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Tree of life | Meaning, Symbol, Biology, Name, & Movie

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tree of life, a widespread archetype common to many religions, mythologies, and folktales. The tree of life is a common idea in cultures throughout the world. It represents, at times, the source of life, a force that connects all lives, or the cycle of life and death itself. Common features of vari…

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Yggdrasill | World Tree, Nine Realms, Norse Gods | Britannica

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Yggdrasill, in Norse mythology, the world tree, a giant ash supporting the universe. It is closely related to the tree of life, a motif found across many cultures, and the tree of knowledge, which was said to grow in the Garden of Eden in Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). In

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General features

In prehistoric times the wild horse was probably first hunted for food. Research suggests that domestication had taken place by approximately 6,000 years ago. It is supposed that the horse was first used by a tribe of Indo-European origin that lived in the steppes north of the chain of mountains adjacent to the Black and Caspian seas. Influenced by climate, food, and humans, the horse rapidly acquired its present form.

The relationship of the horse to humans has been unique. The horse is a partner and friend. It has plowed fields and brought in the harvest, hauled goods and conveyed passengers, followed game and tracked cattle, and carried combatants into battle and adventurers to unknown lands. It has provided recreation in the form of jousts, tournaments, carousels, and the sport of riding. The influence of the horse is expressed in the English language in such terms as chivalry and cavalier, which connote honour, respect, good manners, and straightforwardness.

The horse is the "proudest conquest of Man," according to the French zoologist Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon. Its place was at its master's side in the graves of the Scythian kings or in the tombs of the pharaohs. Many early human cultures were centred on possession of the horse. Superstition read meaning into the colours of the horse, and a horse's head suspended near a grave or sanctuary or on the gables of a house conferred supernatural powers on the place. Greek mythology created the Centaur, the most obvious symbol of the oneness of horse and rider. White stallions were the supreme sacrifice to the gods, and the Greek general Xenophon recorded that "gods and heroes are depicted on well-trained horses." A beautiful and well-trained horse was, therefore, a status symbol in ancient Greece. Kings, generals, and statesmen, of necessity, had to be horsemen. The names of famous horses are inseparably linked to those of their famous riders: Bucephalus, the charger of Alexander the Great; Incitatus, once believed to have been made a senator by the Roman emperor Caligula ( see Researcher's Note); El Morzillo, Hernán Cortés's favourite horse, to whom the Indians erected a statue; Roan Barbery, the stallion of Richard II, mentioned by Shakespeare; Copenhagen, the duke of Wellington's horse, which was buried with military honours.

The horse has occupied a special place in the realm of art. From Stone Age drawings to the marvel of the Parthenon frieze, from Chinese Tang dynasty tomb sculptures to Leonardo da Vinci's sketches and Andrea del Verrocchio's Colleoni, from the Qurʾān to modern literature, the horse has inspired artists of all ages and in all parts of the world.

The horse in life has served people in travels, wars, and labours and in death has provided many commodities. Long before their domestication, horses were hunted for their flesh, and horsemeat is still consumed by people in parts of Europe and in Iceland and is included in many pet foods. Horse bones and cartilage are used to make glue. Tetanus antitoxin is obtained from the blood serum of horses previously inoculated with tetanus toxoid. From horsehide a number of articles are manufactured, including fine shoes and belts. The cordovan leather fabricated by the Moors in Córdoba, Spain, was originally made from horsehide. Fur coats are made of the sleek coats of foals. Horsehair has wide use in upholstery, mattresses, and stiff lining for coats and suits; high-quality horsehair, usually white, is employed for violin bows. Horse manure, which today provides the basis for cultivation of mushrooms, was used by the Scythians for fuel. Mare's milk was drunk by the Scythians, the Mongols, and the Arabs.

Form and function

A mature male horse is called a stallion, the female a mare. A stallion used for breeding is known as a stud. A castrated stallion is commonly called a gelding. Formerly, stallions were employed as riding horses, while mares were kept for breeding purposes only. Geldings were used for work and as ladies' riding horses. Recently, however, geldings generally have replaced stallions as riding horses. Young horses are known as foals; male foals are called colts and females fillies.

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Horse | Definition, Breeds, Pictures, Evolution, & Facts

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Horse, a hoofed herbivorous mammal of the family Equidae. It comprises a single species, Equus caballus, divided into numerous varieties. Between about 6,000 years ago, when it was domesticated, and the emergence of mechanized vehicles, it was used as a draft animal and as one of the chief means of transportation.

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Dagger | Weapon, Combat, Blade | Britannica

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Dagger, short stabbing knife, ostensibly the diminutive of the sword, though in ancient and medieval times the distinction between a long dagger and a short sword was often obscure. From approximately 1300 the European dagger was consistently differentiated from the sword; in the 16th century a

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Is this a dagger which I see before me,

The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee.

I have thee not, and yet I see thee still.

Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible

To feeling as to sight? or art thou but

A dagger of the mind, a false creation,

Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?

I see thee yet, in form as palpable

As this which now I draw.

Thou marshall'st me the way that I was going;

And such an instrument I was to use.

Mine eyes are made the fools o' the other senses,

Or else worth all the rest; I see thee still,

And on thy blade and dudgeon gouts of blood,

Which was not so before. There's no such thing:

It is the bloody business which informs

Thus to mine eyes. Now o'er the one halfworld

Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse

The curtain'd sleep; witchcraft celebrates

Pale Hecate's offerings, and wither'd murder,

Alarum'd by his sentinel, the wolf,

Whose howl's his watch, thus with his stealthy pace.

With Tarquin's ravishing strides, towards his design

Moves like a ghost. Thou sure and firm-set earth,

Hear not my steps, which way they walk, for fear

Thy very stones prate of my whereabout,

And take the present horror from the time,

Which now suits with it. Whiles I threat, he lives:

Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives.

I go, and it is done; the bell invites me.

Hear it not, Duncan; for it is a knell

That summons thee to heaven or to hell.

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Speech: "Is this a dagger which I see before me"... | Poetry Foundation

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Is this a dagger which I see before me, The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee. I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible To feeling as to sight? or art thou but A dagger of the mind, a false creation, Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?

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TL;DR (may contain spoilers): Macbeth hears that he is going to be king; he and Lady Macbeth kill people so he can become king; both of them die.
Macbeth Summary

Three witches tell the Scottish general Macbeth that he will be King of Scotland. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth kills the king, becomes the new king, and kills more people out of paranoia. Civil war erupts to overthrow Macbeth, resulting in more death.
More detail: 2 minute read
Act I

On a bleak Scottish moorland, Macbeth and Banquo, two of King Duncan's generals, discover three strange women (witches). The witches prophesy that Macbeth will be promoted twice: to Thane of Cawdor (a rank of the aristocracy bestowed by grateful kings) and King of Scotland. Banquo's descendants will be kings, but Banquo isn't promised any kingdom himself. The generals want to hear more, but the "weird sisters" disappear.

Soon afterwards, King Duncan names Macbeth Thane of Cawdor as a reward for his success in the recent battles. The promotion seems to support the prophecy. The King then proposes to make a brief visit that night to Macbeth's castle at Inverness. Lady Macbeth receives news from her husband about the prophecy and his new title. She vows to help him become king by whatever means are necessary (*ominous music*).

Is this a dagger which I see before me?
- Macbeth, Act 2 Scene 1

Macbeth with Henry Irving Programme, 1889

Act II

Macbeth returns to his castle, followed almost immediately by King Duncan. The Macbeths plot together to kill Duncan and wait until everyone is asleep. At the appointed time, Lady Macbeth gives the guards drugged wine so Macbeth can enter and kill the King. He regrets this almost immediately, but his wife reassures him. She leaves the bloody daggers by the dead king just before Macduff, a nobleman, arrives. When Macduff discovers the murder, Macbeth kills the drunken guards in a show of rage and retribution. Duncan's sons, Malcolm and Donalbain, flee, fearing for their own lives; but they are, nevertheless, blamed for the murder.

Act III

Macbeth becomes King of Scotland but is plagued by feelings of insecurity. He remembers the prophecy that Banquo's descendants will inherit the throne and arranges for Banquo and his son Fleance to be killed. In the darkness, Banquo is murdered, but his son escapes the assassins. At his state banquet that night, Macbeth sees the ghost of Banquo and worries the courtiers with his mad response. Lady Macbeth dismisses the court and unsuccessfully tries to calm her husband.

Costume for Vivien Leigh as Lady Macbeth, 1955

Act IV

Macbeth seeks out the witches who say that he will be safe until a local wood, Birnam Wood, marches into battle against him. He also need not fear anyone born of woman (that sounds secure, no loop-holes here). They also prophesy that the Scottish succession will still come from Banquo's son. Macbeth embarks on a reign of terror, slaughtering many, including Macduff's family. Macduff had gone to seek Malcolm (one of Duncan's sons who fled) at the court of the English king. Malcolm is young and unsure of himself, but Macduff, pained with grief, persuades him to lead an army against Macbeth.

By the pricking of my thumbs, something wicked this way comes
- Macbeth, Act 4 Scene 1

Royal Shakespeare Company, 1967

Act V

Macbeth feels safe in his remote castle at Dunsinane until he is told that Birnam Wood is moving towards him. Malcolm's army is carrying branches from the forest as camouflage for their assault on Macbeth's stronghold. Meanwhile, an overwrought and conscience-ridden Lady Macbeth walks in her sleep and tells her secrets to her doctor. She commits suicide. As the final battle commences, Macbeth hears of Lady Macbeth's suicide and mourns.

Out, damned spot!
- Macbeth, Act 5 Scene 1

George Skillan as Macbeth, 1920

In the midst of a losing battle, Macduff challenges Macbeth. Macbeth learns Macduff is the child of a caesarean birth (loophole!), realises he is doomed, and submits to his enemy. Macduff triumphs and brings the head of the traitor Macbeth to Malcolm. Malcolm declares peace and goes to Scone to be crowned king.

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow
- Macbeth, Act 5 Scene 5

For additional reading, see our blogs on Macbeth
Find more Shakespearian insults from Macbeth and other plays: Funny Shakespeare Quotes

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Summary of William Shakespeare's Macbeth: Macbeth hears that he is going to be king; he and Lady Macbeth kill people so he can become king; both of them die.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

shoe, outer covering for the foot, usually of leather with a stiff or thick sole and heel, and generally (distinguishing it from a boot) reaching no higher than the ankle.

