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With a surface area equivalent to that of Western Europe, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the largest country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). DRC is endowed with exceptional natural resources, including minerals such as cobalt and copper, hydropower potential, significant arable land, immense biodiversity, and the world's second-largest rainforest.

DRC has the third largest population of poor globally.Poverty in DRC is high, remains widespread and pervasive, and is increasing due to impacts from COVID-19.In 2018, it was estimated that 73% of the Congolese population, equaling 60 million people, lived on less than $1.90 a day (the international poverty rate). As such, almost 14% - or one out of six people living in extreme poverty in SSA - live in DRC.
Political Context
Félix Antoine Tshisekedi Tshilombo, son of Etienne Tshisekedi, the country's longstanding opposition leader, won the December 2018 presidential election. He succeeded Joseph Kabila, who had led the country for 18 years, in the first peaceful transition of power in the DRC's history.

Following President Félix Tshisekedi's establishment of a new political alliance known as the "Sacred Union," the former Prime Minister and the head of the Senate stepped down in January and February 2021. On February 15, a week after he was sworn in as Head of the African Union, President Tshisekedi appointed a new Prime Minister, Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde Kyenge, who had served as CEO of Gecamines, the state-owned mining company, since 2019. A new government was put in place last April to support the program of the President of the Republic and to prepare for the next general elections scheduled for 2023.

On October 16, the National Assembly endorsed a new central electoral president, Denis Kadima and his team - already strongly contested before being confirmed by the head of state.
Economic Situation
After a pandemic-induced slowdown to 1.7% in 2020, economic growth is expected to moderately rebound to 3.6% in 2021 driven by a robust growth in mining (8.7%), owing to rising commodity prices and production capacity expansion. Non-mining sectors (particularly agriculture and services) are expected to gradually recover, growing at 1.4% in 2021 as the economy remains open despite some COVID-related restrictions.

The current account deficit (CAD) is projected to narrow to 2.0% of GDP in 2021 (from 2.3 in 2020), reflecting a strong growth in mineral exports and global prices of copper and cobalt. FDI and international support (including the recent SDR issuance by the IMF) are likely to finance the CAD and raise international reserves to an estimated 3.4 weeks at end-2021 (from 2020: 1.9 weeks), putting downward pressures on local currency and inflation. As inflation moderated, the central bank also eased monetary policy to support economic recovery.

The fiscal deficit is projected to narrow to 1.7% of GDP in 2021, from 2.1% in 2020, funded by the IMF ECF disbursements and project loans, which offset the repayment of T-bills. Domestic revenue collection is expected at 10.2% of GDP (up from 8.7% in 2020), as economic recovery generates higher income taxes and VAT. This may allow the government to increase current expenditures to address high public sector wage bills, COVID-19-related spending and emergency expenditure related to the Goma volcano eruption of May 2021 while remaining on a path of fiscal consolidation.
Social Context and Development Challenges
On February 7, 2021, a resurgence of the Ebola virus disease (EVD) was reported in Butembo, in the province of North Kivu, where a previous epidemic (EVD10) had been declared over in June 2020. As of March 30, 2021, a total of 12 cases had been confirmed in four provinces: Biena, Butembo, Katwa, and Musienene. A total of four deaths and four recoveries have been recorded. The 11 th epidemic of the EVD was officially declared over on November 18, 2020, with 119 confirmed cases and 55 deaths.

On October 8, a new case of Ebola was reported in North Kivu province. Immediately a vaccination campaign began. As of October 16, 2021, three new cases, including one death, have been confirmed in the Butsili health area in northeastern DRC, bringing the total to five confirmed cases with three deaths. Some 369 contacts have been identified and 308 contacts are being followed by the Congolese health services. This is the 13th wave of the Ebola virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Measures have been in place since March 10, 2020, to contain the spread of COVID-19. As of October 14, more than 57,000 cases had been confirmed in the DRC.

DRC ranks 175 out of 189 countries on the 2020 Human Development Index, though some HCI indicators are estimated to have slightly improved from 2018 to 2020. DRC's Human Capital Index is 0.37%, below the SSA average of 4.0%. This means that a child born in DRC today will be 37% as productive in adulthood as she could be if she enjoyed complete education and full health in her early years. On average, a Congolese child receives 9.1 years of schooling, though translating into 4.5 years of Learning-Adjusted Years of School (2020 estimate). 43% of children are malnourished.

The DRC's natural resources are immense and diverse, and the country has the world's second largest primary humid tropical forest endowment and carbon sink globally. However, forest loss rates have accelerated in recent years, and in 2020, the DRC lost 1.31 million ha of natural forest, equivalent to 854 million ton of CO₂ of emissions. This has had deleterious environmental impacts (including on climate change, biodiversity, and rainfall patterns) and is threatening the livelihoods of the 35 million people who depend on forest resources.

Last Updated: Oct 27, 2021

Since the WBG re-engaged in 2001, the World Bank has financed 55 projects in the DRC, with a total committed amount of nearly $9 billion. Out of the $9 billion committed since 2001, $4 billion went to infrastructure investments - with a focus on reconstruction and rehabilitation of basic infrastructure. Investments have spurred economic activities and improved the connectivity and proper functioning of DRC's high-priority transport corridors, resulting in 71% of the country's high-priority road network being rehabilitated, maintained, or built out. Energy sector investments have focused on rehabilitating hydropower plants and transmission networks, increasing Inga's electricity production by 632 MW and augmenting power supply to mines, but with limited investment in the distribution network segment.

WBG engagement is guided by a Country Partnership Framework (CPF) prepared for a five-to-six year period. A new DRC-WBG CPF for 2021-2026 is currently under preparation. The CPF builds on extensive analysis of WBG engagements in DRC since 2001 and key analytical work, including a 2018 Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD), a 2021 update to a DRC Risk and Resilience Assessment, spatial analysis, poverty analysis, and a 2020 CPSD. Government priorities and input from consultations will be carried forward and reflected in the CPF structure and proposed program. The forthcoming CPF and engagements supported under the framework will have a strong focus on addressing drivers of fragility, conflict, and violence. There will also be a focus on mitigating impacts from COVID-19 and building resilience to shocks and on climate. The World Bank is proposing to adopt a territorial development approach in the DRC, focusing on provinces that have high population density, high concentration of poor and are affected by conflict and violence. Furthermore, the World Bank is proposing to engage through large, multi-sector projects that aim to achieve synergies and provide holistic development responses. The WBG will also support reform agendas in a new generation of infrastructure investment projects that aim to bring in the private sector. Starting in FY20, during which the World Bank committed $1.65 billion to social sectors, World Bank engagements in the DRC focus on social sectors and human capital development, strengthening governance and supporting key reform initiatives. To support the implementation of this approach, the World Bank has opened liaison offices in Goma in North Kivu province, and in Kananga, in the Kasaï Central province.

As of March 1, 2021, the World Bank portfolio in the DRC totaled $4.8 billion, with 20 national projects ($4.23 billion) and four regional projects ($565 million). Engagements span key development areas, including: economic management, governance, and private sector development; human capital (health, education, social protection); sustainable development (infrastructure and connectivity, agriculture and food security, access to electricity and water, urban development); women's empowerment and prevention and response to Gender-Based Violence.

On April 2, 2020, the World Bank approved a $47.2 million emergency operation to help the country respond to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, a Pandemic Emergency Financing Facility (PEF) allocation of $13 million for COVID-19 has been approved. In addition to support the COVID-19 vaccine purchase and deployment n on June 29, 2021 an additional financing of $200 million was approved by the board of the World Bank. The AF will finance vaccine procurement to cover 10% of the population through procurement of 10 million doses of Johnson & Johnson vaccines through AVAT, as well as deployment costs for all vaccines to support the government in reaching its target of covering 30% of the population. As of October 15, 2021, the project is awaiting project effectiveness and ratification by the National Assembly.

Last Updated: Oct 27, 2021
HUMAN CAPITAL Social protection
Building on the success of the Eastern Recovery Project (STEP), additional financing for "STEP 2," continues to support the restructuring of the social protection sector, while financing a comprehensive safety nets program. Results include:

Providing temporary employment to more than 6,800 vulnerable people beneficiaries in 27 communities of Kasai central, 50% of whom are women;

Rehabilitating and/or building 26 schools (nearly 200 classrooms)

STEP 2 is also supporting the government's efforts in mitigating the socio-economic impacts of COVID-19 (coronavirus) on vulnerable households in Kinshasa.

Additionally, an Ebola emergency social response program has provided temporary employment for more than 26,937 people in nine affected health zones of eastern DRC, 55% of whom are women.
INFRASTUCTURE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Infrastructure

The High-Priority Roads Reopening and Maintenance Project (Pro-Routes) has rehabilitated more than 3,000 kilometers of roads in the country's northern and western regions, reviving economic activity. The project also provided access to an all-weather road for more than 6 million rural residents.

The regional Great Lakes Trade Facilitation Project has improved border infrastructure and operating environment for small-scale traders at four locations in North and South Kivu, and supported associations for small-scale traders to continue to trade across borders during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Energy
Under the ongoing Electricity Access and Service Expansion project:

Nearly 200,000 people have gained access to electricity from the grid in Kinshasa and Goma. The number is expected to rise significantly, as major works began to rehabilitate and expand the distribution network in the central and western communes of Kinshasa.

Over 9,500 households were equipped with solar home systems, as off-grid solar private operators start to roll out solar kits and lanterns, thanks to results-based subsidies provided through the project financing

Start up support was provided to the recently established electricity regulator (Autorité de Régulation du secteur de l'Electricité) and rural and peri-urban electrification agency (Agence Nationale de l'électrification et des Services Energétiques en milieu Rural et Peri-urbain). Further support will be provided to help these important agencies become operational.

The development of a national geospatial electrification plan along with an investment prospectus for the first five years, and prefeasibility studies to electrify 21 provincial capital cities is nearing completion.

Water
Under the World Bank Urban Drinking Water Supply Project (PEMU):

More than 75,000 new private connections and more than 450 new standpipes were installed in Kinshasa, Lubumbashi, and Matadi, providing drinking water access to over 2.7 million people.

REGIDESO's operational and financial performance was strengthened.

Urban
The Urban Development Project (PDU) has contributed to:

Improved connectivity and livability for about 290,000 persons in eight secondary urban centers through upgrading of more than 27 kilometers of roads.

Improved urban governance through technical assistance and performance-based investments.

Investing to stop fast advancing erosions in Kananga that threaten main infrastructure (airport, railway, markets).

Forests and Climate Change
Under a World Bank Improved Forested Landscape Management Project (IFLMP):

20,000 hectares of agroforestry plantations established on degraded lands in western DRC to provide the city of Kinshasa with more sustainable charcoal and agricultural commodities

168,000 hectares of exclosures established and maintained to protect land areas from bush fires and facilitate natural regeneration.

110,000 people in forest & adjacent communities with monetary and non-monetary benefits, and 2.6 million USD in Payment for Ecosystem Services distributed to communities.

86,000 efficient cookstoves distributed with improved climate and health benefits.

5.9 million tCO2eq emission reduced through the above results.

Last Updated: Oct 27, 2021

The World Bank is a member of the Donor Coordination Group that aims to harmonize development partner activities in the field. It is working closely with the UN, UNFPA, UNICEF, WHO, USAID, the Agence française de développement (AFD), the British Development Agency (DFID), GIZ/KFW and the Belgian Cooperation Agency.

Last Updated: Oct 27, 2021

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With a surface area equivalent to that of Western Europe, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the largest country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). DRC is endowed with exceptional natural resources, including minerals such as cobalt and copper, hydropower potential, significant arable land, immense biodiversity, and the world's second-largest rainforest.

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One of the largest and least developed countries in Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) ranked 179th of 189 countries on the 2019 Human Development Index. DRC is now the second largest hunger crisis in the world after Yemen. Hunger and conflict fuel one another, with armed conflict and widespread displacement prevailing for the past 25 years and multiple other crises compounding DRC's humanitarian challenges.

Populations in large swathes of eastern DRC have been living with conflict and displacement for much of the past two-and-a-half decades. This very often takes the form of ever-more fragmented armed groups preying on civilians and preventing them from accessing their fields. North Kivu, South Kivu and Ituri are the provinces where war and unrest have been the most protracted. In recent years Tanganyika in the south east and the central Kasai provinces have also been hit. Countrywide, 5 million people have fled their homes and lost their means of livelihood.

The number of acutely food-insecure people stands at 21.8, making access to food a daily struggle for a significant part of the Congolese population. An estimated 3.4 million children are acutely malnourished.

A tenth outbreak of the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) was declared in August 2018 - the third in two years, and the second in that year alone; it has claimed thousands of lives in North Kivu and Ituri provinces. It is the worst outbreak in the country's history and the second largest and deadliest EVD outbreak globally. Fatal security incidents and community resistance to the Ebola response are among the factors that have hampered efforts to end the outbreak, which, as of March 2020, seems to be coming to an end.

More than 900,000 Congolese nationals are refugees in neighbouring countries while DRC, already struggling with internal conflict, hosts more than half a million people notably refugees from Burundi, Central African Republic and South Sudan.

With 80 million hectares of arable land, DRC has the potential to feed 2 billion people. Only 10 percent of its arable land is cultivated. Nevertheless, subsistence farming is prevalent in DRC, with families producing 42 percent of the food they consume. While needs remain focused on crisis response among vulnerable populations, in places where pockets of stability exist WFP and partners are shifting gradually to resilience-building activities, to and enhancing people's self-reliance through DRC's agricultural potential. Growing food is also a tool to advance recovery and peaceful co-existence between ethnic groups.

The World Food Programme (WFP) has been present in the country since 1973. WFP collaborates with national actors and government institutions to enhance their capacities in disaster risk management and emergency preparedness. The United Nations Humanitarian Air Service (UNHAS) and the provision of logistics services to the humanitarian community are also central to WFP's portfolio in the DRC.

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Democratic Republic of the Congo | World Food Programme

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One of the largest and least developed countries in Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) ranked 179th of 189 countries on the 2019 Human Development Index. DRC is now the second largest hunger crisis in the world after Yemen. Hunger and conflict fuel one another, with armed conflict

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Democratic Republic of the Congo situation

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The emergency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is one of the most complex humanitarian crises in the world. Decades of clashes between armed groups displaced 6.1 million people within the country and forcing 1 million to seek asylum across Africa.

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Despite vast natural resources, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is one of the poorest countries in the world. Factors including extreme poverty, economic crisis, conflict , food insecurity, epidemic outbreaks negatively impact the social situation and well-being of Congolese people, especially women and children.

The county has the third largest population in Africa with an estimated 98 million inhabitants, 54 per cent of whom are children under 18. Although DRC has made significant progress in reducing child mortality and access to education for children, a majority of children remain deprived of many of their rights:

7 in 100 children die before reaching the age of 5

more than 7 million children aged 5 to 17 are out of school

33 million people living in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water

59.9 per cent of children under 5 do not have their birth registered

9 million children suffer from chronic malnutrition or stunting

Beyond the challenges of long-term development, the humanitarian situation has deteriorated in recent years. Nearly 26.4 million people are currently in need of urgent humanitarian assistance across the country, including 15.4 million children.

