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The Divine Source: People back in the early days believed that language was given to us by the Gods. With different cultures, came different versions of how languages are “given”. In the Bible, as Adam was created by God, after that every living creature was given their names however Adam called them; in Hindu tradition, language was brought to humanity by Saravati, wife of Brahma. To know whether language was given to us by God, several experiments were conducted, such as the Mogul Emperor, Arkbar the Great where he ordered for babies to be raised in complete silence, for which they grew up not knowing language at all.

The Natural Sound Source: A different view on how language is formed is human related sounds with the things making those sounds in the natural environment. With that, came the “Bow-Wow” theory where in the early days humans imitated the sounds and later used them to desrcibed things even when they were not there. Onomatopeia are words that are similar to the noises that are imitated. The “Pooh-Pooh” theory said that human sounds are created along with emotions that are felt in the moment.

The Social Interaction Source: Humans are known to be social animals so it is proposed that sounds human made during labor effort with other people can be the first signs of how language is developed.

The Physical Adaptation Source: Human physical features aid us in speech production. Human teeth are straight and smaller than those of apes, and our lips have more intricate muscles making it easier to create sounds like p, b and m. The human mouth is smaller and can open and close fast and our vocal tract is L-shaped. For the tongue, ours are short and thicker, differing from the flat and thin tongue of animals. As we have the upright posture, the larynx goes into a lower position. In the case of the pharynx, it is created when the larynx is in a low position, it helps with increasing clarity and range of the sounds we create.

The Tool-Making Source: Our brain is responsible for many of our actions and some of our actions can link to one another. In our brain, the parts which help humans speak and object manipulation are close to each other. When parts of the brain are working during the tools making process, they can also trigger the parts which are related to speaking and creating sounds.

The Genetic Source: Children are borned with the capacity to learn language, even with deaf children, they are able to learn sign language at an early age. The Innateness hypothesis points to human genetics, with some important mutations that can help with language development.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 3. The Sounds of Language.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 3. The Sounds of Language.

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Phonetics: It encompasses the examination of speech sound production and pronunciation. Over time, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) has been developed and refined. It is mainly on articulatory phonetics or the production and articulation of speech sounds. Additionally, there are two other areas of study: acoustic phonetics, which aims to understand the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the environment, and auditory phonetics, which investigates how the ear perceives speech sounds.

2. Consonants: Consonants are sounds made when the air flow is obstructed when it leaves the mouth. Consonants' articulation can be expressed using 3 features: voicing, manner of articulation, and place of articulation.

3. Voiced and Voiceless Sound: Voiceless sounds occur when the vocal folds are apart, allowing air from the lungs to pass between them unobstructed. This results in sound production without vibration. Voiced sounds, on the other hand, happen when the vocal folds come together, causing the air from the lungs to repeatedly push them apart as it pass through, creating a vibrating effect and producing sound.

4. Place Of Articulation: This is where sounds are formed. The mouth contains numerous places of articulation, and consonants are identified using terms based on these places (e.g., lips for bilabials). The phonetic symbols representing consonants may resemble or differ from each other ([f] for "f," [v] for "v," or [ʃ] for "sh," [θ] for "th"). Sometimes, the transcription differs entirely from the word's spelling (e.g., "choir" transcribed as ˈkwaɪə).

5. Manner Of Articulation And A Consonant Chart: This concerns the pronunciation of consonants. Despite both [t] and [s] being voiceless alveolar sounds, they differ in their articulation: the [t] sound is classified as a "plosive" consonant, while the [s] sound is categorized as a fricative. A helpful resource for displaying information on commonly used consonants is a consonant chart, akin to the one depicted below:

6. Vowels: Vowels differ from consonants in that they are produced with an unimpeded airflow and are usually voiced. The movement of the tongue controlling the airflow generates vowel sounds. When discussing the articulation of vowels, we commonly distinguish between the front and back, or the high and low regions within our mouths. For example, in words like "heat" and "hit," the vowels are labeled as "high, front," indicating that they are formed with the front part of the tongue raised.

7. Diphthongs: In addition to single vowel sounds, humans have developed diphthongs, which are combinations of two vowels. A diphthong is formed when our vocal tracts transition from one position to another, such as moving from [a] to [ʊ] to produce the sound [aʊ].

8. Subtle Individual Variation: Vowel sounds can vary due to different accents, resulting in certain words sounding similar. However, individuals often possess an innate ability to distinguish these differences, a skill involving phonology, which encompasses the overall sound patterns of a language.

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Phonetics: It encompasses the examination of speech sound production and pronunciation. Over time, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) has been developed and refined. It is mainly on articulat...

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Phonetics: study of characteristics of speech sounds are made or articulated.

Consonants: We use three features to describe the consonants: place of articulation, manner of articulation and the voice/voiceless distinction. They are usually create with air obstructions in some form.

Vowels: opposite to consonants, mostly known for being made with obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds allow the air to move freely.

Voiced and Voiceless sounds: Inside the larynx there are vocal folds, when we make sounds they can be in two positions. For voiceless sounds, the vocal cords spread apart, letting the air pass with no obstruction; for voiced sounds, the vocal cords are close to each other, the air has to push through the vocal cords to get out, making a vibration effect.

