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An unusual sight to many who have never seen anything like it is the Running Horned Woman of Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria. Facing away, and seemingly running away, is a cave drawing of a woman with horns. While today we know that there were not prehistoric humans whom of which grew horns, it opens the question as to who she is and why she is depicted adorned with large bull horns. Original discovery theories conclude she may be a goddess of agriculture and fertility, while others mention the dots upon her body may indicate scarification (the process of deliberately adding scars to ones body for adornment), and could conclude this was hunter or gatherer who is wearing the horns as an accessory. Due to the painting residing in a remote location, as well as other factors, it is commonly regarded that this cave painting may have been for ceremonial or ritualistic use, not everyday use.

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In the Hagia Sophia, there upon the wall lies the Mosaics of Empress Zoe and Emperor Constaine IX.  The Mosaic itself features the emperor and empress on both sides of Christ, one offering him a bag of wealth and the other a scroll. The two figures are adorned in robes entirely made of gems and stones, while a encrusted crown sits atop their heads. While the faces of the Emperor had changed to reflect the current husband of Empress Zoe, the mosiac solidifies the tie between the holy and the ruling class. It symbolizes the sanction between Christ and the rulers, and shows them in a sense that is devoted and underneath, however still close and holy appointed, regardless of the changes in emperors. They are not equal or holy beings, lacking their royal purple as they lay donation to the "king of all kings", however the halo around them indicate divine and holy ties.

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Mosaics of Emperor Constantine IX and Empress Zoe (11th c.)

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Mosaics of Emperor Constantine IX and Empress Zoe (11th c.)

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Caryatides refer to sculpted female figures that are used to replace regular support pillars in ancient Greece. While not a overstep of power, these sculptures are strong both in their material and in their symbolism. They tower above those visiting the temple, and remind those of the gods, goddesses, and divine power, as it was an important temple to worship the goddess Athena. They are all uniform, draped in cloth, each with elaborate hair.  

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Made entirely of gold, with the addition of special gemstones and silver, is the reliquary of Saint Foy; used as a vessel to contain remains of the Saint Foy, which was one of the most popular in France. The remains belonged to a young girl of 12, of which was a Christian convert, who had refused to make a sacrifice to the pagan gods and thus condemned to death. The statue brought many to the small isolated town of Conques, France, where the reliquary remained in a pilgrimage church. Overtime, as pilgrims would make their travel and often visit the church, many began leaving gemstones for the reliquary. In addition, some were worried the statue would become a source of worship on its own due to the materials and construction, and not the resting place of saint remains.

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The Fayum mummy portraits are a collection of portraits painted upon wooden boards and placed at the heads of mummies in a roman ruled northern part of Egypt, the rule being round 30 BCE and lasting till 642 A.D. The portraits recovered often depict high and upper class individuals, and is usually indicated by the jewelry the portraits are adorned in. Most notably, the wreath of gold which links these newly deceased to the divine in the afterlife. Gold leaf was pressed and used for the gold adornments upon the portrait, emphasizing the high class status both in life and in death.

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Depicted above is a very small, and odd, selection of the worlds largest medieval Map. Dated in the 13th century, this map centered Jerusalem, and contained many illustrations of both religious and political figures. The section specifically chosen is a section of the map that refers to "far off" lands. Illustrated in this map is the outskirts full of beasts and mythical creatures, in which were common belief to medieval society at the time.  Depicted above is an illustration of the Blemmyes, a fictional tribe described as being headless with a face on their chest said to inhabit remote parts of the world. While there is a historical Blemmyes tribe, it is thought to not be related to the fictional Blemmyes of the medieval periods fantasy. The way this supposed "headless man" is drawn is able to speak to how they viewed these far off people. It is first notable to mention that one can theorize that during this period of time there was a great fear of those who were seen as "unknown" or "uncivilized", thus the warning a creature unknown to the world in which the map was made. Secondly, I challenge the ideas of how these mythical men were characterized, as this  map depicts the Blemmyes man with a spear and basket, possibly indicating a hunter and gatherer type of civilization.  

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The Lakshmana Temple is covered in many human statues, and as stated in texts for the builders of the temple, were all designed with a purpose and reason. The sculptures are to represent fertility, prosperity, and growth. Depicted here is a sculpture of Mithuna, or a loving couple. They are downed in adornments from head to toe, those of which symbolize ideal beauty and fertility. The masculine figure is adorned in a head piece, chest piece, waist beads, as well as ankle and arm decorative cuffs; although the female is less adorned, she still captivates anyone who gazes upon her, with her seemingly perfectly curved and smooth body. 

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The Kings’ Gallery of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, completed in the early 13th century, consists of 28 sculpted figures of crowned men that originally adorned the western facade. Known now as the kings of the old testament, these statues of kings were originally thought to be past French monarchs. Their presence demanded civil order, as they sat elevated atop the entrance, looking down on the square. The Kings’ Gallery was not just decorative, but it played an active role in maintaining civil order by reminding citizens of social hierarchy and obedience to both crown and church.