History

Climatic evidence suggests that people were probably protecting their feet from frigid conditions by about 50,000 years ago. Changes in foot shape and toe strength indicate that people were using footwear with substantial soles by about 40,000 years ago. However, the earliest examples of actual footwear, a pair of sandals found in California (U.S.), date to only about 9,000 years ago.

During the Kassite period ( c. 1600-1200 bce) in Mesopotamia, soft shoes were introduced by mountain people on the border of Iran who ruled Babylonia during that time. This first type of shoe was a simple wraparound of leather, with the basic construction of a moccasin, held together on the foot with rawhide lacings. Greek women often went barefoot or wore sandals, but indoors they sometimes wore soft closed shoes, which became luxurious in the Hellenistic period, with white or red the preferred colours. Until the 5th century bce, when Greek influence became dominant, the Etruscans wore a high, laced shoe with a turned-up toe. The Romans, who established shoe guilds, developed shaped shoes fitted for the left or right foot. Their footwear was differentiated according to sex and rank.

Throughout the Middle Ages, shoes were generally simple; at the beginning, moccasin types made of untanned leather were worn, later becoming buckled or tied around the ankle. It was probably in 1305, when Edward I decreed that 1 inch (2.5 cm) should be the measure of three dried barleycorns, that English shoe sizing began; thus, a child's shoe that measured 13 barleycorns became size 13. In the 14th and 15th centuries, shoes became extremely long and pointed. King Edward III enacted a law that the spikes, or points, of shoes should not exceed the length of 2 inches (5 cm), but during the succeeding reign of Richard II (1377-99) shoes (called crakows) attained points of 18 inches (45 cm) or more. At the end of the 15th century, pointed toes gave way to rounded. During the 16th century, men's shoes had extremely broad toes, shaped like a duck's bill. Variety in design increased, with shoes having either leather or cork soles and uppers made of velvet, silk, or leather; it was also the fashion, as in clothes, to slash the shoes in order to reveal a lining of a different colour. Women's shoes were similar to men's but were less conspicuous because they were covered by voluminous gowns.

In 17th-century Europe, boots were generally worn. Shoes had moderately high heels and were often decorated with large rosettes made of lace and ribbons. In America, men and women wore stout leather shoes with a moderate heel. In the 18th century, shoes were decorated with gold and silver buckles and real or imitation gemstones. In America, women's dress shoes copied those in France and England and were made of brocade and had a French heel and usually a buckle; to protect the shoe, an overshoe, called a patten, often of the same material, was worn.

By 1760 the first shoe factory had appeared, in Massachusetts, and shoes began to be produced in quantity. It was not until the 19th century, however, and the development of modern machinery such as the sewing machine, that shoes could be made quickly and inexpensively. In the 20th century, shoes are made in innumerable styles, with various designs and colours.

Materials

Since time immemorial, shoes have been made of leather. The luxury leather used in the finest men's and women's shoes is calf. The most versatile leather, used for many kinds of shoes, is side leather, made from cattle hide and called side because the large hide is cut down the middle lengthwise into two sides for handling.

Kid leather, made from goatskin, is used for women's dress shoes and men's slippers. Sheepskin is used in linings and slippers. Reptile leathers (alligator, lizard, and snake) are used in women's and some men's shoes. Cordovan (a small muscle layer obtained from horsehide) is a heavy leather used in men's shoes. Patent leather, usually made from cattle hide, is given a hard, glossy surface finish. Suede is made from any of several leathers (calf, kid, or cattle hide) by buffing the inner surface to produce a napped finish.

Though still dominant, leather is being replaced in shoes by rubber and man-made fibres and compositions, particularly for heels and other shoe components. Linings and uppers may be natural or coated fabrics. Welting, heels, and counters (heel stiffeners) may be plastic. Most inner and outer soles are now nonleather. A fabric base coated with a chemical surface finish can be made in a variety of textures and designs, many simulating the grain of leather. Synthetic patent and synthetic suede are also used in shoes. Such modern materials cost less and meet performance standards. Certain fabrics, including linen, satin, and silk, are also used in footwear.

Robert Lewis.

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Shoe, outer covering for the foot, usually of leather with a stiff or thick sole and heel, and generally (distinguishing it from a boot) reaching no higher than the ankle. Climatic evidence suggests that people were probably protecting their feet from frigid conditions by about 50,000 years ago.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Nike, in ancient Greek religion, the goddess of victory, daughter of the giant Pallas and of the infernal River Styx. Nike probably did not originally have a separate cult at Athens.

As an attribute of both Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and the chief god, Zeus, Nike was represented in art as a small figure carried in the hand by those divinities. Athena Nike was always wingless. Nike alone was winged. She sometimes appears carrying a palm branch, wreath, or Hermes ' staff as the messenger of victory. Nike is also portrayed erecting a trophy or, frequently, hovering with outspread wings over the victor in a competition, for her functions referred to success not only in war but in all undertakings. Indeed, Nike gradually came to be recognized as a sort of mediator of success between gods and men.

Nike Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

At Rome, where Nike was called Victoria, she was worshipped from the earliest times. She came to be regarded as the protecting goddess of the Senate, and her statue in the Curia Julia (originally set up by Augustus in memory of the Battle of Actium) was the cause of the final combat between Christianity and paganism toward the end of the 4th century.

Among artistic representations of Nike are the sculpture by Paeonius (c. 420 bce) and the Winged Victory of Samothrace. The latter, discovered on Samothrace in 1863 and now in the Louvre Museum, Paris, was probably erected by Rhodians about 190 bce to commemorate a sea battle. Excavations have shown that the sculpture was placed alighting on a flagship, which was set in the ground in such a way that it appeared to float.

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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Alicja Zelazko, Assistant Editor.

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Greek religion, religious beliefs and practices of the ancient Hellenes. Greek religion is not the same as Greek mythology, which is concerned with traditional tales, though the two are closely interlinked. Curiously, for a people so religiously minded, the Greeks had no word for religion itself; the nearest terms were...

Pallas, third largest asteroid in the asteroid belt and the second such object to be discovered, by the German astronomer and physician Wilhelm Olbers on March 28, 1802, following the discovery of Ceres the year before. It is named after Pallas Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom. Pallas's orbital inclination of...

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Nike, in ancient Greek religion, the goddess of victory, daughter of the giant Pallas and of the infernal River Styx. As an attribute of both Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and the chief god, Zeus, Nike was represented in art as a small figure carried in the hand by those divinities.

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Nike Sportswear Took its Name from the Ultimate Champion

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Believe it or not, but the origin of the name Nike for the globally recognized sportswear giant dates back to Greek mythology.

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If you're attracted to the Greek goddess Nike, you're onto a winner: Nike is the goddess of victory. Throughout her history, she has been allied with the most powerful gods in the Greek Pantheon. And, through her Roman incarnation, she has entered our language as more than the name of a competitive running shoe and an anti-aircraft missile. The Romans called her Victoria.

Learn more about the goddess, her story, and the mythology surrounding her before you visit the Acropolis of Athens, where she takes her place beside Athena.

Nike's Origin

The Greek pantheon of gods and goddesses features three waves of leading deities. The primordial gods were the first to emerge from Chaos-Gaia, the Earth Mother; Kronos, the spirit of Time; Uranus, the sky and Thalassa, the spirit of the sea, among them. Their children, the Titans (Prometheus who gave fire to man is probably the most famous) replaced them. In turn, the Olympians- Zeus, Hera, Athena, Apollo, and Aphrodite-defeated them and became the leading gods.

By now you are probably wondering what all this has to do with Nike. It goes some way to explain her complicated origin. According to one story, she is the daughter of Pallas, the Titan god of warcraft who fought on the side of the Olympians, and Styx, a nymph, a daughter of Titans and presiding spirit of the major river of the Underworld. In an alternative story, recorded by Homer, she is the daughter of Ares, Zeus's son and the Olympian god of war - but the tales of Nike probably predates stories of Ares by millennia.

By the classical period, many of these early gods and goddesses had been reduced to the role of attributes or aspects of the leading gods, much as the pantheon of Hindu gods are symbolic aspects of the main gods. So Pallas Athena is the representation of the goddess as a warrior and Athena Nike is the goddess victorious.

Nike's Family Life

Nike had no consort or children. She did have three brothers - Zelos (rivalry), Kratos (strength) and Bia (force). She and her siblings were close companions of Zeus. According to myth, Nike's mother Styx brought her children to Zeus when the god was assembling allies for the battle against the Titans.

Nike's Role in Mythology

In classical iconography, Nike is depicted as a fit, young, winged women with a palm frond or blade. She often carries the staff of Hermes, symbolic of her role as the messenger of Victory. But, by far, her large wings are her greatest attribute. In fact, in contrast with depictions of earlier winged gods, who could take the form of birds in stories, by the classical period, Nike is unique in having kept hers. She probably needed them because she is often portrayed flying around battlefields, rewarding victory, glory, and fame by handing out laurel wreaths. Besides her wings, her strengths are her fast running ability and her skill as the divine charioteer.

Given her striking appearance and unique skills, Nike does not actually appear in many mythological stories. Her role is almost always as a companion and helper of Zeus or Athena.

Nike's Temple

The small, perfectly formed Temple of Athena Nike, to the right of the Propylaea-the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens-is the earliest, Ionic temple on the Acropolis. It was designed by Kallikrates, one of the architects of the Parthenon during the rule reign of Pericles, about 420 B.C. The statue of Athena that once stood inside it was not winged. The Greek traveler and geographer Pausanias, writing about 600 years later, called the goddess depicted here Athena Aptera, or wingless. His explanation was that the Athenians removed the goddess's wings to prevent her from ever leaving Athens.

That may well be, but shortly after the temple was completed, a parapet wall with a frieze of several winged Nikes was added. Several panels of this frieze can be seen in the Acropolis Museum, below the Acropolis. One of them, Nike adjusting her sandal, known as "The Sandal Binder" depicts the goddess draped in figure-revealing wet fabric. It's considered one of the most erotic carvings on the Acropolis.

Visit the Acropolis from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., last admission at 4:30 p.m.; full-price admission in 2018 is 20€. A special ticket package, good for five days at a full price of 30€: includes the Ancient Agora of Athens, the Archaeological Museum of Karameikos, the Archaeological site of Lykeion, Hadrian's Library, the Museum of the Ancient Agora (highly recommended), the slopes of the Acropolis and several other sites. Reduced price tickets and free days are available.

Visit the Acropolis Museum from 9 a.m. in winter and from 8 a.m. in summer. Closing hours vary. General admission, available from the museum or online, is £5.

