actions can also play a role in determining how and what you learn. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner noted that while classical conditioning could be used to explain some types of learning, it could not account for everything. Instead, he suggested that reinforcements and punishments were responsible for some types of learning.

When something immediately follows a behavior, it can either increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again in the future. This process is referred to as operant conditioning.

For example, imagine that you just got a new puppy, and you would like to begin training it to behave in specific ways. Whenever the puppy does what you want it to do, you reward it with a small treat or a gentle pat. When the puppy misbehaves, you scold him and do not offer affection. Eventually, the reinforcement leads to an increase in the desired behaviors and a decrease in the unwanted behaviors.

Learning Through Observation

While classical conditioning and operant conditioning can help explain many instances of learning, you can probably immediately think of situations where you have learned something without being conditioned, reinforced, or punished.

Psychologist Albert Bandura noted that many types of learning do not involve any conditioning and, in fact, evidence that learning has occurred might not even be immediately apparent.

In a series of famous experiments, Bandura was able to demonstrate the power of this observational learning. Children watched video clips of adults interacting with a large, inflatable Bobo doll. In some instances, the adults simply ignored the doll, while in other clips the adults would hit, kick and yell at the doll.

When kids were later given the chance to play within a room with a Bobo doll present, those who had observed the adults abusing the doll were more likely to engage in similar actions.

Challenges

Learning doesn't always come easily. Sometimes, you must overcome obstacles in order to gain new knowledge. These obstacles may take several different forms.

Environmental Challenges

Access to learning opportunities and aspects of the learning environment play a role in how people learn. These can be big or small challenges. If you can't find instructions or locate someone to ask about your running toilet, you don't have the opportunity to learn how to fix it. In the classroom and the workplace, you may face physical, cultural, or economic barriers that inhibit your ability to learn.

Cognitive Challenges

Cognitive factors affect the learning process, For example, the ability to memorize or attend to information can either facilitate or hinder learning. Specific learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, affect the way knowledge is processed and retained.

Motivational Challenges

Motivation, including both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. can affect how much people learn. People with a strong intrinsic motivation to learn feel compelled to learn for learning's sake. They do not need rewards, such as grades or prizes, to feel motivated to learn.

Of course, this may only apply to certain skills or subjects. Someone may need extrinsic motivators to complete math homework, for example, but be intrinsically motivated to research their family history. Challenges with motivation can stem from ADHD, depression, and other mental health conditions.

How to Improve Learning

Whether you are involved in formal education or not, you are always learning throughout your life. And there are strategies you can use to improve how you learn and how well you retain and apply what you have learned.

First, keep learning. Learning is a skill that can be practiced. One study of older adults found that learning a new skill improved working memory, episodic memory, and reasoning. And the harder the new skill (participants learned quilting, digital photography, or both), the more it strengthened their brains.

Learn in multiple ways. If you want to learn a new language, you might use an app that offers lessons in various aspects: Reading, listening, and speaking. But you might also listen to a podcast in the new language while you are taking a walk, or practice writing new vocabulary words by hand. Similarly, it helps to review information frequently and to use memorization techniques.

Another smart way to promote learning: Teach. When you show how a friend how to play tennis, for example, you're reinforcing what you know by sharing it. You must revisit the basics that were once new to you and present them to your student.

A Word From Verywell

Learning is not a one-dimensional process. It takes place in many different ways and there are a wide variety of factors that can influence how and what people learn. While people often focus on the observable and measurable ways that learning takes place, it is also important to remember that we cannot always immediately detect what has been learned. People are capable of learning concepts and skills that are not immediately observable.

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Learning is an active process that leads to lasting change as a result of experience. Find out more about how learning is defined and how it works.

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Memory Traces are what makes us remember something for a short amount of time. Strengthening those traces is what makes you remember it for good.

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Correspondin author: Tracey J. Shors (shorsrci.rutgers.edu).

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Memory traces of trace memories: neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and awareness

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To associate events that are disparate in time, the brain must record, retain and perhaps even reflect on the individual events themselves. Aspects of such learning can be probed with trace conditioning, during which an animal learns to associate…

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Consolidation is what happens while you sleep after you study. It is one of the most important parts, it is what helps you remember what you learned.

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Introduction
Sleep
Sleep, Learning and Memory
Memory Consolidation
Role of Sleep in Memory Consolidation
Stages of Sleep and Memory Types
Sleep Deprivation and Memory
Discreet Doubts and Future Research
References
Further Reading

Research undertaken over the last century has revealed that sleep plays a role in the mechanisms directing normal cognitive and developmental processes, including the consolidation of memories. This article will explore the role of sleep in memory consolidation.

Sleep, learning, and memory are all intricate processes that are still poorly understood. Both animal and human research indicate that the amount and quality of sleep significantly affect memory and learning.

This misconception that the brain is "silent" during sleep is based on a fundamental misunderstanding of what happens in the brain during sleep.