Place of articulation: when the air passes through the larynx, through the vocal tract and comes up the pharynx, it is up to which parts of the mouth that would help make the sounds which we want to make. Some of the places of articulations: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottals.

Manner of articulation: combining with place of articulation, the way the sounds are pronounced can make a huge difference. Take /t/ and /s/ for an example, they are both voiceless alveolar sounds but /t/ is a “stops” consonant while /s/ is a “fricative”.

A consonant chart: the following chart shows all the information on consonants, voiced/voiceless, place of articulations and manner of articulations.

Diphthongs: are combinations of two vowels. Diphthongs in North American English form can differ from those of Southern British English.

Subtle Individual Variation: We can use vowels to distinguish between the varieties of English.

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc- Chapter 1: The Origins of Language

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc- Chapter 1: The Origins of Language

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The Divine Source: God created Adam and every living creature is its name. Brahma's wife who is said to have Brig language for humanity gave many experiments. If a child is allowed to grow up without hearing any language, they will naturally begin to use the language given to them by God. In the year 1500 children reportedly spontaneously began speaking the language of Paradise, Hebrew. From these types of evidence, there is no "spontaneous" language. Human language has spontaneously emerged from a divine source.

The Natural Sound Source: An overview of the beginnings of language. This led to the idea that the sensory system begins to function before birth. Mr. Jesperen 1992 invented this idea of ​​speech origins called the "bow-wow" theory. When flying objects make sounds, people try to imitate those sounds and use them. Another theory is that "pooh-pooh" sounds are made in emotional situations. We often create language when we breathe. Sound is created from emotions.

The Social Interaction Source: The development of language can develop organization and gathering as people increase awareness and care. There is a need for social organizations such as primates living in social groups and using vocalizations to develop the ability to speak.

The Physical Adaptation: The physical characteristics that humans possess to produce particular types of sounds are supported by the ability to produce speech. This changes the way we breathe. In the study of evolutionary development, some physical characteristics were found in primates.

The Tool-Marking Source: From a physical perspective, the development of human hands and manual gestures may be part of the language. 2 million years ago, people were right-handed, but we can change and use both hands to balance brain activity.

The Genetic Source : As a newborn's brain develops, the weight of the body and larynx becomes higher in the throat. Even when a child is born without the ability to speak, he can still use sign language fluently. In human research, genes have been identified that are associated with changes in human diet and activity.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 1. The Origins of Language

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 1. The Origins of Language

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Although the origin of language hasn't been discovered yet, many people have given numerous theories behind it.

The Divine source: In many religious traditions, language is believed to be a gift bestowed upon humanity by a divine source. For instance, Hinduism people think that language is a gift from Sarasvati, who is a god in Hinduism; in Christianity, it is believed that God gives Adam the ability to name all creatures.

The fundamental hypothesis underlying this belief is that if human infants are raised without exposure to any spoken language, they will naturally speak the original language given by God. However, numerous studies later have confirmed that children raised in isolation do not spontaneously develop language. If children are raised in silence, they will become mute.

2. The Natural Sound Source: According to some researches, human authority system is already functioning before birth. This helps us able to identify different kind of sounds. Therefore, many people said that primitive words were formed by emulations of the natural. A linguist named Otto Jespersen (1922) invented 2 theories based on this idea.

The "Bow-Wow" Theory: When objects flew by, humans attempted to imitate the sounds and identify those objects. For example, English has words like cuckoo, splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, etc,... We describe those words that are similar to the noises of onomatopoeia.

The "Pooh-Pooh" Theory: This theory proposes that speech originated from instinctual emotional sounds such as cries of pain, anger, or joy. Nevertheless, these noises often made during inhales, differ from spoken language, which typically occurs during exhales, making them unlikely sources for language evolution.

3. Social Interaction Source: The "yo-he-ho" theory proposes that human language might have evolved from sounds made during coordinated physical activities, such as lifting and carrying heavy objects together. This theory highlights the social aspect of language development, suggesting that early human groups used a range of sounds, including hums, grunts, groans, and curses, for communication and coordination. However, this theory is often disputed because apes and monkeys also produce grunts and noises to convey themselves, similar to how humans might have in ancient times, yet they do not exhibit any advancement in communication abilities.

4. The Physical Adaptation Source:

It's believed that the evolution of our bodies has influenced the development of language. For instance, the shift from quadrupedalism to bipedalism altered our breathing patterns, enabling longer articulations during exhales and shorter inhales. Several key anatomical differences set humans apart from other primates in terms of vocalization:

Our smaller and evenly sized teeth allow for the production of sounds like "f" and "v."

Greater flexibility in our lips, owing to more intricate muscles, facilitates sounds like "p," "b," and "m."

Smaller mouths that can open and close quickly aid in speech production.

A smaller, thinner, and more flexible tongue enables a wider range of sounds.

The lower position of our larynx creates a longer pharynx, enhancing the variety and clarity of sounds we can produce. Nevertheless, this adaptation also heightens the risk of choking on food compared to animals with higher-positioned voice boxes. This evolutionary shift likely occurred because the advantages of improved speech were deemed more significant than the risk of choking.