The most celebrated depiction of Nike is not in Greece at all but dominates a gallery of the Louvre in Paris. Known as Winged Victory, or the Winged Victory of Samothrace, it presents the goddess standing on the prow of a boat. Created about 200 B.C., it is one of the most famous sculptures in the world.

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Learn the Story of Nike, the Greek Goddess of Victory

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If you're attracted to the Greek goddess Nike, you're onto a winner: Nike is the goddess of victory. Throughout her history, she has been allied with the most powerful gods in the Greek Pantheon. And, through her Roman incarnation, she has entered our language as more than the name of a competitive running shoe and an anti-aircraft missile.

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In ancient Egyptian religion and mythology, Bastet (also spelled Bast, Pasht, or Ubastet) was a cat-headed goddess associated with music and dancing, with protection against…

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How Cats Became Divine Symbols in Ancient Egypt | HISTORY

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Felines served a useful purpose in ancient Egyptian households and eventually became divine symbols.

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A Brief History of Literary Cats - JSTOR Daily

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There’s nothing like curling up with a good book and a soft cat. Even better is a book with a cat in it.

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duck, any of various species of relatively small, short-necked, large-billed waterfowl. In true ducks-i.e., those classified in the subfamily Anatinae in the waterfowl family Anatidae-the legs are placed rearward, as in swans, rather than forward, as in geese. The result is a distinctive waddling gait. Most true ducks, including a few inaccurately called geese (e.g., sheldgeese) by reason of size and build, also differ from swans and true geese in the following characteristics: males (drakes) and females (hens or ducks) exhibit some degree of differentiation in plumage and in call, males molt twice annually, females lay large clutches of smooth-shelled rather than rough-shelled eggs, and both sexes have overlapping scales on the skin of the leg. The wild mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos) is believed to be the ancestor of all domestic ducks, and it has undergone numerous crossbreedings and mutations since it was first domesticated in China between 2,000 and 3,000 years ago.

All true ducks, except those in the shelduck group (the tribe Tadornini) and sea ducks (the tribes Mergini and Somateriini), mature in the first year and pair only for the season-unlike the late-maturing, life-mating true geese and swans. Ducks are generally divided into three major groups, dabbling (shallow-water), diving, and perching ducks, based on their characteristic behaviours. The mallard, a typical dabbling duck (any of about 38 species of Anas and about 5 species in other genera), is one of the most popular game birds.

Pintails, teals, shovelers, and wigeons are also dabbling ducks classified in Anas, in addition to the gadwall ( A. strepera) and the black ducks ( A. sparsa, A. rubripes, and A. superciliosa). Perching ducks such as the muscovy ( Cairina moschata), the wood duck ( Aix sponsa), and the mandarin duck ( Aix galericulata) have long claws and are the most arboreal of ducks, often roosting in trees. The diving ducks (or sea ducks) include the greatest number of marine species, such as eiders (which are variously classified as members of the tribe Mergini or placed in a separate tribe Somateriini) and scoters ( Melanitta), but they also include primarily freshwater species such as mergansers ( Mergus and Lophodytes), the ring-necked duck ( Aythya collaris), and the pochards ( Aythya and Netta), including the scaups ( A. marila, A. affinis, and A. novaeseelandiae) and the canvasback ( A. valisineria). The redhead ( A. americana), the goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula and B. islandica), and the bufflehead ( B. albeola) are diving ducks that live in fresh and salt water, depending on the season. Members of the stifftail group, typified by the blue-billed ruddy duck ( Oxyura jamaicensis), are highly aquatic diving ducks characterized by legs set far toward the rear of the body. The whistling ducks ( Dendrocygna), also called tree ducks, are not true ducks but are more closely related to geese and swans. Ducks that are not included in those larger groups are the freckled duck ( Stictonetta naevosa) and the torrent duck ( Merganetta armata), as well as the shelducks ( Tadorna) and the steamer ducks ( Tachyeres). All ducks, geese, and swans belong to the family Anatidae. For a more detailed classification, see anseriform.

Duck raising is practiced on a limited scale in most countries, usually as a small-farm enterprise, although large flocks are bred in some areas of England, the Netherlands, and the United States. The American Poultry Association lists 17 domesticated breeds, divided into four classes: heavy, medium, lightweight, and bantam. The White Pekin, originally from China, is the most widely raised duck in the United States, because it is meaty, fast growing, and prodigious in egg production. Duck feathers are also of some value, though they have been largely replaced by synthetics. Eiderdown, the down feathers of the common eider (Somateria mollissima), are still of wide commercial value for use in luxury quilts and pillows.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica John P. Rafferty.

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duck, any of various species of relatively small, short-necked, large-billed waterfowl. In true ducks-i.e., those classified in the subfamily Anatinae in the waterfowl family Anatidae-the legs are placed rearward, as in swans, rather than forward, as in geese. The result is a distinctive waddling gait.

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BOREAS - Greek God of the North Wind & Winter (Roman Aquilo)

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Boreas was the ancient Greek god of the north wind, one of the four seasonal Anemoi (Wind-Gods). He was also the god of winter who swept down from the cold mountains of Thrake (Thrace), chilling the air with his icy breath. Beyond his mountain home lay Hyperborea, a mythical land of eternal spring untouched by the god’s winds. His Roman name was Aquilo.

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The Anemoi were four Greek gods of the four winds. They were the offspring of Aeolus and Eos.

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Snow Symbolism: The Hidden Meanings in Winter’s Blanket

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Snow is a powerful symbol that has been used in literature and religion for centuries. It can represent a range of ideas, from purity and innocence to death

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Seabiscuit, (foaled 1933), American racehorse ( Thoroughbred) that in six seasons (1935-40) won 33 of 89 races and a total of $437,730, a record for American Thoroughbreds (broken 1942). His unlikely success proved a welcome diversion to millions during the Great Depression, and he became a national phenomenon.

Breeding and early years

Seabiscuit was foaled in 1933 at the Claiborne Farm near Paris, Kentucky. His sire was Hard Tack, a son of Man o' War, and his dam was Swing On. Seabiscuit was a bay and on the small side, unlike his sire, who more closely resembled Man o' War.

Seabiscuit made his two-year-old debut at Hialeah Park in Florida on January 19, 1935, and finished fourth. The consensus was that, although not striking, Seabiscuit could still be a useful performer. From then through November he made 35 starts and wound up with the unimpressive record of five wins while failing to place in 18 races and earning only $12,510. His three-year-old season was equally inauspicious. It was no surprise, therefore, that by August 1936-at the end of the Saratoga (New York) meet and after over 40 uninspired races spread over two years-Seabiscuit's owners had given up and entered him in a claiming race for $6,000. He won the event only to suffer the indignity of not being claimed by anyone.

Seated in the stands was a relatively new face in Thoroughbred racing, Charles S. Howard, a millionaire automobile distributor from San Francisco who hoped to establish horse racing on a grand scale on the West Coast. With him was his trainer, Tom Smith, who had a penchant and skill for rejuvenating discarded horses. Both men were attracted to Seabiscuit, possibly by the tremendous strength he seemed to possess, and Smith urged his employer to buy the horse.

After some preliminary training by Smith in California, the colt began to race again-and began finishing in the money. By year's end he had raced 23 times, scored nine wins, and earned $28,995, most of which came in the last few months under Howard's ownership.

In 1937 Seabiscuit became a consistent winner. On March 6, he won the San Juan Capistrano Handicap, which was followed by six consecutive wins. His attempt to equal Discovery's record of eight straight wins was thwarted when he finished third in the Narragansett Special on a sloppy track. The race proved conclusively that Seabiscuit had developed a distaste for mud, so from then on his handlers avoided such conditions whenever possible. The loss did not interfere with the colt's winning ways: he came back with three straight wins.

Seabiscuit's success set the stage for a much-anticipated confrontation on October 30, 1937, at the Washington Handicap in Laurel, Maryland, between War Admiral, the leading three-year-old, and Seabiscuit, the leading four-year-old. In this weight-for-age event (which required the horses to carry chart-determined set weights), War Admiral was assigned 126 pounds and Seabiscuit 130. The weather, however, did not cooperate, as rain fell during the week of the race, causing the track to be heavy. The poor conditions interfered with Seabiscuit's workouts, and the horse was withdrawn.

As 1937 drew to a close, both horses went head-to-head in another competition-for the top money winner of 1937. The final result was in doubt until the last weeks, when Seabiscuit took the honours with a total of $168,580 in 15 starts that included 11 firsts, 2 seconds, and 1 third. War Admiral earned $166,500 from 8 wins out of 8 starts, 6 of which were in stakes races. It was the first time since 1915 that an older horse had beaten a three-year-old.

After intense negotiations, another date for the match race between the two extraordinary horses was set for May 30, 1938. Most experts assumed that War Admiral would outrun Seabiscuit, as he had done to his other opponents. Problems again interfered with the race. Seabiscuit's legs were sore and puffy, prompting Howard to call off the race on May 24. Running the Thoroughbred in this condition would hardly have been fair.

The match race was billed as the second "race of the century." The two Thoroughbreds had distinctly different styles of racing. War Admiral liked to start with a burst of speed, sustain it until the end, and eliminate his opposition early. Seabiscuit, the more phlegmatic of the two, preferred to come from behind, charging down the stretch with a terrific rush and frequently winning races at the wire.

Theirs was the seventh race on the program at the Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland. War Admiral was a 1-4 favourite; Seabiscuit's odds were 22-10. War Admiral won the coin toss and pole position. Two false starts kept the spectators on edge. War Admiral broke first, followed by Seabiscuit. On the third start, Seabiscuit's jockey whipped him hard on his flanks, and he shot out in front with a great burst of speed as he was guided to the rail in front of War Admiral. Seabiscuit led by an open length as they passed the stands and ultimately won by four lengths, beating the track record by ¹ ₅ second.

Final years

Seabiscuit did not race again in 1938, but his victory over War Admiral earned him Horse of the Year honours. He returned to the West Coast to rest before running once in 1939, where he was injured and was subsequently retired to stud.

Seabiscuit came out of retirement on February 9, 1940. There was one more goal to attain-the Santa Anita, which he had lost twice by a nose. Now he prevailed, winning in the record time of 2:01 ¹ ₅ .