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The death mask of Tutankhamun is a solid gold marvel, set upon the deceased pharaohs head to protect him during the transition to the afterlife. It was extremely common for the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs to be filled with precious artifacts and treasures, including precious metals and gems like gold, carnelian, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. This amount of wealth and design was not for the common eye, but purely to aid and boost the deceased ruler into a comfortable and respected afterlife. 

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The Catalan Atlas was a very important medieval map, depicting Jerusalem close to the center, as well as expanding and listing many Chinese and Indian cities as it heavily followed two explorer literature at the time:  Book of Marvels and Travels and Voyage of Sir John Mandeville. Above is an illustration on the map of Mansa Musa, of whom ruled the Mali empire. Inscribed on the map was a description of the "Black Lord" of "Gineva (Ghana)", calling him the "richest and noblest" due to his abundance of gold. Rarely do we see medieval European art depict someone of African decent, let alone as a revered and wealthy ruler. He is depicted in high regard, looking up at a sphere of gold in his hand, with a seemingly heavy and solid golden crown. Without the inscription, we would know this man is a ruler of his lands, and a wealthy one at that. It is clear this map wanted to illustrate the lands it was mapping and its people in an accurate light, as this map lacks many fantastical elements that many medieval maps did.  

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This painting is one of the many upon the walls of the tomb of Nefertari, depicting her hand-in-hand with the goddess Isis. The goddess is giving Nerfertari a Anhk, or the gift of eternal life. The Queen Nefertari is downed in white, with a golden vulture headpiece. The vulture headpiece, a nod to the goddess Nekhbet, the divine protector of the pharaohs. From the tomb heavily depicting the queen with the gods and goddesses as she moves through the afterlife,  to her hand in hand with a goddess, there is no doubt that ancient Egyptians viewed pharaohs and the royals and friends and equals to the gods.

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Queen Nefertari before Goddess Isis (13th c.)

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Queen Nefertari before Goddess Isis (13th c.)

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The Great Living Chola Temples are monumental expressions of architectural power. The first being built by Rajaraja I, the temple was built to be a earthly home for the god Shiva, and expressed importance that the temple was the living gods place of home where constant worship has been conducted. Looking deeper, the temple reflects not only religious devotion but the imperial might and divine right of the Chola dynasty. Many types of figures are carved into the stone, gods and humans alike. All of the figures are richly adorned with anklets, jeweled waistbands, sacred threads, and elaborate crowns. These adorned bodies merge with the temple’s form, turning architecture into a sacred stage that broadcasts royal divinity and cosmic legitimacy. The temple doesn't just house the divine, it is divine. 

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The Great Chola Living Temples (9-12th c.)

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The Great Chola Living Temples (9-12th c.)

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Adorned in a beaded headdress with a feather fringe, and still with traces of red and black pigment, is the brass head of a ruler of the Ife Kingdom. Located in what is how south-west Nigeria, many sculpture portraits have come to discovery since the 20th century. While some made in terracotta and other materials, this was constructed in brass using the lost-wax method. We gather due to the headdress and scarification, as well as the material, that this was a highly regarded individual or royal (the latter being the common conclusion). The sculpture looks head on and strong, unmoving and without fault. The inclusions of the adornments given to the skin amplify its cultural significance, as it is done very little today but still remains in the culture. This was the ideal.

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Tucked away in the council hall of The Republic of Siena, a three paneled fresco describes what happens when those governing are good, versus when they're bad. The paintings are heavily detailed, and heavily descriptive. The painting itself is civic in manner, which was quite different from the many religious paintings of the time. The room is said to be where the nine executive magistrates would hold order executing meetings, and it served as a reminder of the importance of their position. You see many different positions and classes held in this painting, and the others of it. A different portion depicts everyday people dressed in common attire, while this shows people in power. The knights have caught the thieves, and now they must face the good governments judgement and justice. Classes and positions are clearly marked in this painting, as the heavenly are not similar in dress to the ruling class, and the ruling class is adorned with gems and gold, while the common folk are not. 

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The Allegory of Good and Bad Government (1334 A.D.)

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The Allegory of Good and Bad Government (1334 A.D.)

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While fully formal metal work jewelry, and the representation of that through neolithic period isn't super common due to the lifestyle of the people, we have enough evidence to prove that this wasn't because they weren't adorning themselves. Depicted are apatite beads found in burials in a shrine at Catal Huyuk. They're made of polished stones and gems, including apatite, and one depicts a kneeling female goddess. These were most likely adorned a female body for a funeral ritual, however evidence shows that jewelry was not just reserved for women. Most jewelry from this period included shells and bones, of which were foraged and easily assembled.