5. The Tool-Making Source:

This theory suggests that our ability to make tools is closely linked to how language develops. Both involve combining things-like rocks for tools and sounds for language-hinting that our early tool-making skills may have helped our later language abilities. Studies propose that the brain circuits used for making tools might have also been used for language. As we got better at handling tools, it likely pushed our brains to develop language skills too. Additionally, changes in how we use our hands and gestures also played a part. Therefore, as our tool use improved, so did our ability to communicate.

6. The Genetic Source: Gene mutations have been linked to shifts in the human diet, particularly in the ability to digest starch found in food, leading to increased glucose production. This, in turn, has resulted in higher calorie intake and enhanced blood flow to the brain, creating conditions conducive to the development of a more complex brain.

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Although the origin of language hasn't been discovered yet, many people have given numerous theories behind it. The Divine source: In many religious traditions, language is believed to be a gift bes...

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The origins of language

The human lineage :

Spoken language developed many years before written language, approximately between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago.

The divine source :

In former times, people often believed that languages came from a mythical world, where deities were thought to have created sounds, languages, and letters, therefore influencing the development of languages as we know them today.

From the Bible context, “God created Adam, and whatever name Adam called every creature became the name of that thing.”. The hypothesis that God created Adam and Eve, and together they built the world. They named everything in it, and that's how language was created.

However, some believe that in Hindu tradition Sarasvati is a powerful goddess; she is the one who created language.

Another opinion that in Islam, language is believed to have originated from the Qur'an. This is a matter of pride for Muslims.

The natural sound source :

Human hearing is developed before they are born, and there is a connection between hearing and the natural sounds around them. Here are a few examples: the “bow-wow” theory , Humans imitate the sounds of animals such as dogs . The “Pooh-Pooh” Theory , Humans create sounds randomly when they are in pain, anger, joy,...such as ouch , ah , wow,....

The social interaction source :
Sounds can be made by many people, they combine to create sounds together, and that is how language is formed. For example, hum: ấm ứ (make a low continuous sound) , grunt: lẩm bẩm (make a short, low sound)

The Physical Adaptation Source :

After centuries of evolution, our ancestors gradually changed. Humans stood upright and walked on two legs, no longer crawling on four legs like apes. In addition, changes also come from changing body parts such as teeth, lips, mouth, tongue. These things have greatly contributed to helping people communicate easily, and from there, language is becoming more and more developed.

The tool-making source :

"Tool making (the outcome of manipulating objects and changing them using both hands) is evidence of a brain at work."

Ancient humans evolved using their hands to hunt and gather, through which we can see how the human brain works, and most people are usually right-handed.

The Genetic Source :

Some people believe is that people should compare examples from babies when they are first born. "at birth, the baby's brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight and the larynx is much higher in the throat."(the study of language). However, as the child gradually grows older, the larynx lowers, the brain develops more, and especially children have an upright posture and are learning to walk.

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The sounds of language :

Consonants :

When talking about consonant sounds, we often mention the voiced /voiceless , the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.

Voiced and voiceless sounds :

When creating consonant sounds the air is pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea (or windpipe) to the larynx. In addition, inside the larynx are your vocal folds. Moreover, the vocal cords inside the larynx have 2 positions in that process.

1. The air passes with no obstruction -> voiceless sounds.

2. The air passes with a vibration effect -> voiced sounds.

For example : /s/ - voiceless sound , /z/ voiced sound.

Place of articulation :

-Place of articulation is about the points of contact between the articulators and the vocal tract.

-The air has passed through the larynx, it enters the vocal tract and comes up via the pharynx. And then the air pushed out through the mouth and the nose.

-Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue.

-The place of articulation of the sound : the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place.

-There are eight places of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palatal, glottal, and velar.

manner of articulation :

We learn about manner of articulation to differentiate pronunciations.

Ex : /t/ /s/ are similar that they are both voiceless alveolars -> so ? How they are pronounced or their manner of articulation.

There are 6 kinds of manner of articulation :

1. Plosive

2. Nasal

3. Fricative

4. Affricative

5. Lateral

6. Approximant

Vowels :

-Vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air.

-Vowel sounds are all voiced.

-Talk about which the tongue influences the shape through which the airflow must pass.

-Talk about place of articulation -> the space inside the mouth.

Diphthongs :

-2 vowel sounds -> diphthongs.

-when produce diphthongs ->mouth move

Ex : buy , eye , bough, bait,.....

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The sounds of language

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Vàng Xanh lá Hữu cơ Vẽ tay Tục ngữ Áp phích về giáo dục khổ dọc - 1

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Phonetic: The symbols of this alphabet can be used to represent the sounds of English words and what physical aspects of the human vocal tract are involved in the production of those sounds.

Consonants: How to produce speech sounds and take a certain amount of concentration for months to become capable of describing the articulation of consonants.

Voiced and Voiceless Sounds : make a consonaat sound, start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea to the larynx.

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Vowels: the consonant sounds are mostly articulated. Vowels sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air.

Diphthongs: The single vowel sounds create sounds that consist of a combination of two vowel sounds.

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The sound patterns of language.

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc - The Sound Patterns of Language

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc - The Sound Patterns of Language

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Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every adult language speaker unconsciously knows about that language's sound patterns.

Phonemes: meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language are described. Change one sound in a word and there is a change of meaning, the sounds are distinct.