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Find out how UNICEF drives change for children and young people every day across the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

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Continuing armed conflict and violence claimed thousands of lives, large-scale displacement and widespread sexual violence. At least 10 cases of crimes under international law were prosecuted by military courts, but impunity remained widespread. Economic, social, and humanitarian crises persisted, exacerbated by Covid-19 and other outbreaks. The use of arbitrary arrests and unlawful detentions was prevalent across the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Prison conditions remained inhumane. Rallies and protests organized by opposition parties or civil society deemed to be critical of the government were often banned or violently suppressed. Human rights defenders and journalists continued to be targeted with attacks and threats; at least three journalists were killed. Mining projects led to serious pollution with a considerable human rights impact. Children's education was interrupted by teachers' strikes over poor pay and working conditions.

Background

President Tshisekedi appointed Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde Kyenge as prime minister in February, having ended the two-year coalition with his predecessor Joseph Kabila. In April, a new government was formed with a parliamentary majority.

Tensions emerged over the elections planned for 2023, particularly in relation to the organization, functioning and leadership of the Independent National Electoral Commission.

In North Kivu and Ituri, a state of siege was declared in May allowing the army and police to take over political leadership, public administration, and the criminal justice system in the two provinces.

Rampant violence continued in the Kasaï region. South Kivu, Tanganyika and Maniema provinces also experienced continued and significant levels of violence.

Unlawful attacks and killings

Indiscriminate attacks against civilian populations, looting and destruction of homes, crops, and other objects indispensable for the survival of the civilian population, as well as attacks on infrastructure, continued particularly in the east and south; some of these acts constituted war crimes.

In North Kivu and Ituri provinces, attacks and other violations and abuses against civilians by armed groups and government forces increased by 10% between May and November according to the UN. According to the Kivu Security Tracker, at least 1,137 civilians were unlawfully killed in the two provinces between 6 May (when the state of siege was declared) and 15 November. For instance, at least 55 civilians were killed during indiscriminate attacks by combatants of the Cooperative for Development of the Congo (CODECO), an alliance of militia groups, in the villages of Boga and Tchabi, in Ituri province, on 30 May. In the same province, the Congolese army killed seven civilians in Nongo village on 2 May and eight civilians in the villages of Banikasowa, Ndenge I and Ndenge II on 15 May. There were multiple abductions and 300,000 people fled their villages. Armed groups including combatants of the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), an armed group operating in the DRC and Uganda, also carried out attacks targeting schools, health facilities, public markets, churches, UN peacekeepers and humanitarian actors. For example, alleged ADF combatants attacked the Kisunga village health centre and the surrounding area, in the territory of Beni in North Kivu, overnight on 11 and 12 November, resulting in the killing of at least 48 civilians including health workers and patients, according to local human rights organizations.

In South Kivu province, the long-standing conflict involving local and foreign armed groups in the highlands of Uvira and Fizi claimed at least 70 civilian lives and forced thousands to flee their villages, according to the UN. The Congolese army committed human rights violations against civilians, including unlawful killings, rape, looting and destruction of homes, on a par with the armed groups it was deployed to fight.

Sexual and gender-based violence

Conflict-related sexual violence remained widespread, especially in the provinces of North and South Kivu, Ituri, Tanganyika and Kasaï-Central, despite some encouraging efforts by the authorities to hold perpetrators to account. According to the UN, between January and September, at least 1,100 women were raped in North Kivu and Ituri alone.

Several initiatives which aimed to establish a reparations fund for victims of conflict-related sexual violence were undertaken with the involvement of President Tshisekedi and the First Lady, although they had not come to fruition by the end of the year.

Lack of humanitarian assistance

Five million people remained internally displaced at the end of the year, 1.5 million of whom were forced to leave their homes to flee from violence in 2021 alone, according to the UN. Most of them lived in dire conditions without access to humanitarian assistance.

In March and April, inter-communal conflict between Luba and Kuba ethnic groups in Bakwakenge, in the Kasaï-Central province, caused the destruction of 190 houses and the displacement of 21,000 people, according to UNHCR, the UN refugee agency. In the territory of Beni, repeated attacks, allegedly by members of the ADF and local Mayi-Mayi groups, forced 10 humanitarian organizations to halt their aid work, leaving 116,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) without vital assistance, according to the UN. The UN also reported that alleged CODECO combatants carried out several attacks on IDP sites, killing dozens of people and burning down settlements, resulting in the further displacement of 50,000 IDPs in Ituri province.

According to the UN, over 19.6 million people were in dire need of humanitarian assistance, half of whom were children. More than 26 million people faced high levels of acute food insecurity. Despite this, according to UN humanitarian coordinator David McLachlan-Karr in October, financial support to alleviate the DRC crisis continued to decline, and only 25% of the US$1.98 billion needed was raised in 2021.

Most perpetrators of crimes under international law, including rape and other gender-based violence, enjoyed impunity. There was some progress, however, with at least 10 cases of serious crimes prosecuted. At least 80 army and police officers were prosecuted in North Kivu, South Kivu, Ituri, Tanganyika and Kasaï provinces for serious crimes including sexual violence. In the Kasaï region, investigations into serious human rights violations committed in Mulombodi, Nganza and Tshisuku in 2017 and 2018 were completed, with the assistance of a team of investigators deployed by the OHCHR. The trials were yet to start.

The trial of the alleged perpetrators of the murders of two UN experts in February 2017 was ongoing. Defendants and victims' lawyers continued to complain about its slow progress, and intimidation of some witnesses. The cause of death of one of the defendants in October was unclear. He was the third defendant to die since the trial began.

Former Congolese warlord Roger Lumbala, who was arrested in France in December 2020 over war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in the DRC, remained in custody.

There were no meaningful developments regarding the situation in the DRC before the ICC.

In April, following calls from human rights organizations including Amnesty International, the government started to develop a comprehensive strategy to deal with serious crimes committed over the last three decades, in collaboration with the UN and representatives of Congolese civil society organizations.

Arbitrary arrests and detentions

The frequent use of arbitrary arrests and unlawful detentions persisted throughout DRC. The situation was particularly serious in the North Kivu and Ituri provinces, where the state of siege gave excessive powers to the army and police, as well as to the military justice system. The security forces arrested and detained hundreds of civilians without due process, many for non-criminal acts such as debt or land disputes.

In February, three activists from the citizens' movement "Jicho la Raiya" (Eye of the People) were arrested in North Kivu for organizing a peaceful sit-in to protest against alleged illegal taxes on roads and alleged mismanagement of a local healthcare administration. They remained in arbitrary detention in Goma city at the end of the year. Two activists from civil society movement Lutte pour le Changement (LUCHA) were arrested in Goma in July and September, respectively, for saying that local authorities and staff of the Denise Nyakeru Tshisekedi Foundation, established by the First Lady, diverted humanitarian aid intended for survivors displaced by a volcanic eruption near Goma in May. Following a defamation complaint to the military justice prosecutor by the Foundation, they were held in arbitrary detention for several months. They were released on bail in November, but the fabricated charges against them were not dropped. Thirteen other LUCHA activists were arrested and illegally detained in Beni in November for staging a peaceful demonstration against the state of siege. Dozens of other activists were also held in arbitrary detention nationwide for exercising their human rights.

In Ituri province, hundreds of people were unlawfully detained for several months in the territories of Aru, Djugu, Mahagi, Mambasa, Irumu, and in the town of Bunia, due to a shortage of magistrates to handle their cases.

In September, Hubert Berocan, a provincial member of parliament (MP), was sentenced to 12 months in prison after an unfair trial at a military court in Bunia, solely for challenging the local executive about the unfair distribution of computers to schools. In June, another local MP had been unlawfully detained for 48 hours by a military prosecutor after he criticized the president for failing to restore peace and fulfil his commitments.

Inhumane detention conditions

According to local human rights groups, at least 220 people died in detention due to overcrowding, poor conditions and healthcare, and lack of food, among other factors which could amount to torture or other ill-treatment by the state. Some prisons and detention centres held up to 500% over their intended capacity, as a result of dysfunction in the criminal justice system, especially in North Kivu and Ituri where the capacity of military courts, which took over the criminal jurisdiction over civilians under the state of siege, became even more limited in terms of geographical access and staffing.

Freedom of assembly

Bans on, or other suppression of, peaceful demonstrations were common once again. The authorities frequently banned rallies and protests organized by opposition leaders and activists, trade unions and civil society groups, while security forces violently suppressed those that went ahead. In April, demonstrations against civilian killings in North Kivu, including a peaceful sit-in by schoolchildren and a women's march in Beni, were violently dispersed by the army and police. Similar tactics were also used in other areas, in particular against peaceful demonstrations by University of Kinshasa students in July and August; a peaceful assembly convened by opposition platform Lamuka in September; and, from October, student/teacher protests in support of the teachers' strike (see below, Right to education). In almost all cases, those responsible for illegally banning or suppressing the demonstrations were not held to account.

Human rights defenders

Human rights defenders and whistle-blowers continued to be the target of attacks and threats by public institutions which were supposed to protect them. Dozens of pro-democracy and anti-corruption activists, environmental activists, trade union leaders and Indigenous peoples' rights defenders were arbitrarily detained, harassed and even sentenced by courts following unfair trials. The draft law on the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, first proposed in 2017, made no progress during 2021.

In March, two whistle-blowers were sentenced to death in their absence after they revealed financial transactions made for the benefit of individuals and entities under international sanctions. After they fled the country, their colleagues and family members were harassed by the authorities.

Freedom of expression

At least three journalists were killed during the state of siege period in North Kivu and Ituri, apparently in connection with their reporting, according to journalists' rights organization Journaliste En Danger. At least 11 journalists were arbitrarily detained, sometimes violently, while they tried to carry out their work. Several journalists were threatened or intimidated by state agents, political leaders, and members of armed groups. At least three media outlets were arbitrarily banned, including two in Equateur province and one in Mai-Ndombe province. Once again, most human rights violations against media outlets and journalists were not prosecuted.

Environmental degradation

In August, there was extensive pollution to the Tshikapa and Kasaï rivers and their tributaries in southern DRC, which, according to the Congolese government, was caused by a spillage upstream from a diamond mining and processing company based in northern Angola. The DRC government said the disaster led to at least 40 deaths, hundreds of cases of severe diarrhoea, and wiped out aquatic life. The authorities' response was slow and ineffective. A joint DRC/Angolan investigation into the causes and environmental consequences was announced by the DRC authorities, but no further communication had been made about its progress or possible reparations or guarantees of measures to avoid similar catastrophes in the future.

Other cases of serious environmental pollution were reported at and around gold mines in Ituri, Haut-Uele, South Kivu and Maniema provinces, and copper and cobalt mines in Haut-Katanga and Lualaba provinces. Illegal logging in the Congo Basin forests continued, while the development of oil and other energy projects potentially harmful to the environment continued in or around the Virunga, Maiko, Upemba and Kundelungu national parks.

Right to health

The Covid-19 death toll peaked between July and August, with the emergence of the Delta variant causing an exponential increase in deaths in several cities. In March, the first batch of 1.7 million AstraZeneca doses was received through the COVAX initiative. However, delays in the vaccination roll-out due to vaccine hesitancy and poor planning resulted in 1.3 million doses being returned and redistributed to other African countries according to the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations. The DRC received an additional 2 million doses between May and October and, by the end of the year, had fully vaccinated 131,000 people, representing 0.1% of the population according to the WHO.

The DRC's 13th Ebola outbreak was declared in North Kivu in October. Other epidemics, including malaria, cholera, measles and bubonic fever claimed thousands of lives nationwide, especially among the young, despite efforts by the government and the international community to contain the outbreaks. Health actors on the response frontline continued to work without adequate or regular salaries, prompting demonstrations that were often violently dispersed by the police. Nurses and doctors countrywide went on strike for several months to demand better working conditions, pay and recognition of their professional status. International funding provision for the health sector was adversely affected because of inefficiency due to poor involvement, transparency and accountability from, as well as coordination by, national and international stakeholders.

Right to education

Implementation of President Tshisekedi's flagship free primary education programme was severely undermined at the start of the school year in October when teachers went on strike. They demanded better salaries and working conditions, including sufficient fit-for-purpose and well equipped school buildings to address overcrowding in classrooms and in some cases an absence of classrooms. Teachers and thousands of students took to the streets to protest at the programme's shortcomings, which included poor planning by education authorities, late salary payments, and inequality of resources which favoured urban over rural schools. Public schools were closed for several weeks and reopened in late November following an agreement between the government and the main teachers' trade unions.

1. "DRC: Prioritize justice for serious crimes", 29 April

2. East Africa: "Address the access issue and the pandemic will be managed tomorrow": Global vaccine inequity's impact in east Africa (Index: AFR 04/5084/2021), 14 December

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Democratic Republic of the Congo Archives

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Continuing armed conflict and violence claimed thousands of lives, large-scale displacement and widespread sexual violence. At least 10 cases of crimes under international law were prosecuted by military courts, but impunity remained widespread. Economic, social, and humanitarian crises persisted, exacerbated by Covid-19 and other outbreaks.

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Which Countries Have the Highest (and Lowest) Literacy Rates in the World? - USCI

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As a whole, the world has a very high literacy rate, but the literacy rate in countries around the world varies greatly. While the global average literacy rate overall is 86.81%, some countries have a rate that is much lower than that.

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Dire health and humanitarian crisis in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo prompts escalation of efforts by WHO, partners

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The recent surge in violence in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo has led to significant loss of life, trauma, displacement, and the destruction of critical health infrastructure, exacerbating an already dire situation for millions of people.The situation remains tense and volatile, and the health needs are immense. WHO remains on the ground, and has continued to respond to the health needs by providing lifesaving medical supplies, supporting health workers, and coordinating the emergency response.

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Rich countries attain record human development, while half of the poorest have gone backwards, finds new UNDP report

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The 2023/24 Human Development Report, titled “Breaking the Gridlock: Reimagining cooperation in a polarized world”, reveals a troubling trend: the rebound in the global Human Development Index (HDI) – a summary measure reflecting a country’s Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, education levels, and life expectancy – has been partial, incomplete, and unequal since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

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Free and open access to global development data

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Working in partnership with the PNG Government, the World Bank is currently supporting 10 active projects across the country worth approximately US$798 million (PGK2.809 billion).

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Although a resource-rich country, the World Bank estimates that almost 40 percent of the population of Papua New Guinea (PNG) lives in poverty, with only 20.9 percent having access to electricity. Most people in PNG live without consistent access to clean water. James Marape is now into his second term as prime minister, and despite promising to address rampant corruption and discrimination against women, PNG's human rights record has not improved.

Violence that started during the 2022 general elections persisted in the Highland regions in 2023. Since the elections, conflict over resources in other regions has resulted in more than 400 deaths and displaced over 20,000 people. The increase in violence in recent years has been attributed to the widespread trade of guns and other weapons as well as the weak rule of law in the country. Gunmen are available for hire to carry out violent, lethal attacks. In August, a video went viral showing the naked corpses of three mercenaries being dragged behind a truck as people cheered.