Researchers are starting to comprehend the potential impact sleep may have on the cognition of persons with developmental and cognitive deficits. However, it is widely believed that the brain is engaged in active patterns of memory reactivation and reintegration when we sleep.

Sleep

Sleep is described as a temporary condition of diminished receptivity to external stimuli and relative inactivity followed by a loss of awareness and is considered to be a normal and reversible process.

Sleep happens at regular intervals and is homeostatically controlled, meaning that a lack of sleep or a delay in sleep will cause future sleep to be lengthened.

Sleep, learning and memory

The benefits of sleep on learning and memory have been shown to manifest in two unique modalities. As a first point, a lack of sleep makes it difficult to learn anything effectively. Second, sleep is important for learning because it helps consolidate memories.

Although the precise processes behind learning and memory are still a mystery, they are often broken down into three categories known as acquisition, consolidation, and recall.

Acquisition is the process of storing new knowledge in one's memory. The term "recall" describes the process by which previously stored knowledge may be retrieved (whether consciously or unintentionally).

Memory consolidation

Memory consolidation refers to the stages that occur when a memory becomes permanent. Proper memory function requires each of these phases; however, acquisition and recall occur only when awake while memory consolidation occurs during sleep by strengthening the brain connections that produce memories.

Researchers believe that unique brainwave properties throughout different phases of sleep are linked to memory development. Consolidation is the process of strengthening and integrating a memory into preexisting knowledge networks by enforcing a stable state on the previously unstable memory trace, which may include numerous waves of short and long-term consolidation processes.

Role of sleep in memory consolidation

During sleep, the brain is at its most conducive to the consolidation processes that integrate newly encoded memory into a long-term store, as opposed to the waking state, when it is suitable to the acute processing of external stimuli, which involves the encoding of new information and memory retrieval.

Due to competition for shared neural resources, encoding and consolidation may be incompatible cognitive processes. Since sleep is characterized by considerably reduced processing of external information, it provides a window of opportunity conducive to memory consolidation.

Numerous studies have shown that interference learning, the injection of norepinephrine and protein synthesis inhibitors or electroconvulsive shocks may successfully impair or increase memory when provided after encoding.

This finding supports the consolidation concept. It is crucial to note that the effects of these interventions are time-dependent and peak soon after learning. Researchers believe that consolidation may occur in waves, with each wave including a separate set of stabilizing mechanisms that follow their own time courses and are dependent on their own underlying neural plasticity processes

Stages of sleep and memory types

Sleep researchers examine learning and memory in two ways. The first method examines how learning new activities affects sleep phases and length. Second, sleep loss impacts learning.

Different sorts of memories are produced in novel learning circumstances. Scientists are studying whether memory consolidation and sleep phases are related.

Early studies on sleep and memory concentrated on declarative memory or factual knowledge. In one study, intense language students had more rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep. This is when most dreams occur.

Scientists thought that REM sleep aids learning. REM sleep appears to be involved in declarative memory if the material is complicated and emotionally charged, but not if it is simple and neutral.

Slow-wave sleep (SWS) is a kind of deep, restorative sleep that has recently been theorized to serve an important function in declarative memory by digesting and integrating recently learned material. There have been conflicting findings from studies investigating the link between sleep and declarative memory.

Sleep deprivation and memory

Researchers also explore the influence of lack of sleep on learning and memory. Sleep deprivation reduces concentration, attention, and attentiveness, making it harder to acquire information. Without rest, overworked neurons cannot organize information effectively, and we lose access to previously learned knowledge.

Humans may also misinterpret events and exhibit impaired judgment. They cannot make accurate judgments as they cannot effectively appraise the circumstance, prepare, and act.

Chronic weariness impairs performance. Neurons and muscles do not fire effectively, and organ systems are not synced. Sleep deprivation may cause accidents and injuries.

Low-quality sleep and sleep loss affect mood and learning. Mood affects our capacity to learn and recall. Chronic sleep deprivation affects various people in different ways, but a night's rest influences learning and memory.

Discreet doubts and future research

As in every field of ongoing scientific endeavor, there remain unsolved concerns about sleep and memory. Not all studies agree that sleep helps consolidate memories. In tests where animals navigated a labyrinth, REM sleep increased.

Some experts think the rise in REM sleep reflects the brain's greater demand while learning a new activity. Other studies say any alterations in REM sleep are related to task stress, not learning.

Sleep deprivation's effect on learning and memory is also controversial. After REM sleep deprivation, rats perform poorly in learning activities. This shows that animals need REM sleep to integrate task-related memories.

Thorough experiment-based research on sleep deprivation is essential, and the benefits of sleep should be properly communicated to everyone.

References

Cappello, K. (2020) The Impact of Sleep on Learning and Memory, Perelman, School of Medicine, Chronobiology and Sleep Institute Blog. Available at: https://www.med.upenn.edu/csi/the-impact-of-sleep-on-learning-and-memory.html (Accessed: 13 August 2022).