Phones and Allophones : A phone is a distinct speech sound, while an allophone refers to a group of phones represented by a single phoneme within a specific language. For instance, [tʰ] (aspirated), [t] (unaspirated), and [tʃ] (affricated) are all allophones for the phoneme /t/.

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The sound patterns of language.

Phonemes :

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- Phonology: allows us to recognize all of the versions of the words even in different contexts which those words exist in. is the description of systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

- Phonemes: consist of meaning-distinguish sounds. One essential aspect of phoneme is it functions contrastively. If we change one sound of a word then its meaning will change, the sounds are distinct phonemes. Natural Classes describe phonemes that have certain distinctive features, and share some features with members of a natural class of phonemes.
- Phone and Allophones: Phones are speech of sound, allophones variations of phoneme.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 4. The Sound Patterns Of Language

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 4. The Sound Patterns Of Language

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Chapter 4 - The Sound Patterns Of Language

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Phonology:
Phonology is the study of the mental and abstract principles underlying speech, which are instinctively understood by most humans. It examines the inherent patterns formed by speech sounds…

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc-Chapter 5: Word Formation

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc-Chapter 5: Word Formation

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Neologisms: a term, word, or phrase that has recently appeared and is commonly used in everyday communication, but has not yet been fully accepted in the system language. In addition, the concept of neuroscience is also expanded to "develop a completely new definition of a pre-existing word".

Etymology: The study of the origin and history of a word. Etymology, which many of our technical words, come from Latin, but its origin is in Greek. For languages ​​with a long written history, etymologists use texts in these languages ​​and texts about these languages ​​to learn how words were used. in their early periods and when these words appeared in the languages ​​under consideration. Etymologists also use the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages ​​so ancient that no direct information about them remains today.

Borrowing: the process of labeling, taking over of words from other languages. A new sound comes along with new words. The borrowed words are used with quite novel meanings.

Compounding: are very common languages such as German and English, less common languages such as French and Spanish. This is a productive source of new terms that have been well-documented in English.

Clipping: Clipping is an English word meaning a little piece cut out or excerpt cut out from a newspaper or magazine. The word can be used to refer to a piece of paper cut out of a document or an article cut out for archiving or collection.

Conversion: a change in the function of a word, when a noun comes to be used as a verb. The conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns, phrasal verb.

Coinage: New words based on the name of a person or a place. Typical sources are trade names for commercial products that become general.

Multiple Processes: these word- formation processes in isolation. One process at word in the creation of a particular word.

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Neologisms: Means new words, we can understand that when a new word, a neologism is created, it will replace its predecessor and become the word which has the same meaning as the word came before it.

Etymology: is a definition belonging to a word, when studying about the origin and history of a word means that we are studying about its etymology. Learning about etymology can show us there are many ways for new words to be invented and come into use.

Borrowing: In the language from every country exist words that are borrowed from the language of other countries. Loan- translation is a special type of borrowing where every element of the word is translated directly.

Compounding: is the process of combining 2 words together to create a single form of a word with new meanings. Blending also has the same process as compounding but this time 2 separate forms to produce a new single term.

Clipping: This process of reduction is common in blending, with words that possess more than one syllable, part of it will be omitted to create a shorter form. Hypocorisms: A long word will be reduced into a single syllable and be added -y or -ie at the end. Backformation is when a word turns from its noun form into a verb form, this type of reduction is a special type.

Conversion: when a word has both the function of a noun and a verb without needing any changes.

Coinage: means that some products when they are put into commercials will take special names and they will be known by those names for any coming versions in the future. Acronyms are when we only take the first letter of the word and they will represent that full word and have the same meaning.

Derivation: is a process accomplished with the small “bits” of the English language. The small “bits” are also known as Affixes. Prefixes and Suffixes are the smaller parts of Affixes, with Prefixes are Affixes that are place at the start of a word while Suffixes are Affixes placed at the end of the word. Infixes are like Prefixes and Suffixes but they are placed inside of the word.

Multiple Processes: is when two other processes are combined to form the words.

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Word Formation

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Word Formation

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Chapter 5 - Word Formation

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Chapter 5 - Word formation

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 5. Word Formation

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 5. Word Formation

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Neologisms The story of the Hoover demonstrates that creating and adopting a new word is relatively straightforward. Etymology Borrowing Loan-Translation A particular type of borrowing in which th...

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc- Chapter 6: Morphology

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Trần Thị Thanh Ngọc- Chapter 6: Morphology

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Morphology: Analyze and describe the structure of morphemes (also known as elements, and prefixes) and other units of meaning such as words, affixes, word classes, tones, and connotations. Some languages ​​such as Vietnamese and Chinese have free, unchanging morphemes, but the meaning depends on tone, affixes, and word order. In agglutinative languages ​​such as Chukchi, the word "təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən" consists of eight morphemes t-ə-meyŋ-ə-levt-pəγt-ə-rkən (I have a severe headache), a consonant and a possible vowel. becomes a morpheme.

Morphemes: is the smallest meaningful constituent of a linguistic expression. The field of linguistic study is dedicated to Free and Bound Morphemes, Lexical and Functional Morphemes, Derivational Morphemes, and Inflectional Morphemes.