On September 27, the National Parliament of PNG took a positive step forward in addressing gender-based violence at work by ratifying the International Labour Organization (ILO) Violence and Harassment Convention (C190), which requires comprehensive protections to end violence and harassment, including gender-based violence, at work.

Women's and Girls' Rights

PNG remains a dangerous place to be a woman or girl. Over 1.5 million people experience gender-based violence each year. PNG laws designed to protect women and children, including the Family Protection Act 2013 and the Lukautim Pikinini (Child Welfare) Act 2015, are rarely enforced. Initiatives such as Family Sexual and Violence Units within the police force remain limited in number and capacity, a problem compounded by a dire lack of services in communities for gender-based violence survivors.

Violence and lawlessness have exacerbated pervasive sexual and gender-based violence in PNG. In June, in the village of Walagu in Hela Province, women and girls as young as 12 were kidnapped and sexually assaulted en masse by a gang thought to be retaliating for the police's response to another kidnapping in February. Addressing these abuses is complicated by the geography of the highlands and limited phone reception, and at time of writing, no arrests had been made.

PNG has one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the region. The risk of maternal death is increased by limited access to hospitals, with over 80 percent of the population living outside of urban centers. Current data reported by health centers indicates that 171 out of every 100,000 women die giving birth, but the number could be up to three times higher. The government has failed to take effective action to end child marriage; 27 percent of girls and 4 percent of boys are married before age 18.

In May, it was discovered that the Department for Community Development and Religion had used 2.5 million Kina (about US$678,000) earmarked for measures to combat gender-based violence for travel and other miscellaneous expenses.

Also in May, the Parliamentary Committee on Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment (GEWE) heard testimonies from civil society groups and discussed efforts to combat gender-based violence and violence based on accusations of sorcery, though it remains to be seen whether its findings will have any effect on the status of women and girls in the country.

Police Abuse and Corruption

PNG police are severely understaffed, chronically underfunded, and often lack resources such as petrol, stationery, and vehicles. There is about 1 police officer per 1,845 people, which is far lower than the ratio of 1 officer to every 450 people that the United Nations recommends.

In August, police in Enga Province were authorized to use lethal force to quell violence that killed up to 70 people in July and August. This raised concerns that the unit that had been mobilized on "shoot-to-kill" orders would aggravate the situation, especially given the PNG police's long record of violence with impunity.

Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity

Male same-sex relations are punishable by up to 14 years' imprisonment under PNG's criminal code. While there is little information on actual convictions, the law is sometimes used as a pretext by officials and employers to harass or extort money from lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in PNG.

In June, Prime Minister Marape confirmed that his administration does not intend to repeal the laws criminalizing male homosexuality, maintaining that PNG's current legal framework is enough to protect the rights of its citizens. The same month, the United States embassy flew a pride flag, prompting outrage from the general public. In response, Marape sent a letter to the embassy reminding it of what he called PNG's values surrounding homosexuality as a majority Christian country.

Children's Rights to Health and Education

PNG has an underfunded health system, and 1 in 13 children die each year, mostly from preventable diseases. Rural children are twice as likely to die before their fifth birthday compared to their urban counterparts.

In 2020 (the latest year for which data is available), the completion rate was only 59 percent for primary education and 30 percent for lower secondary. One-third of the schools in Porgera, Enga Province, remain closed due to the violence persisting in the region since the 2022 elections.

Freedom of Speech

In February, PNG's Department of Information and Communications Technology released a draft of a new National Media Development Policy that could threaten press freedom if passed. There are concerns about the draft law's inclusion of a clause that would allow the government to punish journalists and media organizations that create content that is against the country's development objectives, which have been exacerbated by Prime Minister Marape's ongoing criticism of the press since his re-election last year.

Disability Rights

People with disabilities are often unable to participate in community life or work because of lack of accessibility, stigma, and other barriers. Children with disabilities in PNG face abuse, discrimination, and a wide range of barriers to education. Access to mental health services and other support services are limited, and many people with psychosocial disabilities and their families often consider traditional healers to be their only option. Although PNG has developed a national disability policy, the government has yet to pass comprehensive disability legislation.

Asylum Seekers and Refugees

While the Australian government formally withdrew from offshore processing in PNG, over 75 people remain in Port Moresby, waiting to be resettled. In July, parliamentary documents revealed that Australia agreed to pay PNG to provide welfare to the refugees. The Australian government has refused to disclose the terms of the agreement, including how much money it is paying PNG.

Refugees and asylum seekers in PNG endure violence and harassment, with little protection from authorities. Medical facilities have proven unable to cope with the complex medical needs of asylum seekers, particularly their mental health needs.

Key International Actors

US Secretary of State Antony Blinken visited PNG in May to sign two cooperation agreements that would allow the US to deploy troops to PNG in an emergency and board PNG ships to help patrol the waters for trafficking and unregulated fishing activities. The same month, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi also visited PNG for the third Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation. Following the first Korea-Pacific Islands Summit at the end of May, South Korean President Yoon Suk-yeol agreed to expand cooperation with 17 Pacific countries, including PNG.

PNG is Australia's closest neighbor and biggest aid recipient. In the 2024 fiscal year, it will receive 500 million Australian dollars (or approximately US$323 million) from Australia. At time of writing, PNG and Australia were still negotiating the terms of their defense agreement.

In September, PNG became the fifth country to open an embassy to Israel in West Jerusalem.

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World Report 2024: Rights Trends in Papua New Guinea

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Although a resource-rich country, the World Bank estimates that almost 40 percent of the population of Papua New Guinea (PNG) lives in poverty, with only 20.9 percent having access to electricity. Most people in PNG live without consistent access to clean water.

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Our approach to health in Papua New Guinea | World Vision Australia

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We’re partnering with communities in Papua New Guinea to improve maternal, newborn and child health and nutrition outcomes.

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How's Life?

Australia performs well in many dimensions of well-being relative to other countries in the Better Life Index. Australia outperforms the average in income, jobs, education, health, environmental quality, social connections, civic engagement and life satisfaction. These assessments are based on available selected data.

Money, while it cannot buy happiness, is an important means to achieving higher living standards. In Australia, the average household net-adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 37 433 a year, more than the OECD average of USD 30 490 a year.

In terms of employment, about 73% of people aged 15 to 64 in Australia have a paid job, above the OECD employment average of 66%. Some 77% of men are in paid work, compared with 69% of women. In Australia, 13% of employees work very long hours in paid work, above the OECD average of 10%, with 19% of men working very long hours in paid work compared with 6% of women.

Good education and skills are important requisites for finding a job. In Australia, 84% of adults aged 25-64 have completed upper secondary education, higher than the OECD average of 79%. In Australia, completion does not vary between men and women. In terms of the quality of the education system, the average student scored 499 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This score is higher than the OECD average of 488. On average in Australia, girls outperformed boys by 8 points, above the average OECD gap of 5 points.

In terms of health, life expectancy at birth in Australia is around 83 years, two years higher than the OECD average of 81 years. Life expectancy for women is 85 years, compared with 81 for men. The level of atmospheric PM2.5 - tiny air pollutant particles small enough to enter and cause damage to the lungs - is 6.7 micrograms per cubic meter, below the OECD average of 14 micrograms per cubic meter. In Australia, 92% of people say they are satisfied with the quality of their water, higher than the OECD average of 84%.

Concerning the public sphere, there is a strong sense of community and high levels of civic participation in Australia, where 93% of people believe that they know someone they could rely on in time of need, more than the OECD average of 91%. Voter turnout, a measure of citizens' participation in the political process, was 92% during recent elections, much higher than the OECD average of 69%. This reflects the practice of compulsory voting in Australia. Social and economic status can affect voting rates; voter turnout for the top 20% of the population is an estimated 96% and for the bottom 20% it is an estimated 90%.

When asked to rate their general satisfaction with life on a scale from 0 to 10, Australians gave it a 7.1 grade on average, higher than the OECD average of 6.7.

For more information on estimates and years of reference, see FAQ section and BLI database.

OECD in Action

OECD Economic Surveys Australia

OECD's periodic surveys of the Australian economy. Each edition surveys the major challenges faced by the country, evaluates the short-term outlook, and makes specific policy recommendations. Special chapters take a more detailed look at specific challenges. Extensive statistical information is included in charts and graphs.

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Key Findings

Living in satisfactory housing conditions is one of the most important aspects of people's lives. Housing is essential to meet basic needs, such as shelter, but it is not just a question of four walls and a roof. Housing should offer a place to sleep and rest where people feel safe and have privacy and personal space; somewhere they can raise a family. All of these elements help make a house a home. And of course there is the question of whether people can afford adequate housing.

Housing costs take up a large share of the household budget and represent the largest single expenditure for many individuals and families, by the time you add up elements such as rent, gas, electricity, water, furniture or repairs. In Australia, households on average spend over 19% of their gross adjusted disposable income on keeping a roof over their heads, broadly in line with the OECD average of 20%.

In addition to housing costs it is also important to examine living conditions, such as the average number of rooms shared per person and whether households have access to basic facilities. The number of rooms in a dwelling, divided by the number of persons living there, indicates whether residents are living in crowded conditions. Overcrowded housing may have a negative impact on physical and mental health, relations with others and children's development. In addition, dense living conditions are often a sign of inadequate water and sewage supply. In Australia, the average home contains more than the OECD average of 1.7 rooms per person. In terms of basic facilities, the percentage of dwellings in Australia that contain private access to an indoor flushing toilet, is more than the OECD average of 97%.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

Indicators

Key Findings

While money may not buy happiness, it is an important means to achieving higher living standards and thus greater well-being. Higher economic wealth may also improve access to quality education, health care and housing.

Household net adjusted disposable income is the amount of money that a household earns each year after taxes and transfers. It represents the money available to a household for spending on goods or services. In Australia, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 37 433 a year, higher than the OECD average of USD 30 490.

Household net wealth is the total value of a household's financial and non-financial worth, such as money or shares held in bank accounts, the principal residence, other real estate properties, vehicles, valuables and other non-financial assets (e.g other consumer durables).. In Australia, the average household net wealth is estimated at USD 528 768, higher than the OECD average of USD 323 960.

For more information on estimates and years of reference, see FAQ section and BLI database.

Better Policies for Better Lives
Increasing the family income of adolescents
Australia provides supplementary support for families with school-age children. A means-tested Family Benefit helps low-income families make ends meet while encouraging the attendance of their children at school. The benefit targets families with children between the ages of 13 and 15. By increasing the household income, the benefit decreases the need for school-age children to leave school and get a job. By keeping kids in school to complete their studies, the benefit can also help improve their future employment prospects.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

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Key Findings

Having a job brings many important benefits, including: providing a source of income, improving social inclusion, fulfilling one's own aspirations, building self-esteem and developing skills and competencies. In Australia, 73% of the working-age population aged 15 to 64 has a paid job. This figure is higher than the OECD employment average of 66%.

Unemployed persons are defined as those who are not currently working but are willing to do so and are actively searching for work. Long-term unemployment can have a large negative effect on feelings of well-being and self-worth, and result in a loss of skills, further reducing employability. In Australia, the percentage of the labour force that has been unemployed for a year or longer is currently at 1%, lower than the OECD average of 1.3%.

The wages and other monetary benefits that come with employment are an important aspect of job quality. Australians earn USD 55 206 per year on average, more than the OECD average of USD 49 165.

Another essential factor of employment quality is job security, in terms of expected loss of earnings when someone becomes unemployed. This includes how likely you are to lose your job, how long you are likely to remain unemployed and how much financial assistance you can expect from government. Workers facing a high risk of job loss are more vulnerable, especially in countries with smaller social safety nets. In Australia, workers face an expected 3.1% loss of earnings if they become unemployed, lower than the OECD average of 5.1%.

For more information on estimates and years of reference, see FAQ section and BLI database.

Better Policies for Better Lives
Helping youth transition from school to work
Australia's targeted support programmes help youth from disadvantaged communities successfully transition from school to work.

The Beacon Foundation operates a three-year programme that brings schools, community and businesses together to prepare young people for work. Beacon's 2013 annual report found that retention, employment and participation rates in the 132 schools they operated were above the national average. Over 98% of participating students were fully engaged in work, education or training nine months after completing year 10 - 11.6% higher than the national average for 16 to 17 year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds. The programme also provides a one-day Work Readiness programme for schoolchildren between 7 and 12 years old.

BoysTown is a national youth service that collaborates with mental health services, schools, and technical and further education (TAFE) and employment service providers to develop school-to-work programmes. These programmes engage or re-engage young people by offering individual case management; psychological assessments; training in literacy and numeracy, employment, job seeking, interpersonal and basic life skills. A 2004-2012 evaluation of the programme in Queensland found that 50% of participants entered employment, 20% resumed education, and 20% commenced accredited training.
Choices not Chances
Redbank Plains State High School in southwest Australia, about 30 kilometres from Brisbane, is in a low socio-economic area with a large incidence of recent migrants from the Pacific Islands and New Zealand and a relatively high level of unemployment. In 2011, the school embarked on a concerted effort to transform its performance with the help of state and federal funding. A key part of this effort was recognising that a significant proportion of students would prefer to go straight to work after leaving high school.

Redbank Plains introduced a school-to-work programme called "Choices not Chances" to help a culturally diverse school population through senior school years to sustainable employment. A specific focus is to change and challenge a culture of local unemployment through community partnerships and intensive support for students, families and the wider community.

Through the programme, the students increase their knowledge of various industries and develop the skills and habits required to work in them. Local business leaders address students at assemblies and visits are organised to give students a first-hand insight into the world of work. In their final year at school, students have the opportunity to gain direct experience through work experience placements.

A spin-off of the school's strong focus on transition to work was jobs for parents of Redbank Plains pupils. Through its connection with the school, a local bus company with a persistent recruitment problem discovered that unemployed parents of students at the school would be an ideal source of bus drivers.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being OECD Job Quality Database

Indicators

Key Findings

Humans are social creatures. The frequency of our contact with others and the quality of our personal relationships are thus crucial determinants of our well-being. A strong social network, or community, can provide emotional support during both good and bad times as well as provide access to jobs, services and other material opportunities. In Australia, 93% of people believe that they know someone they could rely on in time of need, more than the OECD average of 91%. A weak social network can result in limited economic opportunities, a lack of contact with others, and eventually, feelings of isolation. Socially isolated individuals face difficulties integrating into society as a contributing member and fulfilling personal aspirations.

Better Policies For Better Lives
Services for vulnerable families
Over the last decade, the Australian government has made specific funds available to improve collaboration between service providers, community members, NGOs, businesses and all levels of government in the delivery of services to vulnerable families. The Family Support Programme was established to increase the provision of early intervention, prevention and targeted support for vulnerable families. This followed a previous programme that aimed to facilitate and encourage collaboration at all levels to enable communities to tackle their own issues at a local level. These funds aim to help co-ordinate efforts across community services, education, health and other sectors.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being OECD Insights: Human Capital

Indicators

Key Findings

A well-educated and well-trained population is essential for a country's social and economic well-being. Education plays a key role in providing individuals with the knowledge, skills and competences needed to participate effectively in society and in the economy. Having a good education greatly improves the likelihood of finding a job and earning enough money.