Seabiscuit died in 1947 and was inducted into the National Museum of Racing's Hall of Fame in 1958. His story is recounted in Laura Hillenbrand's book Seabiscuit: An American Legend (2001; film 2003).
Marvin Drager

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Seabiscuit, (foaled 1933), American racehorse (Thoroughbred) that in six seasons (1935-40) won 33 of 89 races and a total of $437,730, a record for American Thoroughbreds (broken 1942). His unlikely success proved a welcome diversion to millions during the Great Depression, and he became a national

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Cat Symbolism: Understanding the Cultural Significance of Felines

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Cat symbolism holds a rich tapestry of meanings and qualities that have fascinated cultures for centuries. Cats are often admired for their elegance,

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Horse racing, sport of running horses at speed, mainly Thoroughbreds with a rider astride or Standardbreds with the horse pulling a conveyance with a driver. These two kinds of racing are called racing on the flat and harness racing, respectively. Some races on the flat-such as steeplechase, point-to-point, and hurdle races-involve jumping. This article is confined to Thoroughbred horse racing on the flat without jumps. Racing on the flat with horses other than Thoroughbreds is described in the article quarter-horse racing.

Two Thousand Guineas, 2012 Press Association/AP

Horse racing is one of the oldest of all sports, and its basic concept has undergone virtually no change over the centuries. It developed from a primitive contest of speed or stamina between two horses into a spectacle involving large fields of runners, sophisticated electronic monitoring equipment, and immense sums of money, but its essential feature has always been the same: the horse that finishes first is the winner. In the modern era, horse racing developed from a diversion of the leisure class into a huge public-entertainment business. By the first decades of the 21st century, however, the sport's popularity had shrunk considerably.

Early history

Knowledge of the first horse race is lost in prehistory. Both four-hitch chariot and mounted (bareback) races were held in the Olympic Games of Greece over the period 700-40 bce. Horse racing, both of chariots and of mounted riders, was a well-organized public entertainment in the Roman Empire. The history of organized racing in other ancient civilizations is not very firmly established. Presumably, organized racing began in such countries as China, Persia, Arabia, and other countries of the Middle East and in North Africa, where horsemanship early became highly developed. Thence came too the Arabian, Barb, and Turk horses that contributed to the earliest European racing. Such horses became familiar to Europeans during the Crusades (11th-13th century ce), from which they brought those horses back.

Racing in medieval England began when horses for sale were ridden in competition by professional riders to display the horses' speed to buyers. During the reign of Richard the Lionheart (1189-99), the first known racing purse was offered, £40, for a race run over a 3-mile (4.8-km) course with knights as riders. In the 16th century Henry VIII imported horses from Italy and Spain (presumably Barbs) and established studs at several locations. In the 17th century James I sponsored meetings in England. His successor, Charles I, had a stud of 139 horses when he died in 1649.

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Organized racing

Charles II (reigned 1660-85) became known as "the father of the English turf" and inaugurated the King's Plates, races for which prizes were awarded to the winners. His articles for these races were the earliest national racing rules. The horses raced were six years old and carried 168 pounds (76 kg), and the winner was the first to win two 4-mile (6.4-km) heats. The patronage of Charles II established Newmarket as the headquarters of English racing.

In France the first documented horse race was held in 1651 as the result of a wager between two noblemen. During the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), racing based on gambling was prevalent. Louis XVI (reigned 1774-93) organized a jockey club and established rules of racing by royal decree that included requiring certificates of origin for horses and imposing extra weight on foreign horses.

Organized racing in North America began with the British occupation of New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1664. Col. Richard Nicolls, commander of the British troops, established organized racing in the colonies by laying out a 2-mile (3.2-km) course on the plains of Long Island (called Newmarket after the British racecourse) and offering a silver cup to the best horses in the spring and fall seasons. From the beginning, and continuing until the Civil War, the hallmark of excellence for the American Thoroughbred was stamina, rather than speed. After the Civil War, speed became the goal and the British system the model.

Match races

The earliest races were match races between two or at most three horses, the owners providing the purse, a simple wager. An owner who withdrew commonly forfeited half the purse, later the whole purse, and bets also came under the same "play or pay" rule. Agreements were recorded by disinterested third parties, who came to be called keepers of the match book. One such keeper at Newmarket in England, John Cheny, began publishing An Historical List of All Horse-Matches Run (1729), a consolidation of match books at various racing centres, and this work was continued annually with varying titles, until in 1773 James Weatherby established it as the Racing Calendar, which was continued thereafter by his family.

Open field racing

By the mid-18th century the demand for more public racing had produced open events with larger fields of runners. Eligibility rules were developed based on the age, sex, birthplace, and previous performance of horses and the qualifications of riders. Races were created in which owners were the riders (gentlemen riders), in which the field was restricted geographically to a township or county, and in which only horses that had not won more than a certain amount were entered. An act of the British Parliament of 1740 provided that horses entered had to be the bona fide property of the owners, thus preventing "ringers," a superior horse entered fraudulently against inferior horses; horses had to be certified as to age; and there were penalties for rough riding.

Contemporary accounts identified riders (in England called jockeys-if professional-from the second half of the 17th century and later in French racing), but their names were not at first officially recorded. Only the names of winning trainers and riders were at first recorded in the Racing Calendar, but by the late 1850s all were named. This neglect of the riders is partly explained in that when races consisted of 4-mile heats, with the winning of two heats needed for victory, the individual rider's judgment and skill were not so vital. As dash racing (one heat) became the rule, a few yards in a race gained importance, and, consequently, so did the rider's skill and judgment in coaxing that advantage from his mount.

Bloodlines and studbooks

All horse racing on the flat except quarter-horse racing involves Thoroughbred horses. Thoroughbreds evolved from a mixture of Arab, Turk, and Barb horses with native English stock. Private studbooks had existed from the early 17th century, but they were not invariably reliable. In 1791 Weatherby published An Introduction to a General Stud Book, the pedigrees being based on earlier Racing Calendars and sales papers. After a few years of revision, it was updated annually. All Thoroughbreds are said to descend from three "Oriental" stallions (the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Barb, and the Byerly Turk, all brought to Great Britain, 1690-1730) and from 43 "royal" mares (those imported by Charles II). The preeminence of English racing and hence of the General Stud Book from 1791 provided a standard for judging a horse's breeding (and thereby, at least to some degree, its racing qualities). In France the Stud Book Française (beginning in 1838) originally included two classifications: Orientale (Arab, Turk, and Barb) and Anglais (mixtures according to the English pattern), but these were later reduced to one class, chevaux de pur sang Anglais ("horses of pure English blood"). The American Stud Book dates from 1897 and includes foals from Canada, Puerto Rico, and parts of Mexico, as well as from the United States.

The long-standing reciprocity among studbooks of various countries was broken in 1913 by the Jersey Act passed by the English Jockey Club, which disqualified many Thoroughbred horses bred outside England or Ireland. The purpose of the act was ostensibly to protect the British Thoroughbred from infusions of North American (mainly U.S.) sprinting blood. After a rash of victories in prestigious English races by French horses with "tainted" American ancestry in the 1940s, the Jersey Act was rescinded in 1949.

Evolution of races

The original King's Plates were standardized races-all were for six-year-old horses carrying 168 pounds at 4-mile heats, a horse having to win two heats to be adjudged the winner. Beginning in 1751, five-year-olds carrying 140 pounds (63.5 kg) and four-year-olds carrying 126 pounds (57 kg) were admitted to the King's Plates, and heats were reduced to 2 miles (3.2 km). Other racing for four-year-olds was well established by then, and a race for three-year-olds carrying 112 pounds (51 kg) in one 3-mile (4.8-km) heat was run in 1731. Heat racing for four-year-olds continued in the United States until the 1860s. By that time, heat racing had long since been overshadowed in Europe by dash racing, a "dash" being any race decided by only one heat, regardless of its distance.

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Horse racing, sport of running horses at speed, mainly Thoroughbreds with a rider astride or Standardbreds with the horse pulling a conveyance with a driver. These two kinds of racing are called racing on the flat and harness racing, respectively. Learn more about horse racing in this article.

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What are the five oceans of Earth?

Which is the largest ocean on the Earth?

How much of the water found on Earth exists in the oceans?

Should bottled water be banned to lower plastic pollution in the ocean?

ocean, continuous body of salt water that is contained in enormous basins on Earth's surface.

When viewed from space, the predominance of Earth's oceans is readily apparent. The oceans and their marginal seas cover nearly 71 percent of Earth's surface, with an average depth of 3,688 metres (12,100 feet). The exposed land occupies the remaining 29 percent of the planetary surface and has a mean elevation of about 840 metres (approximately 2,755 feet). Actually, all the elevated land could be hidden under the oceans and Earth reduced to a smooth sphere that would be completely covered by a continuous layer of seawater more than 2,600 metres (8,530 feet) deep. This is known as the sphere depth of the oceans and serves to underscore the abundance of water on Earth's surface.

Earth is unique in the solar system because of its distance from the Sun and its period of rotation. These combine to subject Earth to a solar radiation level that maintains the planet at a mean surface temperature of about 14-15 °C (57.2-59 °F). Mean surface temperature varies little over annual and night-day cycles. This mean temperature allows water to exist on Earth in all three of its phases- solid, liquid, and gaseous. No other planet in the solar system has this feature. The liquid phase predominates on Earth. By volume, 97.957 percent of the water on the planet exists as oceanic water and associated sea ice. The gaseous phase and droplet water in the atmosphere constitute 0.001 percent. Fresh water in lakes and streams makes up 0.036 percent, while groundwater is 10 times more abundant at 0.365 percent. Glaciers and ice caps constitute 1.641 percent of Earth's total water volume.

Each of the above is considered to be a reservoir of water. Water continuously circulates between these reservoirs in what is called the hydrologic cycle, which is driven by energy from the Sun. Evaporation, precipitation, movement of the atmosphere, and the downhill flow of river water, glaciers, and groundwater keep water in motion between the reservoirs and maintain the hydrologic cycle.

Water and its Varying Forms

The large range of volumes in these reservoirs and the rates at which water cycles between them combine to create important conditions on Earth. If small changes occur in the rate at which water is cycled into or out of a reservoir, the volume of a reservoir changes. These volume changes may be relatively large and rapid in a small reservoir or small and slow in a large reservoir. A small percentage change in the volume of the oceans may produce a large proportional change in the land-ice reservoir, thereby promoting glacial and interglacial stages. The rate at which water enters or leaves a reservoir divided into the reservoir volume determines the residence time of water in the reservoir. The residence time of water in a reservoir, in turn, governs many of the properties of that reservoir.

This article provides an overview of the world's oceanic reservoir, including its major subdivisions and its origins. For a full description of the water in the oceans, see seawater. For information on the forces that move water through the ocean, see ocean current. For a description of the different kinds of waves that traverse the ocean, see wave. See also marine ecosystem for coverage of the life-forms that populate the marine environment.