Morphological Description: the difference between derivational inflectional. Difference versions of the adjective and the grammatical. A useful way to remember all these different types of morphemes is presented.

Other languages: Kanuri, Ganda, Ilocano, and Tagalog, Where we can find other forms and patterns of the basic types of morphemes.

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Morphology: Is the investigating of basic forms in language

Morphemes: In a word exist small parts which can be described as minimal units of meaning or grammatical functions. There are two types of morphemes, free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can have meaning even when standing alone, such as new, tour,... while Bound morphemes need to go with another form to have meaning. Free morphemes are divided into two more categories, Lexical and Functional morphemes. The Lexical morphemes which carry the content of the messages we want to deliver. Functional morphemes are never added to the language in a new form; they can also be described as a “closed” class of words. Derivational morphemes are the derivation of words and they are used to make new words. Inflectional morphemes are not used to make new words.

Morphological Description: Derivational morphemes can change the grammatical category of a word while Inflectional morphemes when added to a word keep in the same grammatical wise.

Morphs, Allomorphs and Special Cases: Morphs are the original forms used to figure out morphemes.

Other languages: We can look into other languages to see other forms and identify the morphemes we’ve learned.

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Morphology : the study of the form of words / phrase.

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Morphemes : smallest unit of language with its own meaning, a word or part of a word

2 types :

Free morphemes: morphemes that can stand alone like a complete word.

Bound morphemes: morphemes cannot stand alone, must combine with other morphemes to form words.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 6. Morphology

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 6. Morphology

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Morphology:
It is the study of basic forms in language, originally used in biology, but is now also to describe the study of basic “elements” in language. Morphemes: Morphological Description: Mor…

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English Grammar: Is the analysis of the structure of phrases and sentences.

Traditional Grammar: In the traditional grammar, it stems from the Latin and Greek of languages philosophy. The parts of speech are the function of the words in sentences. In some languages, there is the existence of Grammatical Gender, which means even with objects there is a gendered way to call them.

The Prescriptive Approach: Is the traditional approach to the set of rules of grammar.

The Descriptive Approach: Is the modern approach the grammar, mostly based on personal experiences rather than any rules.

Subjects and Objects: are used to describe the functions of noun phrases in sentences.

Word Order: Are the orders of constituents in English

Why Study Grammar?: With foreigners learning English, it would be helpful to know the rules of grammar.

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English Grammar: The study of language and the rules of association, the order of words in sentences in a certain sense.

Traditional grammar: The set of rules and concepts of language structure. Used in speech or writing to express meaning.

The Prescriptive Approach: refers to a set of rules and conventions that dictate how to use "correct" language. It prescribes how language should be spoken or written based on established rules and standards. This lexical method explains how to use a language and what rules should be followed based on a particular lexical pattern.

The Descriptive Approach: to understand language in a more natural way and evolve over time. This seeks to determine the structure and variation that occurs in a language and does not care whether it is true or false.

Subjects and Objects: The subject is the person or thing doing something. The object is the object that bears the results of the action.

Word order: Subject-Object-Verb The order of the subject, object, and verb. Based on the order of arrangement of subject, predicate, and object, we can divide into six types: SOV, SVO, VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 7. Grammar

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 7. Grammar

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1.English Grammar 2.Traditional Grammar
The Parts of Speech
Agreement
Grammatical Gender
Traditional Analysis 3.The Prescriptive Approach 4.The Descriptive Approach

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Syntactic Rules: Syntax is the arrangement of words to create idioms, and meaningful sentences, and the rules and structures that govern the construction of sentences, clauses, phrases, and words, syntax refers more to the order and the position of words in sentences.

Deep and Surface Structure: Surface Structure is produced structure. It refers to the sentence as it is pronounced or written / Deep structure allow the native speaker of a language to know what the sentence means. It may then be said that the deep structure expresses the semantic contents of a sentence.

Syntactic Analysis: use some conventional abbreviations for the parts of speech identified. NP --> Art N, NP --> Art (Adj)N. Which represents the same syntactic information in a more dynamic format.

Phrase Structure Rules: start to create a set of syntactic rules. The first rule is in the following set of simple phrase structures. The second rule is NP -->( Art(Adj) N, Pro, PN). The third rule is a verb phrase as a verb plus as a noun phrase.

Lexical Rules: generate structures, and specify which words can be used when rewriting constituents such as PN.

Tree Diagrams: Visually represent the relationship between elements in a sentence under a hierarchical structure. This type of diagram is also a tool that syntacticians specialize in parsing

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1. Syntatic rules : When we start parsing a language, we rely on "all and only". "All and only" means that all the phrases and sentences we analyze must be grammatically correct, and only when grammatically correct can we proceed with a thorough analysis. The most important thing is correct grammar, the order of words must be correct too.

2. Deep and Surface Structure : There will be some similarities between two different sentences. Difference in only their surfaceb structure =>"the difference in from they have as individual English sentences" - the study of language - George Yule. But these 2 sentences are closely related.

The basic components (Noun phrase + Verb + Noun phrase) by 2 sentences can be named : deep structure.

3. Syntatic Analysis :

N (=noun) , Art (=article) , Adj (=adjective) , V(=verb) , NP(=noun phrase) , VP(=verb phrase)

NP -> Art N : not only form a NP can take however another consyituent (Adj) . Ex : "the dog" , " the big dog" => optional in a NP => (Adj) is an optional constituent, as already show here.