Australians can expect to go through 20.4 years of education between the ages of 5 and 39, more than the OECD average of 18 years and the highest level in the OECD.

Graduating from upper secondary education has become increasingly important in all countries, as the skills needed in the labour market are becoming more knowledge-based. High-school graduation rates therefore provide a good indication of whether a country is preparing its students to meet the minimum requirements of the job market. In Australia, 84% of adults aged 25-64 have completed upper secondary education, higher than the OECD average of 79%.

But graduation rates, while important, speak little to the quality of education received. The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) reviews the extent to which students have acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in modern societies. In 2018, PISA focused on examining students' reading ability, skills in maths and level in sciences, as research shows that these skills are more reliable predictors of economic and social well-being than the number of years spent in school.

The average student in Australia scored 499 in reading literacy, maths and sciences, above the OECD average of 488. The best-performing school systems manage to provide high-quality education to all students.

Better Policies for Better Lives
Improving mental health and well-being of students
KidsMatter encourages partnerships between education, early childhood, and health and community sectors to improve children's mental health and well-being.

KidsMatter Early Childhood is run in preschools, kindergartens and long day care services. This programme supports early childhood education and care practice and connects educators, children, families, management, and community and health professionals.

KidsMatter Primary uses a whole-school approach to develop and implement evidence-based mental health promotion, prevention and early intervention strategies. The framework consists of four key areas: positive school community; social and emotional learning for students; parenting support and education; and early intervention for students experiencing mental health difficulties.

Initially piloted in 101 schools in 2007-08, KidsMatter has been expanded after an evaluation found a general improvement in student mental health and well-being, including optimism, coping skills, and behaviours. Teacher capacity and knowledge were also enhanced, providing greater support for children and their families.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

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Key Findings

The quality of our local living environment has a direct impact on our health and well-being. Outdoor air pollution is one important environmental issue that directly affects the quality of people's lives. Despite national and international interventions and decreases in major pollutant emissions, the health impacts of urban air pollution continue to worsen, with air pollution set to become the top environmental cause of premature mortality globally by 2050. Air pollution in urban centres, often caused by transport and the use of small-scale burning of wood or coal, is linked to a range of health problems, from minor eye irritation to upper respiratory symptoms in the short-term and chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular diseases and lung cancer in the long-term. Children and the elderly may be particularly vulnerable.

PM2.5 - tiny particulate matter small enough to be inhaled into the deepest part of the lung - is monitored in OECD countries because it can harm human health and reduce life expectancy. In Australia, PM2.5 levels are 6.7 micrograms per cubic meter, lower than the OECD of 14 micrograms per cubic meter and lower than the annual guideline limit of 10 micrograms per cubic meter set by the World Health Organization.

Access to clean water is fundamental to human well-being. Despite significant progress in OECD countries in reducing water pollution, improvements in freshwater quality are not always easy to discern. In Australia, 92% of people say they are satisfied with water quality, higher than the OECD average of 84%.

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Better Policies for Better Lives
Reducing agricultural emissions
The government has made considerable efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of the agricultural sector. The Emissions Reduction Fund operates across the economy, also covering the agricultural sector. The Fund incentivises companies to adopt smarter practices to cut the amount of greenhouse gases they create and credits companies for emissions reductions. Companies with projects capable of achieving maximum abatement at the lowest cost receive funding after a bidding process. Successful bidders then enter contracts with the government outlining the quantity and price of the carbon credits. Funding is not provided to the companies until after the abatement is delivered to ensure compliance with the agreement.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050

Indicators

Key Findings

Trust in government is essential for social cohesion and well-being. High voter turnout is a measure of citizens' participation in the political process. In the most recent elections for which data are available, voter turnout in Australia was nearly 92% of those registered; this figure is one of the highest in the OECD area where average voter turnout is 69%, and reflects the practice of compulsory voting in Australia.

Broader public engagement in the decision-making process is also important for holding the government to account and maintaining confidence in public institutions. The formal process for public engagement in developing laws and regulations is one way to measure the extent to which people can become involved in government decisions on key issues that affect their lives. In Australia, the level of stakeholder engagement in developing regulations is 2.7 (on a scale between 0 and 4); higher than the OECD average of 2.1.

For more information on estimates and years of reference, see FAQ section and BLI database.

Better Policies for Better Lives
Online tools for civic engagement
YourSAy is an online consultation hub that involves South Australians in policy making. People use this tool to participate in discussions and vote in polls to impact government decisions. Local champions reach out to the public, particularly disengaged citizens, to show how the tool can impact everyday life.

Launched in 2010, YourSAy is one of the largest community consultation programmes in Australia. More than 42 000 people have joined the online community, exceeding its original target of 10 000 users.

YourSAy is a useful feedback tool for the government. For example, the Ministry of Education has incorporated feedback from online consultations in their policies. Consultation feedback is also expected to influence the state's Strategic Plan for development. The government of South Australia is also exploring the potential of social media in advancing public engagement by opening up discussions on different platforms.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being Regulatory Policy Outlook: Australia

Indicators

Key Findings

Most OECD countries have enjoyed large gains in life expectancy over the past decades, thanks to improvements in living conditions, public health interventions and progress in medical care. Life expectancy at birth in Australia stands at 83 years, two years above the OECD average of 81 years. Higher life expectancy is generally associated with higher health care spending per person, although many other factors (such as living standards, lifestyles, education and environmental factors have an impact on life expectancy).

When asked, "How is your health in general?" around 85% of people in Australia said they were in good health, more than the OECD average of 68%. Despite the subjective nature of this question, answers have also been found to be a good predictor of people's future health care use. Gender, age and social status may affect answers to this question.

Better Policies for Better Lives
Mental health services for youth
Mental health problems are more likely to occur in adolescence than later in life. Australia has initiated a number of youth-focused mental health programmes to reach this demographic.

Headspace centres provide mental health and well-being support to young people between 12 and 25 years old. These centres function as integrated service hubs where youth can access social workers, psychologists, drug and alcohol workers, job counsellors and health professionals. Anyone can walk in to ask for help and most services are provided for free. A recent study found that one-third of Headspace clients are not in education, training or employment and that over half presented very high levels of psychological distress. It is not yet clear which services are the most used, however the programme shows potential for preventing school dropouts. Around 100 centres are open across Australia.

Orygen Youth Health offers vocational services in parallel to health services to young people suffering from first-episode psychoses, mood disorders or personality disorders. Participants can attend a Psychosocial Recovery Programme, as well as a Group Programme, to help re-integrate them in school, training or employment. Early results show that this integrated approach is more effective than health intervention alone, with 85% of clients moving to education or employment, compared to 29% in the control group.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

Indicators

Key Findings

Happiness or subjective well-being can be measured in terms of life satisfaction, the presence of positive experiences and feelings, and the absence of negative experiences and feelings. Such measures, while subjective, are a useful complement to objective data to compare the quality of life across countries.

Life satisfaction measures how people evaluate their life as a whole rather than their current feelings. When asked to rate their general satisfaction with life on a scale from 0 to 10, Australians on average gave it a 7.1 grade, higher than the OECD average of 6.7.

Better Policies for Better Lives

Measuring child well-being

The Australian government prioritises child health and well-being. The Australian Early Development Census (AEDC) measures children's development or well-being as they enter school. The five areas examined are physical health and well-being; social competence; emotional maturity; language and cognitive skills; and communication skills and general knowledge. Teachers gather the results of the census and aggregate it to the group level. This lets people see how local children compare relative to other children in their community and across the country. After a successful pilot in 60 communities in 2009, the programme was expanded to the national level.

Data collection can also be used to help adapt to changing student needs. Tasmania's Launching into Learning initiative uses the results from the Early Development Instrument to help teachers design their activities around trouble learning areas. These teachers are trained in advance to better understand the data and develop appropriate learning activities. Evaluations show that children participating regularly in Launching into Learning perform better than their peers in mathematics.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

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Key Findings

Personal security is a core element for the well-being of individuals. Do you feel safe out walking, alone at night, for example? In Australia, about 67% of people say that they feel safe walking alone at night, less than the OECD average of 74%.

The homicide rate (the number of murders per 100 000 inhabitants) is a more reliable measure of a country's safety level because, unlike other crimes, murders are usually always reported to the police. According to the latest OECD data, Australia's homicide rate is 0.9, lower than the OECD average of 2.6.

Indicators

Key Findings

Finding a suitable balance between work and life is a challenge for all workers, especially working parents. The ability to successfully combine work, family commitments and personal life is important for the well-being of all members in a household. Governments can help to address the issue by encouraging supportive and flexible working practices, making it easier for parents to strike a better balance between work and home life.

An important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work. Evidence suggests that long work hours may impair personal health, jeopardise safety and increase stress. In Australia, about 13% of employees work very long hours in paid work, above the OECD average of 10%.

The more people work, the less time they have to spend on other activities, such as personal care or leisure. The amount and quality of leisure time is important for people's overall well-being, and can bring additional physical and mental health benefits. In Australia, full-time workers devote 60% of their day on average, or 14.4 hours, to personal care (eating, sleeping, etc.) and leisure (socialising with friends and family, hobbies, games, computer and television use, etc.) - less than the OECD average of 15 hours.

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How's Life?: Measuring Well-being

Indicators

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Australia performs well in many dimensions of well-being relative to other countries in the Better Life Index. Australia outperforms the average in income, jobs, education, health, environmental quality, social connections, civic engagement and life satisfaction. These assessments are based on available selected data.

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Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

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The natural environment comprises the atmosphere, land, water, oceans, and the diversity of living things (UN 2019). It provides essential resources for health and wellbeing including food, fresh water, wood and fibre, fuel and medicines. It also helps regulate weather, vegetation, soils, and the quality of water and air, and provides a range of aesthetic, cultural, recreational and spiritual services to people (Whitmee et al. 2015).

As a result of human activity, the health of most or all the planetary systems that provide these services is currently in decline, including some already considered irreversibly damaged (UN 2019).

This page presents a selection of evidence on the influence of the natural environment on human physical and mental health in Australia. See Built environment and health for information on the health impacts of the human-made surroundings.

COVID-19, the natural environment and health

The interactions between human activity, the environment and its impact on health are complex. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way people interact with the environment and may have encouraged a greater awareness of people's connectedness with the environment (McCunn 2020).

Population-based restrictions due to the pandemic affect not only humans, but also the natural environment. For example, as a result of lockdowns, reduced transport emissions were documented to have led to

decreases in global fossil CO2 emissions (Le Quéré et al. 2021)

improvements in air quality in Australian cities such as Sydney and Melbourne in the first half of 2020 (Boroujeni et al. 2021; Duc et al. 2021; Ryan et al. 2021).

Conversely, the pandemic has also had negative impacts on waste production in the environment from extensive use of:

face masks

protective personal equipment

other medical waste

plastics from online shopping and food deliveries (Patrício Silva et al. 2021). In Victoria, it was estimated that used face masks accounted for 104 tons of waste a day during the first wave of the pandemic and 160 tons a day during the second wave (Boroujeni et al. 2021).

What is climate change?

Climate change refers to a change in the pattern of weather - which affects oceans, land surfaces and ice sheets - occurring over decades or longer (Australian Academy of Science 2019). Human activities associated with a range of sectors - such as energy supply, industry agriculture, forestry and transport - contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Greenhouse gases (see Glossary) trap heat in the atmosphere, which heats the land and oceans and changes weather patterns, including increasing the likelihood of extreme events (IPCC 2014). Globally:

The average annual temperature in 2021 was estimated to be 1.11ºC above the pre-industrial (1850-1900) average (WMO 2022).

The 7 years from 2015 to 2021 were the hottest on record (WMO 2022).

Global greenhouse gas concentrations continue to increase (WMO 2022).

Climate change affects environmental determinants of human health through a range of different pathways, from the frequency of extreme weather events to the prevalence of infectious and communicable diseases, to the availability of food and water (Ebi et al. 2018). This can result in health effects such as thermal stress, injury, vector-borne diseases (see Glossary) and other infectious diseases, food insecurity and poor mental health (McMichael et al. 2006). The social determinants of health are also being affected by climate change (WHO 2018a).

Climate change affects some population groups more than others. Groups at greater risk include older people, children, people with chronic conditions and multimorbidity, outdoor workers, people living in rural and remote areas, those living in low-lying, flood- or bushfire-prone areas, and socioeconomically disadvantaged groups.

Climate change also is likely to affect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to a greater extent than non-Indigenous populations (Beggs et al. 2021; HEAL Network and CRE-STRIDE 2021; McNamara and Westoby 2011; Moggridge and Thompson 2021), for example, by disrupting connection to Country, exacerbating existing risk factors or compounding historical injustices (Beggs et al. 2021; HEAL Network and CRE-STRIDE 2021).

The extreme weather events described here include heat waves, drought, bushfires, violent storms, heavy rainfall events and flooding, which cause deaths and injuries and affect the Australian community through impacts to critical infrastructure, essential services, food production, the economy and ecosystems (Reisinger et al. 2014). Under climate change, the intensity and the frequency of heatwaves and drought, and the number of days with fire weather conditions has increased and is projected to continue increasing (BOM and CSIRO 2020). Without mitigation and adaptation (see Glossary), the health impacts of these events are also likely to increase (Beggs et al. 2019; WHO 2018b) and disproportionately affect vulnerable populations such as older people as well as future generations (Cheng et al. 2018; Thiery et al. 2021).

Heatwaves and very hot days

The Bureau of Meteorology data show that 2019 was Australia's hottest year on record, with average temperatures 1.52 degrees Celsius above the long-term average (BOM 2020). The number of extremely warm days has increased (BOM and CSIRO 2020), increasing the probability of heatwaves (see Glossary). Very high monthly maximum temperatures occurred around 2% of the time for the period 1960-1989, compared with over 12% of the time for the period 2005-2019 (BOM and CSIRO 2020). This increase in the number of very hot days is projected to continue (BOM and CSIRO 2020).

Heatwaves are associated with heat-related conditions ranging from minor rashes and body cramps to more serious conditions such as heatstroke (severe hyperthermia). Excessive heat can also exacerbate existing health conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease and mental and behavioural conditions; reduce productivity; and increase the geographic spread of vector-borne diseases and transmission of food-borne diseases such as gastroenteritis (AMA 2015).

Increases in hospitalisations and deaths in Australia have been observed during heatwaves (Varghese et al. 2020; Williams et al 2018). For the period 2007-2017, in Australia, deaths increased by 2% during heatwaves (1418 additional deaths over the 11-year period), with the highest increases occurring in Adelaide (8%) and regional Tasmania (11%) (Varghese et al. 2020). Single events can result in large numbers of additional deaths, for example, there were 374 additional deaths (a 62% increase in all-cause mortality) in Victoria during a heatwave from 26 January to 1 February 2009 (DHHS 2009).