Relative distribution of the oceans

Earth possesses one "world ocean." However, those conducting oceanic research generally recognize the existence of five major oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic oceans. Arbitrary boundaries separate these bodies of water, but they are largely defined by the continents that frame them. In the Southern Hemisphere, however, 60° S latitude, which corresponds to the approximate position of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, separates the Southern Ocean from the southern portions of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans. Many subdivisions can be made to distinguish the limits of seas and gulfs that have historical, political, and sometimes ecological significance. However, water properties, ocean currents, and biological populations are not constrained by these boundaries. Indeed, many researchers do not recognize them either.

If area-volume analyses of the oceans are to be made, then boundaries must be established to separate individual regions. In 1921 Erwin Kossina, a German geographer, published tables giving the distribution of oceanic water with depth for the oceans and adjacent seas. This work was updated in 1966 by American geologist H.W. Menard and American oceanographer S.M. Smith. The latter only slightly changed the numbers derived by Kossina. This was remarkable, since the original effort relied entirely on the sparse depth measurements accumulated by individual wire soundings, while the more recent work had the benefit of acoustic depth soundings collected since the 1920s. This type of analysis, called hypsometry, allows quantification of the surface area distribution of the oceans and their marginal seas with depth.

The distribution of oceanic surface area with 5° increments of latitude shows that the distribution of land and water on Earth's surface is markedly different in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Southern Hemisphere may be called the water hemisphere, while the Northern Hemisphere is the land hemisphere. This is especially true in the temperate latitudes.

This asymmetry of land and water distribution between the Northern and Southern hemispheres makes the two hemispheres behave very differently in response to the annual variation in solar radiation received by Earth. The Southern Hemisphere shows only a small change in surface temperature from summer to winter at temperate latitudes. This variation is controlled primarily by the ocean's response to seasonal changes in heating and cooling. The Northern Hemisphere has one change in surface temperature controlled by its oceanic area and another controlled by its land area. In the temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the land is much warmer than the oceanic area in summer and much colder in winter. This situation creates large-scale seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and climate in the Northern Hemisphere that are not found in the Southern Hemisphere.

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Ocean, continuous body of salt water held in enormous basins on Earth's surface. There is one 'world ocean,' but researchers often separate it into the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic oceans. Covering nearly 71 percent of Earth's surface, the oceans have an average depth of 3,688 metres (12,100 feet).

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water, a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. It is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds. A tasteless and odourless liquid at room temperature, it has the important ability to dissolve many other substances. Indeed, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to living organisms. Life is believed to have originated in the aqueous solutions of the world's oceans, and living organisms depend on aqueous solutions, such as blood and digestive juices, for biological processes. Water also exists on other planets and moons both within and beyond the solar system. In small quantities water appears colourless, but water actually has an intrinsic blue colour caused by slight absorption of light at red wavelengths.

Although the molecules of water are simple in structure (H ₂O), the physical and chemical properties of the compound are extraordinarily complicated, and they are not typical of most substances found on Earth. For example, although the sight of ice cubes floating in a glass of ice water is commonplace, such behaviour is unusual for chemical entities. For almost every other compound, the solid state is denser than the liquid state; thus, the solid would sink to the bottom of the liquid. The fact that ice floats on water is exceedingly important in the natural world, because the ice that forms on ponds and lakes in cold areas of the world acts as an insulating barrier that protects the aquatic life below. If ice were denser than liquid water, ice forming on a pond would sink, thereby exposing more water to the cold temperature. Thus, the pond would eventually freeze throughout, killing all the life-forms present.

Water occurs as a liquid on the surface of Earth under normal conditions, which makes it invaluable for transportation, for recreation, and as a habitat for a myriad of plants and animals. The fact that water is readily changed to a vapour (gas) allows it to be transported through the atmosphere from the oceans to inland areas where it condenses and, as rain, nourishes plant and animal life. ( See hydrosphere: The hydrologic cycle for a description of the cycle by which water is transferred over Earth.)

Because of its prominence, water has long played an important religious and philosophical role in human history. In the 6th century bce, Thales of Miletus, sometimes credited for initiating Greek philosophy, regarded water as the sole fundamental building block of matter:

It is water that, in taking different forms, constitutes the earth, atmosphere, sky, mountains, gods and men, beasts and birds, grass and trees, and animals down to worms, flies and ants. All these are different forms of water. Meditate on water!

Two hundred years later, Aristotle considered water to be one of four fundamental elements, in addition to earth, air, and fire. The belief that water was a fundamental substance persisted for more than 2,000 years until experiments in the second half of the 18th century showed that water is a compound made up of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.

The water on the surface of Earth is found mainly in its oceans (97.25 percent) and polar ice caps and glaciers (2.05 percent), with the balance in freshwater lakes, rivers, and groundwater. As Earth's population grows and the demand for fresh water increases, water purification and recycling become increasingly important. Interestingly, the purity requirements of water for industrial use often exceed those for human consumption. For example, the water used in high-pressure boilers must be at least 99.999998 percent pure. Because seawater contains large quantities of dissolved salts, it must be desalinated for most uses, including human consumption.

This article describes the molecular structure of water as well as its physical and chemical properties. For other major treatments of water, see climate; environmental works; hydrosphere; ice; and pollution.

Structure of water

The water molecule is not linear but bent in a special way. The two hydrogen atoms are bound to the oxygen atom at an angle of 104.5°.

The O―H distance ( bond length) is 95.7 picometres (9.57 × 10 −11 metres, or 3.77 × 10 −9 inches). Because an oxygen atom has a greater electronegativity than a hydrogen atom, the O―H bonds in the water molecule are polar, with the oxygen bearing a partial negative charge (δ−) and the hydrogens having a partial positive charge (δ+).

The electron arrangement in the water molecule can be represented as follows.

Each pair of dots represents a pair of unshared electrons (i.e., the electrons reside on only the oxygen atom). This situation can also be depicted by placing the water molecule in a cube.

Each ↑↓ symbol represents a pair of unshared electrons. This electronic structure leads to hydrogen bonding.

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phoenix, in ancient Egypt and in Classical antiquity, a fabulous bird associated with the worship of the sun. The Egyptian phoenix was said to be as large as an eagle, with brilliant scarlet and gold plumage and a melodious cry. Only one phoenix existed at any time, and it was very long-lived-no ancient authority gave it a life span of less than 500 years. As its end approached, the phoenix fashioned a nest of aromatic boughs and spices, set it on fire, and was consumed in the flames. From the pyre miraculously sprang a new phoenix, which, after embalming its father's ashes in an egg of myrrh, flew with the ashes to Heliopolis ("City of the Sun") in Egypt, where it deposited them on the altar in the temple of the Egyptian god of the sun, Re. A variant of the story made the dying phoenix fly to Heliopolis and immolate itself in the altar fire, from which the young phoenix then rose.

The Egyptians associated the phoenix with immortality, and that symbolism had a widespread appeal in late antiquity. The phoenix was compared to undying Rome, and it appears on the coinage of the late Roman Empire as a symbol of the Eternal City. It was also widely interpreted as an allegory of resurrection and life after death-ideas that also appealed to emergent Christianity.

In Islamic mythology the phoenix was identified with the ʿanqāʾ (Persian: sīmorgh), a huge mysterious bird (probably a heron) that was originally created by God with all perfections but thereafter became a plague and was killed.

Matt Stefon.

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phoenix, in ancient Egypt and in Classical antiquity, a fabulous bird associated with the worship of the sun. The Egyptian phoenix was said to be as large as an eagle, with brilliant scarlet and gold plumage and a melodious cry.

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The phoenix is a mythological bird renowned for its extraordinary life cycle, characterized by a long lifespan that can extend for centuries or more. When the phoenix reaches the end of its life, it is said to die in a burst of flames, only to be reborn from its ashes as a young chick. This cycle of death and rebirth has made the phoenix a powerful symbol of renewal, resilience, and the eternal balance of life and death. The term “phoenix” derives from a Greek word denoting a blend of red and purple, reflective of the bird’s vibrant plumage. The myth of the phoenix has ancient roots, with references dating back to at least the sixth century BCE, and it appears in various cultures, including ancient Egypt, Greece, and the Middle East. In Egyptian mythology, the phoenix is often associated with the Bennu bird, a symbol of rebirth linked to the sun god Ra. Throughout history, the phoenix has influenced religious narratives, particularly in Christianity and Judaism, where it is viewed as a symbol of resurrection. In modern culture, the phoenix continues to resonate, appearing in literature, art, and popular media, often representing the triumph over adversity. Its enduring legacy highlights themes of hope and transformation, making it a relevant symbol across diverse contexts.

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Herodotus, The Histories,
Book 2, chapter 73

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CHAPTER 25 25:1 Let us consider the wonderful sign that happeneth in the region of the east, even about Arabia.

25:2 There is a bird which is called the phoenix. This, being the only one of its kind, liveth for five hundred years. And when the time of its death draweth near, it maketh for itself a nest of frankincense and myrrh and the other perfumes, into which, when its time is fulfilled, it entereth, and then dieth.

25:3 But as its flesh rotteth, a certain worm is produced, which being nourished by the moisture of the dead animal, putteth forth feathers. Then, when it hath become strong, it taketh the nest wherein are the bones of its ancestor, and bearing them, it flieth from the region of Arabia to that of Egypt, to the city which is called Heliopolis;

25:4 there, in day-time, in the sight of all, it flieth up, and placeth them upon the altar of the sun, and having done so, returneth back.

25:5 The priests, therefore, look into the registers of the times, and find that it has come at the completion of the five-hundredth year.

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First Clement: Clement of Rome. On Early Christian Writings.

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Unraveling the legend of the phoenix is trickier than it might seem. The fabled bird is so thoroughly entwined in our culture that most people have heard of it, but no one seems to know much about it-"Oh, yeah, it's that bird that burns up and rises from the ashes, like in the Harry Potter books." Snazzy new Web sites and dusty library reference books don't offer much more. One brief entry even said: "There is so much rich history about the phoenix, its story deserves a book of its own."

Enter Joseph Nigg, perhaps the world's sole phoenix scholar. He's author of The Book of Fabulous Beasts: A Treasury of Writing from Ancient Times to the Present-and is known as the Joseph Campbell of fantastical animals. Nigg is writing a book about the phoenix and was just finishing chapter 19 of 20 when I called his home.