NP -> Art (Adj) N : other symbol "{}" only 1 elements enclosed within "{}" must be selected. "Pro" ( for pronoun) and "PN" ( for proper noun). => write 1 rule , on the right , and remember using curly brackets "{}"

NP -> Art (Adj) N

NP -> Pro

NP -> PN

NP -> {Art(Adj)N,Pro, PN}

4. Phrase Structure Rules : started to create is a set of syntatic rules named phrase structure rules.

set of simple ( necessarily incomplete) phrase structure rules.

First rule : "a sentence (S) rewrites as a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP)." The study of language.

Second rule : " a noun phrase rewrites as either an article plus an optional adjective plus a noun , or a pronoun, or a proper noun"- the study of language

Third rule : "a verb phrase rewrites as a verb plus a noun phrase" - the study of language.

S -> NP VP

NP -> {Art(Adj)N, Pro , PN}

VP- V NP

5. Lexical rules : Lexical rules in the form of syntactic rules are used in many theories of natural language syntax. These rules change the argument structure of lexical items

PN -> {John , Mary}

Art {a , the }

6. Tree diagrams : One of the most effective methods of basic Syntax structure is to use tree diagrams.

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Syntactic rules: for grammars and well-formed structures need to be checked carefully that they are correct and won’t have any errors when used in every situation. Generative grammar is a set of rules that can guarantee to generate an infinite amount of sentences with no mistakes.

Deep and Surface Structures: Deep structures focus on the abstract level of the sentences, while surface structures focus on the different syntactic forms of the sentences.

Syntactic Analysis: Abbreviations of the part of speech usually used to analyze sentences, this process is called Syntactic Analysis.

Phrase Structure Rules: is a set of rules for sentence making, which these rules also keep the sentences correct and avoid errors.

Lexical Rules: Are the rules to know which words to use to replace some words when rewriting them. Ex: PN: Mary→N: she.

Tree Diagrams: Tree diagrams help visualizing the syntactic structures easier.

Just scratching the surface: There are more rules to syntax, what being taught so far are only the surface of the matter.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 8. Syntax

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 8. Syntax

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Syntactic rules A generative grammar Deep and surface structure Structural Ambiguity Syntactic Analysis Phrase structure rules Lexical Rules Tree Diagrams

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Meaning: Semantics is the teaching of the meaning of language but there are other interesting aspects of Semantics. The subjective and objective of language can be represented through associative/emotive meaning or referential meaning. Referential meanings are the literal meanings of words without trying to convey any other meanings.

Semantic features: include features as “+ animate / - animate”, “+ human/ - human”, “+ female/ - female”, etc are the basic elements of the semantic features.

Semantic Roles: words can also have different roles beside providing meaning. Such as Agent and Theme, Agent is the entity that acts out the action and the Theme is the entity which is at the receiving end of the action. Instruments are the entities that are used to perform the action for the agent which uses them. Experiencer are the noun phrases used to designate the person who has feeling, states,.. Location, Source and Goal are also the parts which used to give more details on the events which the entities are experiencing.

Lexical relations: words can have relations with each others and that is shown through synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy. Synonyms are words which have close meanings with each other and Antonyms are words which have the opposite meanings. Hyponymy are the bigger categories of words which contain the others words which have the meaning which relate to those categories.

Collocation: people who speak the language when they hear a word can also think of a word which relates to the previous word, this is known as Collocation.

Ex: ketchup - mustard, cheese - cracker,...

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Meaning: Semantics - Connected with the meanings of words. In other words, semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Moreover, the S and O of language can be represented through associative. The study of basic referential meanning might be vert useful and helpful would be as a means of accounting for the "oddness" - experience when people read sentences.

Semantic Features: A semantic feature is a component of a concept associated with a lexical item. This part include features as "+animate / - animate" , "+human/-human", "+female/-female" , ... are the basic elements of the semantic features.

Semantic roles: Semantic role is the role of noun phrases with respect to the action or state described by the main verb of the sentence. Instead of thinking of words as containers of meaning , people also can look at the "roles"- within the situation described by a sentence. => words can have different roles beside providing meaning. For example Agent and Theme.

Lexical relations: words can have relationship with each other. => the semantic description of language and treated as the analysis of lexical relations. ( synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy). Synonymy are words which have close meanings with each other - two or more words with very closely related meanings. Antonymy are words which have the opposite meanings - two forms with opposite meanings . And finally hyponymy are the bigger categories of words which contain the other words which have the meaning which relate to those categories- when the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another , the relationship is described as hyponymy.

Collocation: is the combination of words together, forming phrases naturally according to native speakers' habits. There are a total of 6 most common types of collocations in English including:

adjective noun

noun noun

verb noun

noun verb

adverb adjective

verbs prepositional phrases

verb adverb

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Meaning: The study of basic referential meaning might be helpful would be as a means of accounting for experience when we read sentences. The main interest is in what we might describe as the widely. This distinction is generally presented in terms of referential meaning as opposed to associative or emotive meaning.

Semantic Features: is a component of the concept associated with a lexical item More generally, it can also be a component of the concept associated with any grammatical unit.