Bushfires

Bushfire has long been a part of the Australian experience. However, the 2019-20 bushfire season in Australia saw an unprecedented area of Australia's temperate forest burnt - more than 20%, compared with approximately 2% in previous major fire years (Boer et al. 2020). This was set against the hottest and driest year on record in 2019 and the highest Accumulated Forest Fire Danger Index value (see Glossary) since records begin in 1950.

The adverse health effects during this period included:

33 deaths directly attributed to the fires (Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements 2020)

increases in hospital admissions and emergency department presentations for respiratory conditions in areas affected by bushfire smoke (AIHW 2020, 2021c; Wen et al. 2022)

over half (54%) of Australian adults experiencing anxiety or worry due to the bushfires (Biddle et al. 2020)

disproportional impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people as well as regions with high fire density and lower socioeconomic status (Nolan et al. 2021; Wen et al. 2022 Williamson et al. 2020).

While bushfires are a common part of the Australian summer season, the number of deaths they cause varies from year to year. For example, there was an average of 5.4 bushfire-related deaths per year between 1901 and 1964, and 10.5 per year between 1965 and 2011 (Blanchi et al. 2012) - noting that this comparison does not take population growth into account. A large proportion of these deaths occurred in 7 individual years - between 1926 and 2009 (Blanchi et al. 2021) the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires killed 173 people (The 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission 2010).

Smoke generated by bushfires can affect respiratory and cardiovascular health over large geographical areas, as evidenced by increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital attendances during bushfire events (AIHW 2020, 2021c; Chen et al. 2006; Johnston et al. 2002; Kolbe and Gilchrist 2009; Morgan et al. 2010; Tham et al. 2009; Wen et al. 2022). However, as exposure to bushfire smoke is typically infrequent and sporadic, there is limited information available about prolonged exposure to bushfire smoke or long-term physiological health effects and research is underway on this topic (enHealth 2021). See air pollution for more information on smoke-related air quality.

There is evidence of both immediate and long-term impacts of bushfire on mental health. Lived experience of bushfire has been found to increase the occurrence of psychological and behavioural disorders such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (See Glossary) and substance misuse and the effects can persist for years after the impact (Bryant et al. 2018; Finlay 2012; Gibbs et al. 2021). For example, a follow-up study of psychological outcomes 5 years after the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires found that 22% of people who had been in communities severely affected by the fires were suffering probable PTSD, major depressive episode or severe distress, compared with 5.6% of people who had been in regions that were less affected by the fires (Bryant et al. 2018). Ten years after the fires this figure remained at 22% for severely affected communities (Gibbs et al. 2021).

Drought

Australia is drought-prone and many areas have a dry climate. Long periods of below-average rainfall adversely affect the natural environment and have flow-on effects for human health (AIHW 2011; Kalis et al. 2009).

Many of these health effects have been documented globally, including malnutrition and mortality, water-borne disease such as those caused by Escherichia coli, airborne and dust-related disease, vector-borne diseases such as dengue fever, mental health effects and distress (Stanke et al. 2013).

The mental health effects of drought appear to be complex and may vary by sex. From 2001-02 to 2007-08, people living in drought-affected areas in rural Australia had higher levels of distress than people living in urban areas (O'Brien et al. 2014). A 2012 study (Hanigan et al. 2012) found an increased risk of suicide among males aged 30-49 living in rural areas of Australia during periods of drought between 1970 and 2007. Findings on the effects of drought on the mental health of women are mixed (Hanigan et al. 2018; Powers et al. 2015).

Drought can also restrict physical and financial access to healthy foods. For example, drought was identified as the primary contributor to substantial increases in the price of fresh fruit (43% rise) and vegetables (33% rise) between 2005 and 2007 (Quiggin 2007).

Storms and floods

Health effects from storms and floods may be short-term (for example, physical trauma), medium-term (for example, the spread of vector-borne disease) or long-term (such as post-traumatic stress and depression) (Fewtrell and Kay 2008; Ivers and Ryan 2006). The floods in Australia in 2022 had major impacts across large parts of Queensland and New South Wales, the full extent of which will be determined as data become available. Between 1900 and 2015, there were 1,859 deaths identified as being associated with flooding (Haynes et al. 2017). While there was a significant decrease in the national death rate due to floods between 1900 and 1959, there was only a slight decrease in the flood fatality rate between 1960 and 2015 and this decrease was not statistically significant (Haynes et al. 2017). Remoteness increases risk of death from flooding (Peden et al. 2017), for example, widespread flooding contributed to a notable rise in the rate of unintentional drowning deaths in Remote and Very remote areas between 2015-16 and 2016-17 (AIHW 2019).

A survey of the disaster-related trauma from the 2010-2011 Queensland floods and cyclones found that 14% of respondents felt terrified, helpless or hopeless following the events and 7.1% of respondents continued to experience distress months later (Clemens et al. 2013). Persistent post-traumatic stress disorder has also been reported in children and adolescents, 18 months after a Category 5 cyclone (McDermott et al. 2014).

Like drought, storm and flood damage can also restrict food availability and increase food prices. These weather events may also have broader economic impacts. As an example, the reduced banana supply following Cyclone Yasi in 2011 resulted in a 0.7 percentage point increase in inflation (Debelle 2019) affecting the entire Australian economy.

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) (see Glossary) from the sun is essential for good health as it helps the body manufacture vitamin D (WHO 2019). However, it is also known to cause a number of cancers, such as non-melanoma skin cancers (including basal and squamous cell carcinomas), melanoma (including melanoma in situ) and cancer of the eye. It can also cause cataracts (estimated to be responsible for 20% of cataracts globally (WHO 2019) and about 411,000 Australians (1.7% of the population) had cataracts in 2017-18 (AIHW 2021d). In Australia in 2018, high sun exposure was responsible for 0.7% of the total burden of disease (AIHW 2021a).

The age standardised rate of melanoma in Australia increased from 46 cases per 100,000 persons in 2000, to an estimated 55 cases per 100,000 persons in 2021. While the total number of deaths due to melanoma increased over this period, from 970 in 2000 to 1,300 in 2021, after adjusting for age, the rate of deaths decreased from 5.2 deaths per 100,000 persons to an estimated 4 deaths per 100,000 persons (AIHW 2021b).

Exposure to UV can be moderated by protective behaviours (for example, wearing a hat, sunscreen and protective clothing, and seeking shade). However, only 47% of adults and 33% of adolescents typically employ 2 or more of these protective behaviours (Cancer Australia 2019).

Globally, biodiversity is fundamentally important for human health because 'it helps to regulate climate, filters air and water, enables soil formation and mitigates the impact of natural disasters. It also provides timber, fish, crops, pollination, ecotourism, medicines, and physical and mental health benefits' (UN 2019).

International research has shown that contact with nature also has health benefits - increased attention, energy and tranquillity, and significantly decreased anxiety, anger, fatigue and sadness are all associated with exposure to natural environments (Bowler et al. 2010). Natural places such as parks provide opportunities for outdoor recreation, spiritual and cultural heritage connection, physical, mental, and social health benefits and neighbourhood amenity (Parks Victoria 2015). In Australia, biodiversity has been shown to correlate with respiratory health (Liddicoat et al. 2018) and subjective wellbeing (Mavoa et al. 2019), though more research on the effects of biodiversity on mental health is needed (Dean et al. 2011).

Planetary biodiversity (the range of living things) is declining rapidly (WWF and ZSL 2018) and the 'status of biodiversity in Australia is generally considered poor and worsening' (Cresswell and Murphy 2017), with about 1,950 species of plants and animals in Australia listed as threatened as a consequence of invasive species, habitat fragmentation and degradation, and the increasing impact of climate change (Cresswell and Murphy 2017; DAWE 2022a,b).

Access to urban biodiversity is also becoming increasingly important to human health and wellbeing as cities continue to grow and enriching cities and towns with nature is a focus for governments (Commonwealth of Australia 2019). See Built environment and health.

Air pollution, in particular fine airborne particles (particulate matter) known as PM2.5 (see Glossary) can have both long- and short-term adverse impacts on human health and can affect almost every organ in the body (AIHW 2011; Schraufnagel et al. 2018). Air pollution is recognised by the World Health Organization as a serious risk factor for non-communicable disease (Schwartz et al. 2021). PM2.5 sources can be man-made (for example, from industrial processes, vehicle emissions or wood heaters), or naturally occurring (such as pollen or smoke from bushfires). These particulates can decrease lung function, increase respiratory symptoms, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary disease and mortality (Pope and Dockery 2006), and decrease life expectancy (Pope et al. 2009). In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified outdoor air pollution as a human carcinogen (Jackson et al. 2017).

In 2018, more than 3,200 (2.0%) deaths and 1.3% of the total burden of disease in Australia was attributed to PM2.5 air pollution (AIHW 2021a).

People with an underlying health condition, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or cardiovascular disease, are particularly at risk from poor air quality (Jackson et al. 2017).

Air quality is monitored across Australia and reported nationally (NEPC 2019). Air quality in Australian cities is generally good to very good in comparison with similar developed economies, but the majority of Australian capital cities exceeded the PM2.5 advisory standard (25µg/m ³) (see Glossary) on at least one day each year during 2008-2014 (Keywood et al. 2016), due to extreme localised events (for example, bushfires and dust storms).

The air quality, particularly in New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and Queensland, was greatly affected by the widespread bushfires burning in 2019-20 (Johnston et al. 2021). Emergency department presentations and hospitalisations for respiratory conditions such as asthma increased during periods of poor air quality (AIHW 2020, 2021c). On January 1, 2020, the average hourly PM2.5 value at Monash in the ACT peaked at 1197 ug/m ³ - almost 48 times the PM2.5 advisory standard of 25µg/m ³ (Figure 1).

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Natural environment and health - Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

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The natural environment comprises the atmosphere, land, water, oceans, and the diversity of living things (UN 2019). It provides essential resources for health and wellbeing including food, fresh water, wood and fibre, fuel and medicines. It also helps regulate weather, vegetation, soils, and the quality of water and air, and provides a range of aesthetic, cultural, recreational and spiritual services to people (Whitmee et al.

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Human Rights - Indigenous and Torres Strait Islanders

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Human Rights - Indigenous and Torres Strait Islanders

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Social determinants and the health of Indigenous peoples in Australia

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Improving the health status of Indigenous peoples1 in Australia is a longstanding challenge for governments in Australia. The gap in health status between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians remains unacceptably wide.2 It has been identified as a human rights concern by United Nations committees3; and acknowledged as such by Australian governments4.

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Close the Gap: Indigenous Health Campaign

Australia's peak Indigenous and non-Indigenous health bodies, NGOs and human rights organisations are working together to achieve equality in health and life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

The Close the Gap Campaign aims to close the health and life expectancy gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non-Indigenous Australians within a generation. The campaign is built on evidence that shows significant improvements in the health status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples can be achieved by 2030.

In February 2018 we released the Close the Gap: 10 Year Review. The review examines why Australian governments have not succeeded in closing the health gap, and why they will not succeed by 2030 if the current course continues.

Our objectives

We aim to close the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health gap. We want to do this by implementing a human rights based approach to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health.

In 2007, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) set measurable targets to track and assess developments in the health and wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. These targets include achieving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health equality within a generation and halving the mortality rate gap for children under five years old within a decade.

In March 2008, the then Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd and the Opposition Leader at that time, Brendan Nelson, signed the Close the Gap Statement of Intent at the Close the Gap Campaign's National Indigenous Health Equality Summit.

The Close the Gap Statement of Intent is the touchstone of the Close the Gap campaign. When the Australian Government signed the Statement of Intent it committed to a sound, evidence-based path to achieving health equality, a path supported by the entire Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health sector.

The Close the Gap Statement of Intent includes a commitment to:

Develop a comprehensive, long-term plan of action, that is targeted to need, evidence-based and capable of addressing the existing inequalities in health services, in order to achieve equality of health status and life expectancy between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non- Indigenous Australians by 2030.

Ensure the full participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and their representative bodies in all aspects of addressing their health needs.

Who are we?

The Close the Gap Campaign Steering Committee first met in March 2006. Our patrons, Catherine Freeman OAM and lan Thorpe OAM, launched the Campaign in April 2007. To date, almost 200,000 Australians have formally pledged their support.
The members of the Close the Gap Campaign Steering Committee are: Co-Chairs

June Oscar AO, Commissioner of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice

Karl Briscoe, CEO, National Association of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workers and Practitioners (NAATSIHWP)

Members

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Healing Foundation

Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of New South Wales

Australian Healthcare and Hospitals Association

Aboriginal Health Council of South Australia

ANTaR

Australian College of Midwives

Australian College of Nursing

Australian College of Rural and Remote Medicine

Australian Human Rights Commission (Secretariat)

Australian Indigenous Doctors' Association

Australian Indigenous Psychologists' Association

Australian Medical Association

Australian Physiotherapy Association

Australian Student and Novice Nurse Association

beyondblue

Congress of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nurses and Midwives

CRANAplus

Expert Adviser - alcohol and other drugs (Pat Dudgeon)

Expert Adviser - epidemiology and public health (Ian Ring)

Expert Adviser - mental health and social and emotional wellbeing (National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Leadership in Mental Health) (Ted Wilkes)

First Peoples Disability Network

Healing Foundation

Heart Foundation Australia

Indigenous Allied Health Australia

Indigenous Dentists' Association of Australia

Indigenous Eye Health Unit (University of Melbourne)

Kidney Health Australia

Menzies School of Health Research

National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workers' Association

National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation

National Association of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Physiotherapists

National Coordinator - Tackling Indigenous Smoking (Dr Tom Calma AO - Campaign founder and former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner)

National Heart Foundation of Australia

NSW Aboriginal Land Council

Oxfam Australia

Palliative Care Australia

PHILE Network

Public Health Association of Australia

Reconciliation Australia

Royal Australasian College of Physicians

Royal Australian College of General Practitioners

The Fred Hollows Foundation

The Lowitja Institute

The Pharmacy Guild of Australia

Torres Strait Regional Authority

Victorian Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation

Winnunga Nimmityjah Aboriginal Health Service

Close the Gap Reports

In 2009, the then Prime Minister Kevin Rudd committed to making an annual report to Parliament on progress on closing the gap. Every year, the Close the Gap Steering Committee publishes a report that details the Australian Government's progress in closing the gap.

The Close the Gap campaign has achieved a lot amount since its launch in 2006, but we need continued support from all corners of the Australian community to make it a success.
Get involved and help consign Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health inequality to the history books.

Each year, National Close the Gap Day is acknowledged in workplaces, hospitals, schools and communities around Australia. Anyone can take part and make a difference. Join with over 220,000 other Australians and pledge your support to the 'close the gap'

Subscribe

Join the electronic mailing list and keep up to date with the latest news.

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Close the Gap: Indigenous Health Campaign

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Working together to achieve health and life expectation equality for Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

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Explore Cambodia economic data on Data360.