The Greeks rooted the tale of the phoenix in Western imagination more than 2,500 years ago, but its story be

gan in ancient Egypt and Arabia. The fabled bird is said to live 500 years or more, and when the old bird is tired, it flies from Arabia to land in Heliopolis, Egypt, the "City of the Sun." There, it gathers cinnamon twigs and resin to build a nest of spices atop the Temple of the Sun. The sun ignites the nest and the old phoenix dies in flames. A new, young phoenix emerges from the ashes and wings back to Arabia to live another life cycle. The bird's features have changed over the centuries, but most agree it's an eagle-like bird with shining red, golden, and purple plumes.

The tale may have evolved from the Egyptian Benu, a sacred bird mentioned in the Book of the Dead that is associated with the sun god Ra and looks like a heron in hieroglyphics-or it may have been mistaken for a cousin by Egyptologists overeager to make a connection. The phoenix-a Greek word meaning "reddish-purple"-turns up first in a riddle by Hesiod. Themes of time and longevity suggest the bird was already well known to those trying to solve the riddle.

Although he lived two centuries later, the Greek historian Herodotus is credited with introducing the legend of the phoenix into Western culture after his travels in Egypt. In his famous Histories (fifth century BCE), Herodotus tells of many new, fantastic beasts, including the crocodile, hippopotamus, and phoenix. Herodotus visits Heliopolis and talks to the temple priests: "They have another sacred bird called the phoenix, which I have never seen, except in pictures. Indeed, it is a great rarity, even in Egypt. They tell a story of what this bird does, which does not seem to me to be credible." This early Greek version of the phoenix has no fire.

Like all legends, details in tales of the phoenix vary. For instance, its long lifespan is sometimes 500 years, 540 years, or even 1,461 years (the Egyptian Sophic year in astronomy). Some tales claim the phoenix has magical healing powers. Another Greek historian, Pliny the Elder, scoffed at doctors who promoted the use of phoenix ashes to heal wounds. "He makes fun of it," Nigg says, and asks, "'How can you rely on a cure that is available only every 500 years?'"

Romans loved the phoenix. Their coins showed the emperor's head on one side and the phoenix on the other. "The phoenix represented Rome itself, the eternal nature of the empire, that it continues to return with each new emperor," Nigg says.

But even as Rome began its decline, the phoenix flourished in early Christian Europe. Its message of rebirth and eternal life fit Christian themes, and popes like St. Clement (96 AD) used the phoenix to prove Jesus's resurrection. Monks included phoenixes in the bestiaries of the Middle Ages, making no distinction between God's wondrous creations-real or imaginary. During the Renaissance, the phoenix was a popular emblem of royals like Elizabeth I and martyrs like Joan of Arc. "This is the greatest period for the phoenix," according to Nigg. "Why not? With a word like 'renaissance,' a time

of rebirth and learning, you definitely have his time."

Despite its strong Christian associations, the phoenix also appears briefly in Jewish tradition. The Talmud tells how the phoenix (Hol) was the only animal allowed to stay in the Garden of Eden, because it refused to eat the forbidden apple. God granted the bird immortality for its obedience.

Legendary birds around the world are often linked to the phoenix, including what Nigg calls "phoenix counterparts" such as the Persian Simurg, Chinese Feng Huang, and Russian firebird (Zhar-ptitsa). These birds arose from their own local

folklore. Swarthmore Professor of Russian Sibelan Forrester says Slavic lore hosts two mythical birds, the traditional firebird (star of Stravinsky's ballet) and Finist the Bright Falcon, whose name is derived from the Greek phoenix.

The Chinese phoenix Feng Huang (Ho-o in Japan) is a completely separate bird dating back at least 7,000 years. This celestial fowl became entwined with the Western phoenix through Scottish sinologist James Legge, who translated Chinese classics in the 1800s. His word choice persists, even though the Eastern bird has no fire, never dies (so is never reborn), and looks like a pheasant. Its very name represents the union of yin-yang, with "feng" being male and "huang" female. When paired with a dragon, the phoenix represents the empress and the dragon the emperor. This auspicious pairing also symbolizes good luck and harmony between husband and wife.

Both the Eastern and Western phoenix legends begin in the murky days of prehistory. Some say the Chinese tale comes from distant memories of the extinct Asian ostrich. In Egypt, a prehistoric flamingo may have inspired the tale, because heat waves rose f

rom the hot salt flats where it laid its eggs, perhaps suggesting a nest of fire.

But like its legend, the phoenix enjoys a modern rebirth as a mascot, logo, and fairytale. Swarthmore is not alone in seeking a symbol of renewed life and hope after devastating fire. Cities including Atlanta; San Francisco; London; and institutions in Chicago and Coventry, England, have each adopted the phoenix. Its namesake, Phoenix, Ariz., reminds modern Americans that the city stands on the same site as a vanished Native American civilization.

Why is phoenix lore so enduring? "It's because of renewal," Nigg says; "it's hope for rebirth. I think it deals with hope."

Before becoming a freelance writer two years ago, Heather Shumaker '91 was a conservationist working for a nonprofit land trust in Michigan. Mother of two young boys, she has written for Parenting, Organic Gardening, and Pregnancy magazines; the Wisconsin Natural Resources Journal; and Traverse. Inspired by her research for her current Bulletin article, she says, her most recent Halloween costume was a phoenix.

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The Phoenix Through the Ages - Swarthmore College Bulletin

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Unraveling the legend of the phoenix is trickier than it might seem. The fabled bird is so thoroughly entwined in our culture that most people have heard of it, but no one seems to know much about it-"Oh, yeah, it's that bird that burns up and rises from the ashes, like in the Harry Potter books."

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bay laurel, ( Laurus nobilis), fragrant evergreen species of the family Lauraceae, the source of the cooking herb bay leaf. Bay laurel is native to the Mediterranean region but now widely cultivated in other regions of the world. In ancient Greece the wreath of honour placed upon the heads of heroes was made from the leaves and branches of bay laurel.

Bay laurel grows 6-18 metres (20-60 feet) tall. The stiff, alternate, oval leaves are dull and leathery and about 7.5-10 cm (3-4 inches) long; the leaf edges are smooth and often wavy. The small and inconspicuous flowers are yellowish or greenish white. The fruit, a green, purple, or blackish drupe, contains one seed.

Plants: From Cute to Carnivorous

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Melissa Petruzzello.

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Laurel | Evergreen, Aromatic, Mediterranean

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Bay laurel, (Laurus nobilis), fragrant evergreen species of the family Lauraceae, the source of the cooking herb bay leaf. Bay laurel is native to the Mediterranean region but now widely cultivated in other regions of the world. In ancient Greece the wreath of honour placed upon the heads of heroes

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Rest on your laurels, but not too long. There’s more to do.

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Wreaths, now commonly used as decorations, adornment and memorial, have had a symbolic meaning in Western culture and history for over 2,000 years. Woven from leaves and flowers and shaped in either a circle or a horseshoe shape that was worn around the head, wreaths have, since antiquity, symbolised glory, power and immortality. In ancient Greece, wreaths were introduced as a reward for victory in athletic competitions, military endeavours and musical and poetic contests. Winners of the Olympic

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Interesting is the significance of laurel, how strong it has remained through the centuries, and how our culture is still imbued with its symbolism today.

The expressions "take the laurel" and "rest on your laurels" are used even today. The words " baccalaureate" (bachelor) and " poet laureate" originate precisely from the name laurel and are still used today. They come directly from the Latin name for laurel, L aurus nobilis, and signify the highest honors.

Did you know that the wreath that newlyweds wear in the church at their wedding - stefana, is a symbol of eternal love and respect, originated from the myth of laurel - the laurel wreath.

Laurel or bay is an indispensable spice in dishes and is used daily in human diet for its aromatic and health benefits.

The Greeks consider it their national plant and a symbol of courage and perseverance, and it is an integral part of the Greek coat of arms.

Laurel, laurel tree, or shrub can be seen throughout Greece, in yards and parks during the summer or stay in Greece. It is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, smooth leaves (Latin Laurus nobilis).

It is interesting to know that once most of the Mediterranean was covered by entire laurel forests, a species that is the ancestor of today's laurel. Unfortunately, they disappeared about 10 thousand years ago, although some remnants of these forests can still be found today in the mountains of southern Turkey, northern Syria, southern Spain, and the Canary Islands and Madeira.

Although the forest is gone, the strong symbolism of this tree remains deeply woven into Greek culture and has been transferred to all cultures in Western civilization.

In this text, we will explain its significance and symbolism, from the early myths to the present day.

What we didn't know about the Greek myth of laurel and what it represents?

The Greek name for laurel, "Daphne," comes from the name of the mountain nymph Daphne. She was a nymph and the companion of the goddess Artemis.
In one mythological twist, during the gods' rest and gathering, Apollo teased Eros, telling him that his arrows had no power. Angered by this statement, Eros struck Apollo with a golden arrow, instilling in him a passionate love for the beautiful river nymph Daphne present. At the same time, Eros struck Daphne with a lead arrow, instilling in her a hatred for Apollo. In this way, Eros punished Apollo, the symbol of greatest male beauty, with eternal longing and unfulfillment.

Knowing that Apollo would not give up, Daphne sought help from her father, the river god Peneus, who turned her into a laurel tree. Apollo, unfortunately, arrived too late, at the moment of her transformation. Sad and desperate for the loss, he vowed to forever honor Daphne. He then used his powers of eternal youth and immortality to turn the laurel tree into an evergreen tree, not wanting to see his beloved lose its smooth and green leaves every autumn.

He then made himself a wreath of laurel branches, which he wore on his head and declared the laurel tree his sacred tree, establishing the Pythian Games in his honor.

Apollo also ordered the establishment of the Pythian Games in his honor.
Thus, the laurel wreath became a symbol of respect and honor, crowning the winners of the Pythian Games.

Ancient Greece and the continuation of the laurel myth

In ancient Greece, laurel was used to make laurel wreaths, which were a symbol of the highest status. At the Pythian Games, held in honor of Apollo, and later at the Olympic Games, laurel wreaths were awarded to the winners as a sign of their victory.

According to the poet Lucian, Apollo's priestess, known as the Pythia, chewed a laurel leaf from the sacred tree that grew inside the temple to induce a state of ecstasy, from which she pronounced prophecies for which she was known. Those who received promising signs from the Pythia were crowned with laurel wreaths, symbolizing Apollo's favor.

In ancient Greece, the symbolism of laurel, a symbol of the highest honor, spread and was associated with many gods, besides Apollo, Zeus, Athena, Poseidon, Dionysus, and Aphrodite.
Victorious athletes and generals were crowned with laurel leaf crowns, marking their success and honor.