Semantic roles: describe the relationship between participants and the main verb in a clause. The main semantic roles are agent, theme, goal, instrument, and locative

Lexical Relations: the study of how their meanings structure, how they function grammatically and compositionally, and the relationships between particular meanings and uses of a word

Collocation: a series of words that appear together more often than might be expected. In phrases, a phrase is a type of constituent phrase, which means it can be understood from the words that make it up.

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Invisible Meaning: Pragmatics is the study of "invisible" meaning. In other words, how people recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said or written. Therefore, speakers or writters must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations when people want to communicate or they try to communicate.

Context: people also use the meanings of the words, the context in which they occur and some pre-existing. In other words, people understand what a sign means by looking at the words, the situation they’re in, and what we already know about what the sign might be trying to say. Our interpretation of the "meaning" of the sign is not based on the words, but on what people think the writter intended to communicate.

Reference: the use of words to refer to people, places and times was a simple matter. However, there is one thing we need to remember words themselves don't refer to anything. People also refer. Therefore, people have to define reference as an act by which speakers or writters uses language to enable a listener/reader to identify something. People can use proper nouns, other nouns in phrases or pronouns.

Presupposition: when people use "this, he or Jennifer" people always assume that our listeners can recognize which referent is intended. To illustrates, we design our linguistic messages on the basis of large-scale assumptions about what listeners already know it , they also understand what it is, they have knowledge about it. => what a speakers/writters assumes is true or know by listeners/readers can be know as a presupposition.

Pragmatic Markers: words or phrases used in language to manage the flow of conversation , indicate the speaker's attitude or help clarify meaning. They don't add any significant content but also help structure communication , signal relationships between ideas or express nuances. There are some examples "you know, well, i mean, i don't know" => which are optional and loosely attached to the utterance. => therefore, these are pragmatic markers and they can be used to mark a speaker's attitude to the listeners or to what being said.

Politeness: using words and ways of speaking to be respectful and kind to others. It's about not being rude and making sure people feel good , happy when talking. For example, being tactful, modest and nice to other people. And the most relevant concept is "face" - is people public self-image => this is also the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. => showing awareness and consideration of another person's face.

Speech Acts: speech acts are actions people perform using words. They include making requests , giving orders , asking questions , making promises and also giving apologies. => speech acts use language to do something not just to say something. For example, "requesting, commanding,questioning, or informing"=> describe an action that involves language.

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Invisible meaning: The study of meaning that is not immediately apparent when something is said or written is called pragmatics. Rather than interpreting solely from lexical features, pragmatics focuses on a deeper understanding of what is actually being directly communicated.

Context: The "meaning" of a sign is not solely based on the words themselves but on what we perceive the writer intended to communicate. There are two types of context:

1. Physical context: This refers to the actual location where we encounter words and phrases. For example, the word "BANK" on the wall of a building is understood to mean a financial institution.

2. Linguistic context (co-text): This refers to the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. For instance, if the word "BANK" is used alongside words like "steep" or "overgrown," we can easily determine that it refers to the side of a river rather than a financial institution.

Deixis: Some prevalent words in our language cannot be interpreted without context. These words include "here" and "there," "this" or "that," "now" or "then," "yesterday," "today," and "tomorrow," as well as pronouns like "you," "me," "she," "him," "it," and "them." Certain sentences will be unintelligible if we do not know who is speaking, about whom, where, and when. Expressions like these are known as deictic expressions, from the Greek word "deixis." They are used to point to people, places, and times.

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Invisible meaning: The study of meaning that is not immediately apparent when something is said or written is called pragmatics. Rather than interpreting solely from lexical features, pragmatics focu...

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Invisible Meaning: In Pragmatic, we learn to understand the unspoken meaning of things, which also means that we have to recognize the meanings which are not outright said.

Context: there are two types of contexts, Physical context and Linguistic context. Physical context is where we encounter the phrases and based on our surroundings to interpret the meanings of the phrases we hear. With Linguistic context, which is also known as co-text, is when we base on the set of texts which go together to understand the meanings of the phrases. For the words that do not have contexts, Deixis (from the Greek word “Deixis” which means pointing) can be used to point to the places, person,... that we are talking about.

Reference: Deixis itself cannot mean anything without having the people which are mentioned in the picture. Reference is an act of using language to enable the listener or reader to identify something. Proper nouns, Noun phrases, Pronouns are used to give the listener or reader better cues to identify the person or things which are mentioned. Inferences are the additional information for the listener to connect what they heard closer to the real meaning.

Presupposition: Is the information which the writer or speaker believes that the listener or reader knows of or true to them.

Pragmatic Markers: Are ways that are used by speakers to show the attitude to the listeners. Ex: speakers saying “I mean”, “You know”,...

Politeness: A person’s face is also pragmatic and can be used to show awareness and consideration to another’s expression. There are also Negative faces and Positive faces to convey the feelings and meanings of what is being said.

Speech Arts: Are using words to convey a specific action to another person such as “requesting”, “commanding”, “informing”,...

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Invisible Meaning: read the sign knowing what each of the words means and what the sign as a whole means. Recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said or written.

Context : is a relatively complete piece of speech or writing, a verbal area surrounding a work or a part of a work, in which the meaning and meaning of each word and each sentence is most accurately expressed.