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Thai-Cambodia conflict: A fierce war of words keeps the two countries on edge

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The two sides are waging an information war to win international sympathy and shore up support at home.

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They survived the Vietnam War and the Khmer Rouge genocide. They still bear the mental and physical scars – and so do their descendants.

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What are the environmental challenges in Cambodia and what pathways to sustainability are there?

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WHO’s primary role is to direct international health within the United Nations’ system and to lead partners in global health responses.

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Free and open access to global development data

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Afghanistan reports the lowest well-being in recorded history

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Afghanistan reports the lowest well-being in recorded history

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What it is like to be a woman in Afghanistan

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What it is like to be a woman in Afghanistan

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FAQs: What it’s like to be a woman in Afghanistan in 2025 | UN Women – Headquarters

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What is the state of women’s rights in Afghanistan today? Explore the data, frequently asked questions, and what the world must do to stand with Afghan women.

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Environmental Factors Influencing Wellbeing in Afghanistan

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Environmental Factors Influencing Wellbeing in Afghanistan

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Reporting on the State of the Environment in Afghanistan

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Afghanistan’s population is facing a growing array of environmental problems including unrelenting deforestation and land degradation, uncontrolled urbanization and solid waste disposal, worsening air and water pollution, depletion of groundwater, illegal wildlife hunting and timber trade, expanding mining footprint including informal artisanal quarrying, limited renewable energy alternatives, and more frequent and severe floods, droughts, and landslides. Insecurity in large parts of the country, poor infrastructure, and the accelerating impacts of climate change are seriously limiting efforts to get a better grip of the deteriorating situation and its effects on human well-being. With a view to increasing the awareness and understanding of environmental threats and catalysing appropriate remedial solutions, the National Environment Protection Agency (NEPA) and UN Environment organized a three-day training and planning workshop in Kabul from 4-6 March 2019 to help build the foundations for an integrated State of the Environment Reporting system in Afghanistan. Over 60 experts from the central government, provincial and municipal authorities, academia, civil society and non-governmental organizations, media, and UN agencies participated in the event which sought to transfer the tools, best practices and lessons learned by UN Environment through its Global Environment Outlook (GEO) process to Afghanistan. While two State of the Environment Reports on Afghanistan have already been published, this will be the first time that it will be prepared through the collaboration of various national partners coordinated by the National Environmental Protection Agency, with a longer-term view to ensure the sustainability of the process and not as a single standalone report. UN Environment’s press release was published on the One UN for Afghanistan website, while NEPA widely publicised the meeting through its Facebook page. This training workshop, including the development of the action plan for Afghanistan’s State of the Environment report, was generously supported by the European Commission under the Opportunities for Mountain Area Integrated Development project which started in late 2018. State of the Environment Workshop in Kabul, Afghanistan

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Ending preventable maternal, newborn and child deaths

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Afghanistan's economy is fragile, relies heavily on external support, and its private sector is weak. The economy shrank by 25 percent in the last two years. The interim Taliban administration's restrictive policies on women's education and work will further lower Afghanistan's recovery prospects. Despite conflict ceasing, one in two Afghans remains poor. Since the crash of 2021, households have reported improvement in their capacity to meet basic needs, but deprivation and vulnerability remain high. But these gains have come at the cost of possibly exhausting all coping strategies and household resources. Afghan households have mobilized extra labor to make ends meet, mainly among youth and women. According to the Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, round 3, the overall increase in labor supply has outpaced demand, doubling unemployment. Female labor force participation saw a threefold increase compared to 2020, with women primarily engaged in home (garment and food processing).

While improved security has increased primary school attendance and narrowed gender and rural-urban gaps, millions of primary-school-age girls and boys remain out of school mainly due to a lack of access. Since the ban on female secondary school attendance was imposed, only 3% of girls attend secondary school. Among boys aged 13-18, only 44% are receiving a secondary education.

The ITA collected $2.2 billion in revenue in FY 2022, like in 2019, with most receipts from border taxes. Exports hit a record high of $1.9 billion in 2022 but have slowed since early 2023. The Afghani appreciated despite a trade deficit, undermining the recovery prospects for domestic manufacturing and trade sector. The informal Hawala system processes most transactions due to the limited formal financial sector.

Since April 2023, the country has experienced deflation, likely due to improved supply, appreciating AFN, and the economy still adjusting to structurally lower aggregate demand. Following the August 2021 political upheaval, inflation surged due to supply disruptions and shocks in commodity prices, even amid reduced domestic demand. After peaking at 18.3 percent year-on-year in July 2022, inflation plummeted into deflation by April 2023.

Many businesses are struggling to operate at full capacity. In the Private Sector Rapid Survey's third round in March-April 2023, just over half of the firms surveyed were fully operational, with another third operating below capacity. The top business constraint reported by surveyed firms was dampened demand, followed by uncertainty about the future and limited banking system functionality. Other difficulties surveyed firms face include a less efficient payment system, increased cost of doing business, poor availability of imported inputs, and difficulty securing loans. Female-owned firms are twice as likely to report a deterioration in security compared to male-owned firms.

Afghanistan's economy has a substantial trade deficit despite a surge in the value of exports. Import of certain goods nearly doubled during 2022 and 2023, whereas exports grew by only 3 percent in the first seven months of 2023. Unusually high imports in some categories led to a higher trade deficit. Despite a widening trade deficit, Afghani has appreciated in 2023. UN cash shipments and remittance inflows don't fully explain the deficit financing.

The off-budget international aid for humanitarian and basic services is declining. The economy, which seemed to have stabilized at a low equilibrium level by the end of 2022 compared to the decline immediate after the events of August 15, 2021, now appears vulnerable amid a mix of economic indicators. The financial system remains constricted; trade and other payments flowing into and out of Afghanistan are carried out to a large extent through informal channels. The banking system is vulnerable and under-capitalized, and private businesses cannot access needed financial services.

Last Updated: Oct 03, 2023

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Get the latest World Bank data, research and development indicators for Afghanistan. Access economy facts, statistics, project information, development research from World Bank experts and breaking news.

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Climate - Environmental Factors Influencing Wellbeing in Colombia

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Climate - Environmental Factors Influencing Wellbeing in Colombia

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Challenges for health in the face of climate change in Colombia

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Due to climate change, rising temperatures could push 44 million people into extreme poverty by 2030 and cause more than 21 million deaths by 2050, exceeding 13 times the mortality of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Environmental Factor - Availability of fresh water 

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Environmental Factor - Availability of fresh water 

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Turning the Tide: Improving Water Security for Recovery and Sustainable Growth in Colombia

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Turning the Tide: Improving Water Security for Recovery and Sustainable Growth in Colombia

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Planet Water - Strategy to improve wellbeing in Colombia 

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Planet Water - Strategy to improve wellbeing in Colombia 

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Water and Sanitation in Colombia - Our Impact

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Access to safe water in Colombia is a challenge for many of the country’s population of 51 million people. According to UN and UNICEF data, 27% of households in Colombia lack access to a safely managed water supply and 82% lack safe sanitation.

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Towards a greener, fairer and more productive land use sector in Colombia - Climate Focus

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The current reality of Colombia’s rural sector reflects the necessity to undertake structural changes to address the challenges that limit this potential and hinder sustainable development.

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The Health in the Americas+ country profiles are based on the interagency indicators available as of the dates referenced. The sources are referenced in this table. In some cases, the values of the indicators may differ from the most recent data available in the country.

Environmental and social determinants of health

In 2000 the total population of Colombia was 39 089 934 inhabitants; by 2024 this figure had risen to 52 886 363, representing a 35.3% increase. Regarding the country's demographic profile, in 2024 people over 65 years of age accounted for 9.8% of the total population, an increase of 5.2 percentage points compared to the year 2000. In 2024, there were 102.7 women per 100 men and 48.2 older people (65 years or older) per 100 children under 15 years of age, as can be seen in the country's population pyramids, distributed by age group and sex (Figure 1). Considering the population between 15 and 64 years of age to be potentially active (i.e., potential participants in the labor force), this group represented 69.9% of the total population of the country in 2024 (36 993 721 people). When we add these figures to the potentially passive population (10 721 184 under 15 years of age and 5 171 459 over 65 years of age), the result is a dependency ratio of 43.0 potentially passive people per 100 potentially active people. This ratio was 58.8 in 2000.

Life expectancy at birth in 2024 was 77.9 years, higher than the average for the Region of the Americas and 7 years higher that in 2000 (70.9).

Figure 1. Population pyramids of Colombia, years 2000 and 2024

Between 2004 and 2020, the average number of years of schooling in Colombia increased by 25.3%, reaching an average of 8.9 years in the latest year for which information is available. The unemployment rate in 2023 was 9.4%. Disaggregated by sex, the rate was 11.8% for women and 7.7% for men. The literacy rate was 98.9% in 2022. In men, this figure was 99.2%; in women, 98.6%. In addition, 36.6% of the population were below the national poverty line in 2022, a decrease from 39.7% in 2021. In 2022, 6.0% of the population was living in poverty, defined as the percentage of the population with an income of less than US$ 2.15 per day; this is below the regional average of 2.6%.

During the period 2000-2022, the country improved its score on the Human Development Index, with an increase of 12.8% (from a score of 0.672 to a score of 0.758); during the same period, the index rose 14.6% internationally and 11.2% in Latin America (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Human Development Index in the Region of the Americas, 2022

In 2021, public expenditure on health accounted for 6.55% of gross domestic product (GDP) (Figure 3) and 19.01% of total public expenditure, while out-of-pocket spending on health accounted for 13.67% of total health expenditure.

Figure 3. Domestic general government health expenditure as percentage of gross domestic product, 2021

Digital coverage

In 2021, 73% of the population had an internet connection, representing a considerable increase from 2000, when 2.2% of the population had an internet connection.

Health situation

Maternal and child health

Between 2000 and 2021, infant mortality in Colombia decreased from 25.8 to 10.94 deaths per 1000 live births, a decrease of 57.6% (Figure 4). The percentage of low-weight births (less than 2500 g) increased from 7.6% to 9.9% between 2002 and 2021, while exclusive breastfeeding in the child population up to 6 months of age increased from 25.8% in 2000 to 46.8% in 2005 (the latest year for which information is available).

Regarding the immunization strategy, measles vaccination coverage was 88.0% in 2022, an increase of .0 percentage points from 2000.

The maternal mortality ratio in 2020 was estimated at 74.8 deaths per 100 000 live births, representing a 19.3% reduction compared to the estimated value in 2000 (Figure 5). In relation to fertility, it is estimated that in 2024 women had an average of 1.6 children throughout their reproductive lives. In the specific case of adolescent fertility, there was a 38.2% decrease, from 94.5 live births per 1000 women aged 15 to 19 years in 2000 to 58.4 in 2024. In 2021, 97.4% of births were attended by skilled birth personnel. Between 2000 and 2019 the percentage of pregnant people who had four or more consultations for antenatal care increased from 72.6% to 83.9%.

Figure 4. Infant mortality per 1000 live births, 1995-2021

Figure 5. Maternal mortality per 100 000 live births, 2000-2020

Communicable diseases

In 2022, there were 32 new cases of tuberculosis per 100 000 population in Colombia. In 2019, the overall tuberculosis mortality rate (age-adjusted and per 100 000 population) was 2.4 (1.2 in women and 3.8 in men).

In 2022, the estimated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection incidence rate (new diagnoses) was 25 per 100 000 population. The age-adjusted mortality rate for HIV was 5.1 per 100 000 population in 2019. It should be noted that during the 2000-2019 period this indicator decreased by 7.4%. There was one reported case of human rabies in the country in 2022.

Noncommunicable diseases and risk factors

In Colombia in 2023, the prevalence of tobacco use among people aged 15 and older was 7.8%. In the same age group, the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 59.7% in 2022.

Also in 2016, 44% of the population reported insufficient physical activity.

In 2015, the reported prevalence of arterial hypertension (high blood pressure) among people aged 18 years or older was 19.2 %, a decrease of 4.3 percentage points compared to 2000 (23.5%). The prevalence of diabetes mellitus, which stood at 7.2% in 2000, increased to 8.5% in 2014.

Mortality

In 2019, the adjusted rate of potentially avoidable premature mortality in Colombia was 183.7 deaths per 100 000 population, a decrease of 46.1% compared to the rate of 340.9 in 2000. This meant that, in 2019, the rate in the country was 19% lower than the average rate reported for the Region of the Americas as a whole. Among potentially preventable premature deaths, the rate for preventable causes was 113.2 per 100 000 population in 2019, which is 17.4% lower than the regional average rate; and the rate for treatable causes was 70.5 per 100 000 population, below the regional average of 89.6.

The overall age-adjusted mortality rate was 4.4 per 1000 population in 2019, a decrease of 31.2% compared to 2000 (6.4 deaths per 1000 population).

When deaths are categorized into three main groups, it is observed that, in 2019, the age-adjusted mortality rate from communicable diseases was 48 per 100 000 population (56.7 per 100 000 in men and 40.4 per 100 000 in women), while the age-adjusted mortality rate from noncommunicable diseases was 327 per 100 000 population (370.6 per 100 000 in men and 292.9 per 100 000 in women). The rate of age-adjusted mortality from external causes was 63.7 per 100 000 population (112.4 per 100 000 in men and 18.1 per 100 000 in women), including road traffic accidents (14.7 per 100 000 population), homicides (36.6 per 100 000 population), and suicides (3.7 per 100 000 population). In 2000, the percentage distribution of causes was 66.1% for noncommunicable diseases, 11.2% for communicable diseases, and 22.7% for external causes; in 2019, the percentages were 74.5%, 10.9%, and 14.5%, respectively (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Proportional mortality in Colombia, 2000 and 2019

Cancer mortality

Regarding cancer mortality from tumors, in 2019, the adjusted mortality rate from prostate cancer was 15 per 100 000 men; lung cancer, 12.7 per 100 000; and colorectal cancer, 8.5 per 100 000. In women, these values were 12.5 per 100 000 for breast cancer; 7.4 per 100 000 for lung cancer; and 7.7 per 100 000 for colorectal cancer.

Country COVID-19 Perspective

The health situation and the COVID-19 pandemic

In Colombia in 2020, there were a total of 1 614 822 cases of COVID-19, representing 31 736.1 per million population. In 2021, there were 3 523 781 identified cases, equivalent to 68 735.5 per million population. In 2020, there were 43 213 deaths directly caused by COVID-19 in people diagnosed with the disease, or 838.82 per million population; in 2021, 86 729 deaths were reported, or 1683.52 per million. In 2020, Colombia ranked eighth in the Region of the Americas in terms of the number of deaths from COVID-19, and seventh in 2021, with a cumulative 2522.3 deaths per million population over the two years (Figure 7).

According to estimates by the World Health Organization, there was a total of 53 936 excess deaths in 2020, or 106 per 100 000 population. A total of 110 734 deaths were estimated in 2021, for an excess mortality rate of 216 per 100 000.