Laurel in Roman culture

The symbolism of laurel was passed on to Roman culture, which considered laurel a symbol of victory and immortality. They developed a whole range of interesting beliefs.

Emperors began to adopt the laurel wreath as a status symbol. The writer Suetonius noted that it all began when the first Empress of Rome, Livia, had a hen brought to her lap by an eagle holding a laurel branch in its beak. The Empress planted the branch in the courtyard of her villa in Prima Porta, and from it grew a beautiful laurel tree.

Interestingly, all emperors continued this tradition of planting a laurel tree in their palaces and temples dedicated to Apollo and wore a wreath of laurel branches on their heads (as we know from history).

What is most interesting is that the wreath worn by emperors on their heads had to be picked from the original tree, Livia's tree.

The deep and strong connection of the laurel myth with the gods is also evidenced by the belief in ancient Rome that it was a bad omen when the laurel tree withered or fell ill.
At the end of Nero's reign, legend has it that the entire laurel garden suddenly withered, which was a sign of the unfortunate event that followed - Nero's assassination. It was also remembered that the withering of the entire laurel garden marked the end of an era, the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Romans also believed that laurel protected against lightning, so Emperor Tiberius carried a laurel branch during stormy weather.

Since laurel wood burns slowly and crackles loudly, they believed that it housed the "spirits of heavenly fire," making it immune to external threats like fire and lightning. Therefore, it was forbidden to burn laurel on altars.

Symbolism of eternal love in Christianity

As Christianity spread, the use of the laurel wreath slowly disappeared, as it was associated with pagan festivals.

However, circular wreaths or rings remained embedded in Christian and Orthodox religion to symbolize eternal life in Christ. Hence, many saints in religious art are depicted with wreaths, called " stefana " in Greek.

The Greek word "στέφανος" means crown or wreath.

Weddings in Orthodox tradition

In the Orthodox wedding ceremony, the couple is crowned with "stefanas" - wedding crowns (in Serbia) or wedding wreaths (in Greece). The crowns are placed on the heads of the bride and groom. The best man and maid of honor exchange the crowns three times above the heads of the newlyweds, while the crowns are connected by a ribbon symbolizing the unity of the couple in the presence of Christ.

Stefanas (crowns and wreaths) represent the glory and blessing bestowed by the Church on the newlyweds, crowning them as king and queen of their new home. And as we can trace through the development of Greek culture, this symbol in Orthodoxy signifies the original, initial, symbol of eternal love and respect.

Where do we use laurel, or rather Apollo's wreath of eternal love and respect?

Apart from its mythological significance, laurel is present in Mediterranean as well as in our cuisine. The leaves are added during cooking (soups, stews...) and removed after the food is cooked, not eaten.

In Greece, laurel oil is made, which is used in folk medicine for massaging painful body parts, but we have not found evidence of its healing properties, so take this with great caution.

In goldsmiths and jewelers, you can find jewelry motifs that use the laurel leaf or branches. There are decorated diadems, pendants for chains, and other ornamental jewelry.

While on your vacation, remember the meaning of laurel when you see it and send us if you find its symbol used elsewhere.
Because after all, love should be eternal and full of respect.

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The Symbolism of Laurel: Why is Laurel the National Plant of Greece? - Nikana.gr

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Interesting is the significance of laurel, how strong it has remained through the centuries, and how our culture is still imbued...

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hieroglyph, a character used in a system of pictorial writing, particularly that form used on ancient Egyptian monuments. Hieroglyphic symbols may represent the objects that they depict but usually stand for particular sounds or groups of sounds. Hieroglyph, meaning "sacred carving," is a Greek translation of the Egyptian phrase "the god's words," which was used at the time of the early Greek contacts with Egypt to distinguish the older hieroglyphs from the handwriting of the day (demotic). Modern usage has extended the term to other writing systems, such as Hieroglyphic Hittite, Mayan hieroglyphs, and early Cretan. There is no connection between Egyptian hieroglyphs and these other scripts, the only certain derivative from the Egyptian writing being that used for Meroitic.

A brief treatment of hieroglyphs follows. For full treatment, see hieroglyphic writing.

Egyptian hieroglyphic writing was composed entirely of pictures, though the object depicted cannot be identified in every instance. The earliest examples that can be read show the hieroglyphs used as actual writing, that is, with phonetic values, and not as picture writing such as that of the Eskimos or American Indians. The origins of the script are not known. It apparently arose in the late predynastic period (just before 2925 bce). There were contacts between Egypt and Mesopotamia at this time, and it has been thought that the concept of writing was borrowed from the Sumerians. This is certainly possible, but, even if this was the case, the two systems were so different in their use of signs that it is clear that they developed independently.

Except for names and a few titles, the oldest inscriptions cannot be read. In many cases individual hieroglyphs were used that are familiar from later periods, but the meaning of the inscription as a whole is obscure. It is apparent that this writing did not represent the sounds as completely as was the case later.

In the period of the 3rd dynasty (c. 2650-c. 2575 bce), many of the principles of hieroglyphic writing were regularized. From that time on, until the script was supplanted by an early version of Coptic (about the 3rd and 4th centuries ce), the system remained virtually unchanged. Even the number of signs used remained constant at about 700 for more than 2,000 years. With the rise of Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries ce came the decline and ultimate demise not only of the ancient Egyptian religion but of its hieroglyphics as well. The use, by the Egyptian Christians, of an adapted form of the Greek alphabet, caused a correspondingly widespread disuse of the native Egyptian script. The last known use of hieroglyphics is on an inscription dated 394 ce.

Hieroglyphic writing followed four basic principles. First, a hieroglyph could be used in an almost purely pictorial way. The sign of a man with his hand to his mouth might stand for the word "eat." Similarly, the word "sun" would be represented by a large circle with a smaller circle in its centre. Second, a hieroglyph might represent or imply another word suggested by the picture. The sign for "sun" could as easily serve as the sign for "day" or as the name of the sun god Re. The sign for "eat" could also represent the more conceptual word "silent" by suggesting the covering of the mouth. Third, the signs also served as representatives of words that shared consonants in the same order. Thus the Egyptian words for "man" and "be bright," both spelled with the same consonants, hg, could be rendered by the same hieroglyph. Fourth, the hieroglyphs stood for individual or combinations of consonants.

It is arguable whether the ancient Greeks or Romans understood hieroglyphics. The Greeks almost certainly did not, since, from their viewpoint, hieroglyphics were not phonetic signs but symbols of a more abstruse and allegorical nature. The humanist revival of the European Middle Ages, although it produced a set of Italian-designed hieroglyphics, gave no further insight into the original Egyptian ones.

The first attempt to decipher hieroglyphics, based on the assumption that they were indeed phonetic symbols, was made by the German scholar Athanasius Kircher in the mid-1600s. Despite his initial correct hypothesis, he correctly identified only one symbol.

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The discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 was to provide the key to the final unlocking of the mystery. The stone was inscribed with three different scripts: hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Based on the stone's own declaration, in the Greek portion, that the text was identical in all three cases, several significant advances were made in translation. A.I. Silvestre de Sacy, a French scholar, and J.D. Akerblad, a Swedish diplomat, succeeded in identifying a number of proper names in the demotic text. Akerblad also correctly assigned phonetic values to a few of the signs. An Englishman, Thomas Young, correctly identified five of the hieroglyphics. The full deciphering of the stone was accomplished by another Frenchman, Jean-François Champollion. He brought to the stone a natural facility for languages (having, by age 16, become proficient in six ancient Oriental languages as well as Greek and Latin). By comparison of one sign with another, he was able to determine the phonetic values of the hieroglyphics. Later studies simply confirmed and refined Champollion's work.

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hieroglyph | Definition, History, & Facts

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hieroglyph, a character used in a system of pictorial writing, particularly that form used on ancient Egyptian monuments. Hieroglyphic symbols may represent the objects that they depict but usually stand for particular sounds or groups of sounds.

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Facts about hieroglyphics | National Geographic Kids

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Join us here at Nat Geo Kids to discover fascinating facts about hieroglyphics. Discover the Egyptian symbols, what they mean and even spell your own name!

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https://www.history.com/articles/hieroglyphics-facts-ancient-egypt

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8 Facts About Ancient Egypt's Hieroglyphic Writing _ HISTORY

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Staircase | Architecture, Modern Design, Safety Features, Examples, & Building Codes | Britannica

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A staircase is a series, or flight, of steps between two floors. Traditionally, ‘staircase’ is a term for stairs accompanied by walls, but contemporary usage includes the stairs alone.

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Mother to Son by Langston Hughes | Poetry Foundation

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Machu Picchu | History, Facts, Maps, Elevation, Country, & Photos

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Machu Picchu, site of ancient Inca ruins located about 50 miles from Cuzco, Peru, in the Cordillera de Vilcabamba of the Andes Mountains. One of the few major pre-Columbian ruins found nearly intact, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. Learn more about Machu Picchu.

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In the mountains of south-central Peru stands Machu Picchu, a deserted city of the Inca people. The name Machu Picchu means "old peak" in Quechua, the language of the Inca....

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https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/machu-picchu-called-huayna-piccho-scn/index.html

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Machu Picchu has been called the wrong name for over 100 years _ CNN

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This Peruvian city was discovered over 100 years ago, but archaeologists are still trying to solve the mystery of its purpose.

On the morning of July 24, 1911, an enterprising lecturer-explorer from Yale University set off in a cold drizzle to investigate rumors of ancient Inca ruins in Peru. The explorer chopped his way through thick jungle, crawled across a "bridge" of slender logs bound together with vines, and crept through underbrush hiding venomous fer-de-lance pit vipers.

Two hours into the hike, the explorer and his two escorts came across a grass-covered hut. A pair of local farmers walked them a short way before handing them over to a small boy. With the boy leading the way, Hiram Bingham stumbled upon one of the greatest archaeological finds of the 20th century-and what was named in 2007 as one of the new seven

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This Peruvian city was discovered over 100 years ago, but archaeologists are still trying to solve the mystery of its purpose. On the morning of July 24, 1911, an enterprising lecturer-explorer from Yale University set off in a cold drizzle to investigate rumors of ancient Inca ruins in Peru.

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A dictionary of Literary Symbols by MichaelFerber

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Sun, star around which Earth and the other components of the solar system revolve. It is the dominant body of the system, constituting more than 99 percent of its entire mass. The Sun is the source of an enormous amount of energy, a portion of which provides Earth with the light and heat necessary to support life.