Carmichael, O. and Lockhart, S. (2012) 'Neurotrophins and', Brain Imaging in Behavioral Neuroscience, (November 2011), pp. 289-320. doi.org/10.1007/7854.

Division of Sleep at Harvard Medical School (2007) Sleep, Learning, and Memory, Healthy Sleep. Available at: https://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-of-sleep/learning-memory (Accessed: 13 August 2022).

Ellenbogen, J.M., Payne, J.D. and Stickgold, R. (2006) 'The role of sleep in declarative memory consolidation: passive, permissive, active or none?', Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16(6), pp. 716-722. doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.10.006.

Morris, R.G.M. et al. (2006) 'Memory Reconsolidation: Sensitivity of Spatial Memory to Inhibition of Protein Synthesis in Dorsal Hippocampus during Encoding and Retrieval', Neuron, 50(3), pp. 479-489. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.04.012.

Murphy, M. et al. (2009) 'Source modeling sleep slow waves', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(5), pp. 1608-1613. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0807933106.

Further Reading

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Research undertaken over the last century has revealed that sleep plays a role in the consolidation of memories.

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Melatonin is what makes you sleepy when it's time for bed. It is converted from serotonin when we are not seeing light.

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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

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The hypothalamus plays a very important role in your sleep schedule. It tells you when its time to start making melatonin and go to bed.

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Hypothalamus: What It Is, Function, Conditions & Disorders

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Your hypothalamus is an almond-sized structure deep in your brain. Its main job is to makes sure that your body is kept in a balanced, stable state called homeostasis.

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Cramming is the least helpful form of studying, you don't give your brain enough time to process what its learning so very little of the information is actually processed by your brain.

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We've all done it: either completely forgotten that you have an exam or procrastinating so much that you find yourself in a massive rush to learn all the new information before your exam the next day. When this happens, cramming for exams often really does seem like the only logical step...

When I was at university, my housemate, Jess, always crammed for her exams. The day before her exam she used to revise all day, and then go to sleep at 7pm, just so that could get up at 2am on the day of the exam and revise until the very last minute. This made her exhausted, but Jess always did very well in exams. Was this down to her cramming technique? Could there be method in her madness?

Read on as we attempt to answer the age-old question asked by all students putting off revision - does cramming for exams ever actually work?!

Why it might work (as a very last resort)

Cramming just before an exam can (in theory) allow you to remember information in the short term and enable you to take in enough information for the exam.

However, this may will most likely mean that you'll have no lasting connections to the knowledge, and you won't develop any deep understanding of the information. You'll also likely forget it the second you walk out of the exam.

Why it might not work...

There are many reasons not to cram last minute for an exam, which we're sure you have no desire to hear, but here you go anyway...

Cramming is essentially trying to stuff a load of information into your short-term memory in time for an upcoming exam. This has been proven to increase stress levels, and can lead to panic and anxiety, making it a lot harder to take in information. If you're feeling the stress, find out how not to cope with it here!

Cramming for exams also usually results in reduced sleep time. This is because students (like my friend Jess) either go to sleep or wake up in the early hours of the morning in order to maximize their last-minute revision time. This can often lead to poor academic performance, due to a decease in concentration.

It's also a massive risk. If you feel stressed and for some reason can't take in the information that day, you may not perform to the best of your ability in the exam.

But if you're going to cram, do it right!

So, what should you do if you've left your revision until the very last minute?

If you're going to cram for your exams, cram but cram effectively. Reading the textbook until you fall asleep at your desk from sheer exhaustion is probably not the best way to prepare for an exam.

Make a list of what you have to learn before the exam. It's important to be realistic about this - if you've left the revision until very last minute (e.g. the night before) it's probably too late to learn absolutely all of the information. You're best to prioritize and revise the most important topics properly, rather than trying to do too much and then getting yourself hyped up.

Reviewing past paper questions is probably the best thing you can do to learn information last minute. Speaking from personal experience, information I've learnt in past papers has always cropped up somewhere in my exams at uni, and it's a great way to learn a lot in a short period of time. Your university will usually give you access to past papers (and sometimes answers) online, and they can be a great source of revision, as well as making you feel a lot calmer about the layout of the paper.

Get enough sleep! Lack of sleep can make you irritable, unable to concentrate and unable to make decisions. Not sleeping enough can also affect both your physical and mental health. If you've been revising all day and are absolutely exhausted anyway, staying up a few extra hours is not going to drastically improve your grade. Sleeping has been scientifically proven to improve your procedural memory (which helps with skills and procedures) and declarative memory (which helps recall facts).

Remember: you've got this. Good luck!

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Does Cramming For Your Exams Actually Work?

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We've all done it: either completely forgotten that you have an exam or procrastinating so much that you find yourself in a massive rush to learn all the new information before your exam the next day. When this happens, cramming for exams often really does seem like the only logical step...