As of 31 December 2021, at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine had been given to 82.9% of the country's population. As of 20 April 2022 (latest available data), 69% of the population had completed the vaccination schedule. The vaccination campaign began on 20 February 2021, and five types of COVID-19 vaccine have been used to date.

Figure 7. Cumulative COVID-19 deaths in the Region of the Americas, to July 29th, 2023

Prospects

Measures to achieve universal health coverage

The Colombian health and social protection system's organizing principle is to guarantee health coverage through the General Social Security System (SGSSS). This operates through the Public Health Plan for Collective Interventions, the Integral Health Care Routes, and the Health Benefits Plan, financed by the Capitation Payment Unit. By December 2020, the Single Database of Members (BDUA)-displayed in the BDUA box of the Integrated Information System for Social Protection-provided relevant information on the 97.9% of the country's population that belongs to the SGSSS, not counting those in the Military Forces and National Police.

Among the central points of the country's agenda for the coming years, ensuring equity in health protection occupies a prominent place. Thus, public policies must focus on the population living in conditions of social vulnerability, particularly those in rural areas and the country's mobile populations.

The set of actions aimed at changing and improving the Colombian health system is set forth in the draft "Ten-Year Health Plan 2022-2031 (PDSP 2022-2031)," which seeks to "guarantee the fundamental right to health and improve the well-being and quality of life of the Colombian people, by impacting the social determinants of health through territorial, institutional, and social action in a coordinated, differential, and sustainable manner." Public policy measures are designed to affect education, the quality of jobs, and access to health services, all of which are conducive to the future growth and development of the national health system.

Challenges related to population health

Among the main challenges that the country still faces is the need to increase inclusive and equitable economic and social development, as well as strengthening leadership in health, as an engine of national development and a factor in protecting people's health and the health of the national economy. These two key areas of the national agenda are essential to intersectoral actions for a positive impact on the social determinants of health.

In Colombia, achieving health equity has become a guiding principle in public actions to guarantee the right to health for all people, regardless of their ability to pay.

Maintaining adequate financing of the health and social protection sector, and continuing to make the necessary adjustments to ensure the financial sustainability of the SGSSS are two additional key challenges in guaranteeing people's fundamental right to health in the medium and long term.

Lastly, public policies need to address the major gaps in access to high-quality health care, especially in rural areas and areas on the periphery of large urban centers, as well as in neighboring areas and those affected by conflicts. Consolidation of the health authority at the various levels of government (national, departmental, and municipal), as well as effective management of health with a territorial approach, will form the basis for developing a sustainable health system.

COVID-19 pandemic response

Public officials, having examined the challenges facing Colombia's health system during the pandemic, emphasize the vital importance of strengthening the capacity to respond to any emergency situation, such as an epidemic or a pandemic. Within this framework, the list of essential actions includes:

Ensuring appropriate governance and financing of public health and strengthening mechanisms for coordination and inter-institutional cooperation.

Strengthening emergency preparedness and response capacities.

Providing for effective and equitable distribution of available vaccines.

Strengthening epidemiological surveillance systems and laboratories, including all matters related to zoonoses and environmental health.

Restoring essential health services and strengthening human resources for health.

Improving risk communication.

Measures to reduce inequalities in health

Colombia is implementing important regulations and public policies that reflect the State's interest in social protection, including the very definition of this concept. These include measures relating to baseline social protection (i.e., a universal minimum of protection) available to people living in conditions of economic and social vulnerability; contributory and non-contributory components of labor and social security; conditional and unconditional income transfer programs; and social promotion and social assistance programs. This applies not only within the framework of the social protection system, but also to other State administrative systems that require private involvement. All of these measures are aimed at achieving equity, integral human development, and citizens' participation in their own well-being.

In this regard, the guiding principle of social protection is directly linked to the 2030 Agenda and its objectives, as well as those set forth by the International Labor Organization, which proposes "ending poverty, ensuring universal access to essential health services, and promoting full and productive employment and decent work for all." In summary, the 2030 Agenda aims to ensure that these public policies reach all Colombians.

In that context, the PDSP 2022-2031 implements the Agenda and monitors health through the following principles and policies:

A health system that provides the entire population with insurance coverage close to 95%, including plans with benefits for all members.

Free public-system health plans for the uninsured population.

Guaranteed access to health care for indigenous, Black, and Afro-Colombian populations, as well as Raizal and Palenquero communities and the Roma population, while developing health care for the victims of armed conflicts.

Operation of a national observatory on health equity aimed at analyzing, consolidating, and disseminating information; evaluating public policies; and coordinating and integrating key stakeholders and sectors, in order to promote initiatives to reduce social inequalities in health.

National strategy to address inequalities in health

The PDSP 2022-2031 envisages three major proposals to significantly impact the social determinants of health: (1) strengthening intersectoral coordination for managing the social determinants of health; (2) increasing intersectionality, recognizing that multiple differences increase the burden of health inequalities in specific historical, social, and cultural contexts; and (3) strengthening the integrated territorial management of public health, with a model that guides, coordinates, acknowledges, and harmonizes the interests of the different sectoral and intersectoral stakeholders when taking action to achieve the objectives and goals.

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Este es un perfil de salud del territorio de Colombia basado en los indicadores interinstitucionales disponibles a las fechas referenciadas: determinantes ambientales y sociales de la salud, salud maternoinfantil, enfermedades transmisibles, enfermedades no transmisibles y factores de riesgo, estado de la pandemia de COVID-19.

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Human Factor - Gender Equality in Colombia

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Human Factor - Gender Equality in Colombia

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Colombian Armed Conflict - justice for colombia

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The Colombian armed conflict was for a long time the world’s longest running active civil war. It officially began in 1964 with the creation of two guerrilla movements, but the violence had begun long before. After numerous failed attempts, in 2012 a successful peace process was initiated between the Colombian government and the FARC with […]

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Armed conflict and mental health in Colombia

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Although significant progress has been made in the peace process, Colombia still experiences high levels of ongoing violence and a legacy of more than five decades of armed conflict. Epidemiological studies show markedly raised levels of mental…

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Climate Change and Wellbeing SA - Enviro Factor

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Climate Change and Wellbeing SA - Enviro Factor

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Impacts of Climate Change on Health and Wellbeing in South Africa

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Given its associated burden of disease, climate change in South Africa could be reframed as predominately a health issue, one necessitating an urgent health-sector response. The growing impact of climate change has major implications for South…

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Community members wait to collect water at a community tap for their household use. Many people are forced to buy bottled water for drinking purposes because there are concerns about the quality of the tap water.
Labeling the current water situation in South Africa as anything other than a crisis would be to downplay the severity of the problem.

South Africa is already a water-scarce nation receiving insufficient and unreliable rainfall. The country receives a mean annual precipitation of 497mm/year, almost 50% less than the global average of 860mm/year.

This water scarcity also presents in the way water resources are distributed in the country.

Water is a very unevenly distributed resource meaning that millions of South Africans already drink water that was captured in reservoirs in excess of 400km away.

The country and its government try to solve this water insecurity problem by engineering dams and 'importing' water through inter-basin transfer schemes.

This means that the looming water emergency should be considered a key issue as without water a large section of South African society would be at risk.

The term "water crisis" is often used to describe the lack of water access throughout the world and the resulting consequences.
South Africa's Unique Water Scarcity Issue A worker pauses beside mountains of coal at a coal washing plant, near MNS informal settlement. Coal has to be washed after being mined before it can be used. The leftover water is often toxic. Water pollution from coal is a serious problem in South Africa, and the country faces a deepening water scarcity crisis.
The National Development Plan (NDP) has clear, defined milestones to achieve its 2030 objectives. Some of the milestones include:

Ensuring that all South Africans have access to clean running water in their homes.

Realising a food trade surplus, with one-third produced by small-scale farmers or households.

Ensuring household food and nutrition security.

None of these goals will be met without secure access to water.

This water insecurity risk is being exacerbated by increasing climate change impacts whose main driver remains to be electricity by fossil fuels.

Coal plants require direct use of water at every step of their supply chain. From the extraction and preparation of coal from mines, its incineration at a coal-fired power station, the measures taken to control dust and pollution at both mines and power stations, and the disposal of the coal combustion by-products.
Eskom uses just over 10 000 litres of water a second, the same amount a single person would use in one year.
Currently, 19 percent of the rural population lacks access to a reliable water supply and 33 percent do not have basic sanitation services. While rural citizens suffer the most, over 26 percent of all schools (urban or rural), and 45 percent of clinics, have no water access either.

This lack of access to clean water across South Africa will result in many difficulties including issues with health, education, gender equity, and economic development.

The water risk is also likely to result in a number of socio-political events that could well destabilize the local, provincial or national government. Such events could include:

Civil unrest and instability: Water stress can spark civil unrest over water availability and quality or government water management practices.

Water stress can lead to emergence of a "black market" for water: In Zimbabwe and Kenya, a black market for water has emerged in part due to government failure to extend water infrastructure into poor areas. These water black markets are unregulated, leaving vendors open to selling contaminated water and increasing the cost of water at their will.

When mechanisms for resolving water conflict at the local level break down, disputes over water can turn violent. Prominent examples of localized conflicts are those between herding communities clashing violently with local farming communities over land. Localized violence has the potential to escalate internationally if water resources are shared across state borders.

This imbalance in the population-water resources equation has adverse impacts on domestic hygiene, public health, and cost of domestic water.

On the social side, water scarcity adversely impacts job opportunities, farm incomes, credibility and reliability of agricultural exports, and the ability of the vulnerable to meet the cost of domestic water.

Economically, the adverse impact is displayed in the loss of production of goods, especially agricultural goods, the loss of working hours because of the hardships society faces as a result of water scarcity.
Water Risk In A Changing Climate A Greenpeace activist dressed as an elephant holds a sign reading "Water hole dried-up, need new home" in an action to draw attention to the climate crisis in Africa.
The impacts of climate change are being felt increasingly all over South Africa and water is the key medium through which these impacts unfold.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that in 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world's population could be living in water-stressed conditions.

Local communities in Africa, where people already lack access to safe drinking water are finding it hard to cope with water stress resulting from climatic stresses.
How Is Climate Change Causing The Water Crisis Locals queue to collect water at Brewery Spring in Rondebosch, Cape Town 1. Shifting Precipitation Patterns
Water is life. The sustainability of human development depends on water, whether it is in rivers, lakes or in the form of rainfall, since water is essential for all living ecosystems.

Climate change is already directly impacting rainfall, and thus, water supplies, in several key ways.

Climate change is exacerbating this water shortage through more erratic rainfall. This is particularly worrying as precipitation levels are one of the key climatic drivers that determine water availability at a particular location.

Shifting precipitation patterns may cause arid regions to suffer more frequent and intense droughts. This situation has the potential to compound the complications created by the other.

The problem of access to drinking water is especially prominent in South Africa, where most of the population does not have access to safe water facilities. This access is even lower in rural areas and among disadvantaged socio-economic groups.

Although disparities in access to safe drinking water vary across the countries, in all contexts, they present a barrier to achieving universal safe-water access.

The lack of access to safe drinking water is a human right problem whose urgency needs to be addressed.
2. Average Temperature Increases
Water is a renewable resource, made continuously available through solar energy, which enables it to evaporate from oceans and land and be thus redistributed around the world.

This water runs off in rivers and refills our aquifers. This water then returns to the oceans as river and groundwater runoff. This is known as the Water Cycle.

Globally warming temperatures will threaten these key sources of freshwater: snowpack and mountain glaciers. The gradual, seasonally predictable melting of high-altitude snow and ice

provides the water upon which billions of people rely for drinking, plumbing, and agriculture as the runoff recharges local and regional reservoirs.

Also, national freshwater demand is expected to increase. In a world where freshwater demand is projected to outpace recharge rates and gross supply due to a dwindling snowpack, populations will have to face dire consequences resulting from a shortage of fresh water.
3. Increased Severity of Drought
Constant drought periods are painting a troubling picture for South Africa in terms of water access.

There are demonstrated increases in the intensity, duration, and spatial extent of droughts as a result of higher temperatures, warmer sea surface temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and diminishing glaciers and snowpack.

The severity and frequency of these droughts lead to a water deficit issue.
Non-Climatic Causes Of The Water Crisis A Greenpeace employee takes a water sample next to the MNS Informal Settlement in Mpumalanga. The water is approximately 500 meters from the shacks (tin houses) of the settlement. The water from the washing station flows into a pond from which the community members sometimes collect water for households use. The mines claim that the water is purified and drinkable while it is not. Visible particles of metal and coal swim around in the water. People in the community now have to spend their limited income on bottled drinking water.
Human activities also play a pivotal role in present-day water-related risks.

The poor state of certain water-related municipal infrastructure due to lack of or no maintenance and investment by certain municipalities has resulted in water "losses" as well as decreased overall water quality levels at source (dams etc.)

Pollution of water sources caused by coal mining, which poses a serious pollution threat, both to groundwater and surrounding surface water as well as by fracking.

Limited focus on water efficiency and management.

Insufficient investment in infrastructure, including bulk water supply programs, maintenance of existing infrastructure, and efficiency/recycling initiatives.

Lack of planning for future requirements, especially in cities with populations.

Water demands that exceed available raw water allocation.

What Are The Consequences Of This Water Scarcity Risk?
Dwindling water supplies at Theewaterskloof Dam, an earth-fill type dam located on the Sonderend River near Villiersdorp, Western Cape, South Africa, around 100km east of Cape Town.

Indeed, climate-related impacts on water resources are already being documented, causing real and imminent risks to human life.
1. Low agricultural outputs
Smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts on precipitation, especially increases in the irregularity of rainfall.

Their existing coping responses and strategies are likely to prove inadequate to deal with major shifts in rainfall timing and volumes.

This then leads to a situation where food security for billions is threatened. Water has a huge impact on food production. These challenges have been exacerbated by climate change. Climate change will make extreme weather events, such as drought, more frequent and intense, and less predictable, as time goes by. This will lead to less predictable access to water for agriculture and food production in many parts of South Africa.

The climate crisis must be addressed now before critical tipping points for rain-fed agriculture induced by heat stress and water shortages have been reached.
2. Water scarcity will increase water prices
Greenpeace Africa Defend Water Campaign in Johannesburg. Graffiti on the streets of Johannesburg, highlight water as a human right.

Inadequate water management and distribution is driving shifts toward making water even more expensive through full-cost pricing policies with the aim of incentivising users to use water more efficiently, a situation that is affecting the poorest and most vulnerable in our society.

This is consistent with ill-advised measures from the government that prioritize mining and other water-heavy industrial processes over the individual's right to have water access at all times.
3. Increasing poverty and inequality A man near a water pipe in Johannesburg. South Africa is a water-stressed country, with an impending water crisis. The national utility Eskom prioritizes coal meaning that local communities, already struggling for access to water, may lose their water rights to make way for mines.
Access to water can break the cycle of poverty. How does access to safe water reduce poverty?

Lack of safe water and poverty are mutually reinforcing; access to consistent sources of clean water is crucial to poverty reduction.