The Sun is classified as a G2 V star, with G2 standing for the second hottest stars of the yellow G class-of surface temperature about 5,800 kelvins (K)-and the V representing a main sequence, or dwarf, star, the typical star for this temperature class. (G stars are so called because of the prominence of a band of atomic and molecular spectral lines that the German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer designated G.) The Sun exists in the outer part of the Milky Way Galaxy and was formed from material that had been processed inside a supernova. The Sun is not, as is often said, a small star. Although it falls midway between the biggest and smallest stars of its type, there are so many dwarf stars that the Sun falls in the top 5 percent of stars in the neighbourhood that immediately surrounds it.

Physical properties

The radius of the Sun, R☉, is 109 times that of Earth, but its distance from Earth is 215 R☉, so it subtends an angle of only ¹/ ₂ ° in the sky, roughly the same as that of the Moon. By comparison, Proxima Centauri, the next closest star to Earth, is 250,000 times farther away, and its relative apparent brightness is reduced by the square of that ratio, or 62 billion times. The temperature of the Sun's surface is so high that no solid or liquid can exist there; the constituent materials are predominantly gaseous atoms, with a very small number of molecules. As a result, there is no fixed surface. The surface viewed from Earth, called the photosphere, is the layer from which most of the radiation reaches us; the radiation from below is absorbed and reradiated, and the emission from overlying layers drops sharply, by about a factor of six every 200 kilometres (124 miles). The Sun is so far from Earth that this slightly fuzzy surface cannot be resolved, and so the limb (the visible edge) appears sharp.

The mass of the Sun, M☉, is 743 times the total mass of all the planets in the solar system and 330,000 times that of Earth. All the interesting planetary and interplanetary gravitational phenomena are negligible effects in comparison to the force exerted by the Sun. Under the force of gravity, the great mass of the Sun presses inward, and to keep the star from collapsing, the central pressure outward must be great enough to support its weight. The density at the Sun's core is about 100 times that of water (roughly six times that at the centre of Earth), but the temperature is at least 15,000,000 K, so the central pressure is at least 10,000 times greater than that at the centre of Earth, which is 3,500 kilobars. The nuclei of atoms are completely stripped of their electrons, and at this high temperature they collide to produce the nuclear reactions that are responsible for generating the energy vital to life on Earth.

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While the temperature of the Sun drops from 15,000,000 K at the centre to 5,800 K at the photosphere, a surprising reversal occurs above that point; the temperature drops to a minimum of 4,000 K, then begins to rise in the chromosphere, a layer about 7,000 kilometres high at a temperature of 8,000 K. During a total eclipse the chromosphere appears as a pink ring. Above the chromosphere is a dim, extended halo called the corona, which has a temperature of 1,000,000 K and reaches far past the planets. Beyond a distance of 5 R☉ from the Sun, the corona flows outward at a speed (near Earth) of 400 kilometres per second (km/s); this flow of charged particles is called the solar wind.

The Sun is a very stable source of energy; its radiative output, called the solar constant, is 1.366 kilowatts per square metre at Earth and varies by no more than 0.1 percent. Superposed on this stable star, however, is an interesting 11-year cycle of magnetic activity manifested by regions of transient strong magnetic fields called sunspots.

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Sun | Definition, Composition, Properties, Temperature, & Facts

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Sun, star around which Earth and the other components of the solar system revolve. It is the dominant body of the system, constituting more than 99 percent of its entire mass. The Sun is the source of an enormous amount of energy, a portion of which provides Earth with the light and heat necessary to support life.

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sun worship, veneration of the sun or a representation of the sun as a deity, as in Atonism in Egypt in the 14th century bce.

Although sun worship has been used frequently as a term for "pagan" religion, it is, in fact, relatively rare. Though almost every culture uses solar motifs, only a relatively few cultures (Egyptian, Indo-European, and Meso-American) developed solar religions. All of these groups had in common a well-developed urban civilization with a strong ideology of sacred kingship. In all of them the imagery of the sun as the ruler of both the upper and the lower worlds that he majestically visits on his daily round is prominent.

The sun is the bestower of light and life to the totality of the cosmos; with his unblinking, all-seeing eye, he is the stern guarantor of justice; with the almost universal connection of light with enlightenment or illumination, the sun is the source of wisdom.

These qualities-sovereignty, power of beneficence, justice, and wisdom-are central to any elite religious group, and it is within these contexts that a highly developed solar ideology is found. Kings ruled by the power of the sun and claimed descent from the sun. Solar deities, gods personifying the sun, are sovereign and all-seeing. The sun is often a prime attribute of or is identified with the Supreme Deity.

In ancient Egypt the sun god Re was the dominant figure among the high gods and retained this position from early in that civilization's history. In the myth relating the voyage of the sun god over the heavenly ocean, the sun sets out as the young god Kheper; appears at noon in the zenith as the full-grown sun, Re; and arrives in the evening at the western region in the shape of the old sun god, Atum. When the pharaoh Ikhnaton reformed Egyptian religion, he took up the cult of the ancient deity Re-Horakhte under the name of Aton, an older designation of the Sun's disk. Under Akhenaton, the sun's qualities as creator and nourisher of the Earth and its inhabitants are glorified.

The sun god occupied a central position in both Sumerian and Akkadian religion, but neither the Sumerian Utu nor the Semitic Shamash was included among the three highest gods of the pantheon. The sun was one of the most popular deities, however, among the Indo-European peoples and was a symbol of divine power to them. Surya is glorified in the Vedas of ancient India as an all-seeing god who observes both good and evil actions. He expels not only darkness but also evil dreams and diseases. Sun heroes and sun kings also occupy a central position in Indian mythology, where Vivasvant, the father of Yama, corresponds to the Iranian Vivahvant, the father of Yima. There is a dynasty of sun kings, characteristically peaceful, that is quite distinct from the warlike moon kings. In medieval Iran, sun festivals were celebrated as a heritage from pre-Islamic times. The Indo-European character of sun worship is also seen in the conception of the solar deity, drawn in his carriage, generally by four white horses, common to many Indo-European peoples, and recurring in Indo-Iranian, Greco-Roman, and Scandinavian mythology.

During the later periods of Roman history, sun worship gained in importance and ultimately led to what has been called a "solar monotheism." Nearly all the gods of the period were possessed of solar qualities, and both Christ and Mithra acquired the traits of solar deities. The feast of Sol Invictus (Unconquered Sun) on December 25 was celebrated with great joy, and eventually this date was taken over by the Christians as Christmas, the birthday of Christ.

The most famous type of solar cult is the Sun Dance of the Plains Indians of North America. In the pre-Columbian civilizations of Mexico and Peru, sun worship was a prominent feature. In Aztec religion extensive human sacrifice was demanded by the sun gods Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca. In both Mexican and Peruvian ancient religion, the Sun occupied an important place in myth and ritual. The ruler in Peru was an incarnation of the sun god, Inti. In Japan the sun goddess, Amaterasu, who played an important role in ancient mythology and was considered to be the supreme ruler of the world, was the tutelary deity of the imperial clan, and to this day the sun symbols represent the Japanese state.

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sun worship | Origin, History, Symbols, & Facts

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Sun worship, veneration of the sun or a representation of the sun as a deity, as in Atonism in Egypt in the 14th century BCE. Though almost every culture uses solar motifs, only a relatively few cultures (Egyptian, Indo-European, and Meso-American) developed solar religions.

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Helios: Helios, in Greek religion, the sun god, sometimes called a Titan. He drove a chariot daily from east to west across the sky and sailed around the northerly stream of Ocean each night in a huge cup. He became increasingly identified with other deities, especially Apollo, who came to be interpreted as a sun god.

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Helios was one of the Titans, son of Hyperion and Theia. He was the personification of the Sun and his sisters were the goddesses Selene (the Moon) an...

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In Greek mythology Helios was the Titan god of the Sun, and as such, Helios was one in a line of Greek gods and goddesses that dealt with light and the sun, starting with the Protogenoi Aether and Hemera, the Titan Hyperion and the Olympian Apollo.

Helios SOn of Hyperion

​Helios was the son of the Titan god of Light, , and his wife, Theia, the goddess of sight, and thus, Helios was brother to Eos (Dawn) and Selene (Moon).

Born in the Golden Age of Greek Mythology, Helios would become the sun god, with responsibility for bringing light to the world.

Helios the Greek Sun God

Overnight, Helios and his chariot would be transported in a golden cup through the northern streams of Oceanus back to Helios' palace. Although some writers claim that Helios was transported in a golden ship, or upon a golden bed.

Helios After the Titanomachy

Helios would also be encountered by Heracles as the Greek hero sought to steal the Cattle of Geryon. Crossing the desert, the heat of Helios greatly annoyed Heracles, and so Heracles started to shoot arrows at the god. Helios agreed to help Heracles if he would but stop shooting arrows at him, and so the sun god loaded to Heracles the Golden Cup so that he could cross the final stretch of water to get to the Cattle of Geryon.

Helios would also, on occasion, give willing assistance, for Helios rescued Hephaestus from the battlefield during the Gigantomachy, and also restored the eyesight of , when the hunter had been blinded by Oenipion.

The Competitive Helios

Helios though was also a competitive god, as indeed where most deities of the Greek pantheon, with two tales are told of his competition with other gods.

Firstly, there was a time when Helios and Poseidon competed for the sacrifices of Corinth, and so fierce was this competition that violence was expected. To mediate, , a Hecatonchire, was brought in to reach a decision; thus, Briareus declared that the Isthmus of Cornith would be sacred to Poseidon, and the Acrocorinth, the acropolis of Corinth would be Helios'.

Famously, Helios is also appears in Aesop's Fables, where the Greek sun god competes with , the Greek god of the North Wind. Both gods sought to get a passing traveller to remove his clothing, Boreas sought to do so by might, and the wind god blew and blew, but this simply caused the traveller to wrap his clothing more tightly around him. Helios though tried gentle persuasion, and by causing the traveller to get warmer, the traveller willing removed his clothing.

Lovers and Children of Helios

Helios' daughters Circe and Pasiphae were also famous sorceresses, with Circe a onetime lover of Odysseus, and Pasiphae the wife of King Minos of Crete.

Phaethon Son of Helios

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In Greek mythology Helios was the Titan god of the Sun, and as such, Helios was one in a line of Greek gods and goddesses that dealt with light and the sun, starting with the Protogenoi Aether and Hemera, the Titan Hyperion and the Olympian Apollo.