Time spent gathering water or seeking safe sanitation accounts for a lot of lost economic opportunities. Access to safe water and sanitation at home turns time spent into time saved, giving families more time to pursue education and work opportunities that will help them break the cycle of poverty.

Without clean water, you can't stay healthy. If you can't stay healthy, you can't go to work or school. You can't build a home. You can't grow food, and you can't provide for your family.
4. Gender Inequality
Women are disproportionately affected by the water crisis, as they are often responsible for collecting water. This takes time away from work, school, and caring for the family. The lack of water and sanitation locks women in a cycle of poverty.

Empowering women is critical to solving the water crisis. When women have access to safe water at home, they can pursue more beyond water collection and their traditional roles. They have time to work and add to their household income.
5. Water supply shortages could cause potential loss of electricity generation capacity
Woefully underappreciated, is the fact that water and energy oftentimes compete with one another.

South Africans consume vast amounts of water to generate energy, and we consume vast amounts of energy to extract, process, and deliver clean water.

With increasing frequency, we value energy production over water protection.

This collision between energy and water - combined with the urgent need to reduce our global carbon footprint is constantly manifesting.

These competing issues are intertwined in for example one way: the electric power industry uses vast amounts of water overall, but there are wide disparities in water usage between different types of power production.

For example, renewable energy sources such as wind and solar typically use low amounts of water compared to coal, and biofuels.

Hydropower plants are also at increased risk due to decreases or changes in water flow caused by climate change. Hydropower generation is likely to be most directly affected by climate change because it is sensitive to the amount, timing, and geographical pattern of precipitation and temperature.
6. Human suffering and a loss of dignity Locals queue for water at Newlands Spring in Newlands, Cape Town.
Tragically, South Africa's poorest communities will likely suffer the most from these impacts as access to sanitation and food security will be directly impacted.

A great example is Capetown's Day Zero which was an indicator of South Africa's water crisis back in 2018.
Although Cape Town was able to avert "Day Zero," such a crisis might be in the near future if this situation is not remedied.
The day was set for 12th April 2018 when the water supply to Cape Town's residents was to be cut off due to the severe drought that the Western Cape Province in South Africa was going through.
7. Deteriorating water quality in river catchments and aquifers
Water security is more than a quantity issue; it considers quality. Is the water clean, fresh, and drinkable?

Not every South African has access to the same amount of water, quality of water, or infrastructure for water. There's a difference in water accessibility among the population.

Declining water quality is an acute problem, particularly where there's a lack of adequate wastewater treatment. In many places, waterways traditionally used for drinking water or other community needs have been heavily contaminated.

This lack of adequate and clean water is the key reason why up to five million people die each year from water-related illnesses.
8. Children and education crisis A woman and her son wash their clothes at a communal tap at Plot 8 informal settlement in Roodepoort on Johannesburg's West Rand.
Children are often responsible for collecting water for their families. This takes time away from school and play.

Access to safe water and sanitation changes this.

Reductions in time spent collecting water have been found to increase school attendance, especially for girls. Access to safe water gives children time to play and the opportunity for a bright future.
How to mitigate this water scarcity risk
Wastewater management (including treatment and recycling of sewage and other wastewater.)

Given that the high recurrence rate of these phenomena in the region is likely to be exacerbated by climate change, one-off measures (such as the water restrictions imposed on Cape Town's residents) should be combined with more structural measures in the medium to long term in order to cope with and mitigate the consequences on the most vulnerable populations.

A move from coal to renewable energy.
In Conclusion Greenpeace Africa Defend Water Campaign in Johannesburg. Graffiti on the streets of Johannesburg, highlight water as a human right.
The implications for the depletion of the global water supply include diminishing food supplies, human misery and famine. And yet, the emerging water scarcity crisis goes easily unacknowledged.

Water scarcity is one of the most significant environmental issues of our time. Thus, an urgent need exists to develop effective adaptation strategies for coping with this crisis.

The problem of the emerging water scarcity crisis is a local, national, and global problem. In South Africa, water is scarce and we need to play our role to ensure that the right to water is met.

The realisation of the right to water is indispensable to the realization of many other internationally recognized human rights, including the right to food, the right to health, and the right to adequate housing.

Greenpeace Africa is urgently calling for a revisit of how we prioritize our environmental risks in South Africa. That includes water. We're calling upon you to support our efforts in protecting our water sources, combating the effects of climate change on water shortages, and ensuring access to water for all.

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Water Crisis In South Africa - Greenpeace Africa

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Community members wait to collect water at a community tap for their household use. Many people are forced to buy bottled water for drinking purposes because there are concerns about the quality of the tap water. Labeling the current water situation in South Africa as anything other than a crisis would be to downplay the severity of the problem.

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In the Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership, communities work with non-profit organisations and academics to restore and protect natural springs so that people have clean drinking water. Courtesy Environmental and Rural Solutions

South Africa is a water-scarce country, the 30th driest in the world. Using water wisely will become more and more important as the population grows and droughts related to climate change increase. A lack of clean, fresh water has a negative impact on people's health and on the amount of food that can be grown. Agricultural economist Saul Ngarava studied 1,184 homes in South Africa's North West, Northern Cape and Eastern Cape provinces to see which types of water governance resulted in better water, energy and food security. He found that the best results were achieved where water was governed democratically by different types of organisations working together.
How is water governed in South Africa?

Water governance is driven by the constitution, which says "Everyone has the right to have access to sufficient food and water", and which gives different water management responsibilities to different levels of government.

At one end of the spectrum, national government manages all water resources. At the other end, local government takes care of supplying clean water to households and disposing of sewage and waste water.

The National Water Act of 1998 is charged with managing South Africa's scarce water resources through different local level institutions. These are catchment management agencies, water user associations, international engagement bodies and the Water Tribunal.

The Water Services Act of 1997 says how these institutions should make sure that everyone has access to basic water and sanitation.

Why do water use governance arrangements matter?

Water supports development and can help with creating jobs and eliminating poverty. It is essential in national planning and therefore it is vital that it is managed properly.

In South Africa, there are different water governance arrangements: bottom-up and top-down. The two I have researched are the water user association and the catchment partnership.

There are 43 water user associations in South Africa - formal, top-down associations of individual water users. An example is a large scale irrigation scheme that provides water to commercial, emerging and small-scale farmers and their local towns and villages in major agricultural areas. I researched the Vaalharts water user association, which covers the farming areas of Taung and Magareng, stretching across the North West and Northern Cape provinces.

Read more: People in African cities are taking charge of their water supplies - and it's working

Water user associations usually have a lot of infrastructure. This can include 100 kilometre long irrigation canals and pipelines. They're mainly centred on commercial farmers who use this common irrigation system, and although they deliver water to all homes in the farming area, they are largely dictated to by farmers.

A catchment partnership is a ground-up, informal voluntary collaboration between multiple organisations with shared interests. I researched the Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership in Matatiele, in the Eastern Cape province. It is made up of more than 30 organisations including the local municipality, the non-profit Environmental Rural Solutions, the provincial forestry department and the South African National Biodiversity Institute, an academic research institute.

These organisations work together to build social capital - the resources linked to a network of relationships. The network is a convergence of indigenous knowledge, expertise and data, aimed at empowering all the participants to take equal ownership of the water governance arrangement.

Catchment partnerships usually serve only a smaller area and everyone who lives within it. They often aim to conserve a river system and its catchment area so that the water can be used for local job creation and economic growth.

They don't have as much expensive water infrastructure and they rely on natural benefits - water from natural springs, food from wild fruit or fuelwood that is used for cooking.

Are these arrangements unique to South Africa?

Water user associations and catchment partnerships are not unique to South Africa. England, Scotland, Tanzania, Nepal and Indonesia, among others, also have them. In these countries, water user associations and catchment partnerships have resulted in water management by a wide range of organisations and they face many of the same issues.

What problems can arise in water governance?

Water user associations such as Vaalharts water user association take more time to make decisions. Technical experts in finance, human resources, engineering, and others need to be consulted, along with subcommittees who add their voices, and even the government's Department of Water and Sanitation. This means that infrastructure maintenance and agreements on how to distribute water fairly among the farmers, industry, towns and communities can be slow or not happen at all.

In catchment partnerships such as the Umzimvubu catchment partnership, grassroots and local organisations aim to work together to reach consensus. This makes decision making faster, easier and more effective. However, they lack funding, mostly because they are made up of organisations without large funding bases. Sometimes, their member organisations take care of their own water needs first before considering the partnership.

What impact do these arrangements have on water, energy and food security?

My research found that the Vaalharts water user association solely focused on water security. But this mainly benefited the commercial farmers who grow cash crops such as pecan nuts, lucerne, groundnuts, wheat, citrus and grapes.

My research found that people living in the Umzimvubu catchment partnership have more water, energy and food security overall. For example, the households I studied in the Umzimvubu catchment partnership were able to supplement their water supply with clean drinking water from a spring that the catchment partnership had restored and protected. The catchment partnership also tested the quality of the water and set up tanks to store it, providing clean, free, drinking water to over 700 people.

A limited amount of water was also available for their livestock. This improved the food security of homes in the Umzimvubu catchment partnership area. Free water meant the families had more money to buy electricity.

The catchment partnership had projects to clear away invasive trees which drain local water supplies. This helps rejuvenate the natural grasslands, where livestock graze. This creates more food security.

What changes do you propose, and why?

The South African government wants to establish more high level water governance structures such as water user associations. Based on my research comparing the Vaalharts water user association and Umzimvubu catchment partnership, this is the wrong approach. Top-down structures that restrict broad participation, and increase bureaucracy and corruption, might not be able to provide the water, energy and food security that South Africa needs. An effective change would be to disband water user associations and replace them with catchment partnerships.

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South Africa's scarce water needs careful management - study finds smaller, local systems offer more benefits

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A small South African water catchment partnership run by volunteers is cleaning up springs, tapping into natural water supplies and creating more food, water and energy security for local communities.

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A Zulu household, from an 1895 book called The Colony of Natal: An Official Illustrated Handbook and Railway Guide. J Causton and Sons /University of California Libraries/ Flickr

The post-apartheid state in South Africa inherited many colonial legacies. It has transformed considerably over the past 25 years. But it retains mechanisms of a state that secured power for a select few at the expense of most of its citizens.

In my book, Queering Colonial Natal, I looked at the ways in which the settler state "queered" African and Indian social practices in the 19th century. By "queered" I mean that settler regimes defined these practices as threats to the social order they wanted to impose in colonial Natal -established by the British in 1843, today South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal province. They did this by decrying the practices as inherently wrong and themselves as superior and civilised.

At the same time, colonial archives reveal that both African and Indian people (migrants who arrived in Natal from South Asia throughout the 19th century) challenged these claims. For example, parliamentary reports show that while settler marriage laws imposed monogamous, heterosexual unions as the only legitimate form of matrimony, local populations asserted the legitimacy of their own polygynous institutions in colonial courts.

I traced the complicated histories of race, sexuality and power in contemporary South Africa, focusing on colonial Natal. The colony offers a particularly valuable space to study as it hosted competing African, Indian and European settlers in relatively close proximity.

Understanding the social and legal issues in colonial Natal gives insight into the ways power operated in southern Africa - and the British Empire more broadly.

The entanglements of race, gender, class and sexuality in contemporary South Africa flow in part from the contradictions of the settler colonial state. In tracing the history, I believe it's possible to see the long shadows that colonial history casts over the country's complicated present. This provides the opportunity to see that situations aren't inevitable. It is possible to look for new ways to understand and navigate the contradictions in our contemporary world.

Dissecting the colonial state

One of the major themes I looked at was state control. This extended to marriage and social reproduction, the legal managing of alcohol and the ways mission institutions claimed civilising power over all peoples. I also examined the politics of access to education in the colony. This was to show how different people used ideas of race and gender to claim legitimacy and belonging.

I argue that the colonial state attempted to mark African social practices as aberrant. Or, as I write in the book, as "queer". This included practices such as isithembu (polygamy), ilobolo (the ceremonial offering of cattle from the groom's family to the bride's family), clothing and beer-drinking.

Settlers marked these practices as inherently wrong. They oriented themselves in opposition to them as a way of asserting their normalcy or civilised status.

Africans and Indians in Natal didn't accept this labelling. As my research shows, they challenged it. Using occupation, belonging and settlement, people sought to challenge easy claims to power and authority. At the very least, they tried to "unsettle" them. They also used colonial courts to challenge legal pronouncements.

One case I examined was the continuous (and constantly challenged) effort of the settler state to ban alcohol consumption by Africans and Indians. The ban on Africans drinking liquor began in the 1850s. The Natal legislature debated - but frequently failed to pass - legislation banning the brewing or consumption of umqombothi, so-called "Native beer", throughout this period.

Similarly, the access of Indian men and women to alcohol was restricted in 1890. They were allowed to consume beverages on site only and couldn't take any liquor in bottles.

These restrictions mapped onto ideas in which settlers imagined Africans and Indians having diminished capacity for handling alcohol. But this led to a particular problem for white settlers when Europeans became intoxicated. The colonial record is filled with debates and anxious conversations about the problem of the supposedly rational and capable settler failing to handle his or her liquor, and the fear that this indicated a lack of social power and control.

The second chapter of my book discusses the ways in which African and Indian bodies were marked as inherently aberrant in order to create the figure of the fit, capable European drinker. Both of these fictions existed to uphold racial orders of power in the colony.

I also sought to unpack the ways in which historical framings of "queerness" led to reactionary homophobia as a means of defence.

Thinking through the messy, entangled histories of the past allows us to unsettle the difficulties of the present. Examining the power dynamics of the colonial state allows us to see how it still has an impact on contemporary society.
"Queering Colonial Natal: Indigeneity and the Violence of Belonging in Southern Africa" is available from University of Minnesota Press for $25.

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The long moral shadows cast by South Africa's colonial history

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The post-apartheid state in South Africa inherited many colonial legacies. It has transformed considerably over the past 25 years. But it retains mechanisms of a state that secured power for a select few at the expense of most of its citizens.

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Gender Equality in Eastern and Southern Africa

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We cannot end poverty on a livable planet without women’s full participation. On International Women’s Day 2025, we are highlighting that when women and girls can reach their full potential, they transform economies and societies—creating jobs, driving innovation, and fueling economic growth.

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Access to Electricity South Africa - Human Factor

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Access to Electricity South Africa - Human Factor

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Loadshedding, safety concerns, and mental health in South Africa - Maria C Marchetti-Mercer, Sumaya Laher, Jennifer Watermeyer, Tasneem Hassem, 2024

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Persistent power cuts, known as loadshedding, have become a disruptive fixture in South African daily life, affecting routines and economic stability. In this c…

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Hope Worldwide - Strategy to help children in South Africa

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Hope Worldwide - Strategy to help children in South Africa

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HOPE worldwide South Africa is dedicated to transforming the lives of young and vulnerable children through early childhood development. Our vision is to see a South Africa where every child receives the best possible start to life—nurtured, protected, and empowered to thrive. Through education, nutrition, and community-driven support, we are creating brighter futures for the next generation.