Reference: is to get more information, usually in documents, to learn to learn, research, and handle work more logically. When a document is highlighted, it tells readers where to go somewhere else for further reference

Presupposition: is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief regarding a statement whose truth is taken for granted

Politeness: is cultural behavior or good etiquette in species society. The purpose of politeness is to satisfy and please all parties in the most civilized way

Speech Acts: is expressed by an individual, not only presenting information and giving opinions, new things and demonstrating it in the most confident way.

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Neurolinguistics: Neurolinguistics studies the relationship of language and the brain.

Language Areas in the Brain: There are parts of the brains which are responsible for language functions. Broca’s area, which is also known as “anterior speech cortex”, is the part which helps produce spoken language. Damage to the Broca’s area can make it difficult to speak while damaging to the right hemisphere of the brain leaves no after effect to the way we speak. Wernicke’s area, also known as “posterior speech cortex”, is the part that helps us understand the language we hear. The motor cortex is the part that helps with muscle movement and the movement of face muscles that would make articulation of speech. The arcuate fasciculus is the part which forms the connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. The localization View suggests that the actions involving hearing a word, understanding it and saying it all follow a pattern.

Tongue Tips and Slips: The Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when we want to produce a word but produce a different word which is similar to the word we have in mind. Slips of the Tongue is when a sound or word is produced  in the wrong place. Slips of the brain can occur when we want to organize and generate linguistic messages. Slip of the ear is when we try to make sense of what we hear.

Aphasia: can happen when the brain receives some damage in the parts which are responsible for understanding and speaking the language. Broca’s Aphasia is when we have to stop to think when we are speaking. Wernicke’s Aphasia is when we can speak fluently but cannot understand as well. Conduction Aphasia is when there are damages to the arcuate fasciculus and result in the break in connection of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.

Dichotic Listening: Dichotic listening test is used to show how the left hemisphere is more dominant. The left brain affects the right body and helps process language, sound/verbal sound; the right brain affects the left body and it processes non linguistic/ non verbal sound.

The Critical Period: Lateralization(one-sidedness) is when the left hemisphere dominates the language process. Genie is a girl who in her childhood received abuse and no interactions with language, this led to her unable to use language and her left hemisphere does not hold the dominant lead. From time to time when she began to try and speak, it was discovered that she used her right hemisphere to comprehend language.

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Language and the Brain:

Neurolinguistics: The relationship between language and the brain is named Neurolinguistics.

Language Areas in the Brain: the specific parts in the brain that are related to language functions. People now know that the most important parts are in areas around the left ear. The brain stem ( connecting the brain to the spinal cord) the corpus callosum ( connecting the 2 hemispheres). People will basically be left with 2 parts: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. If people put the right hemisphere aside for now, and place the left hemisphere down so that we have a side view.

Tongue Tips and Slips: the tip of the tongue phenomenon in which people feel that some word is just eluding us. People aslo know the word already, but it just won't come to the surface. Studies of this phenomenon have shown that speakers generally have an accurate phonological outline of the word.

Aphasia: aphasia is defined as an impairment of language function due to locallized brain damage thay leads to difficulty in understanding and producing linguistic forms / or producing linguistic forms.

The critical period: when people was small there is a period when the human brain is most ready to receive input and learn a particular language. => This is more generally known as the critical period.

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Neurolinguistics: is the scientific study of the mechanisms of the internal non-human nervous system that ensure functions such as understanding, producing, and perceiving language.

Language Areas in the Brain: Several brain regions play important roles in speech and language. Broca's area, located in the brain's left hemisphere, is involved in vocalization and speech production. ... Wernicke's area is an important language area in the posterior superior temporal lobe connected to Broca's area to operate and travel through the neural pathway.

Tongue Tips and Slips: an accidental and usually trivial mistake in speaking. By a slip of the tongue, one can sometimes put oneself in a rather peculiar position

Aphasia: is a loss of language, or residual thinking and calculation. The cause of this syndrome is often caused by profound damage due to the majority of cases being from cerebral hemorrhage, originating from brain tumors or accidents.

Dichotic Listening: the simultaneous sending of one message (a 3-digit number) to a person's right ear and another message (another 3-digit number) to the person's left ear

The Critical Period: In psychology and developmental biology, the critical period is the stage of adulthood in the life cycle of an organism in which the nervous system plays a very special role and is sensitive to a number of environmental stimuli.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 12: Language and the Brain

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 12: Language and the Brain

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First Language Acquisition:

Acquisition:

The process of subconsciously learning a language through real-life experiences and surroundings. Furthermore, it happens when learners see or hear language that is just a little harder than what they know now. However, the process of language acquisition has some basic requirements. To illustrates, the first 2 or 3 years of development , children requires interaction with other language-users in order to bring the general language capacity into contact with a particular language like English or Viet Nam. => Children learning this way can learn any first language without thinking about it. They will also naturally talk creatively and understand cultural values.

The Acquisition Schedule: The Acquisition Schedule in language learning is the typical order and timing in which children learn their first language. And all normal children develop language at roughly the same time, along much the same schedule. For example, we can say the same thing for sitting , or crawling using the hands and many other physical activities.

- Cooing (0-6 months): the earliest use of speech - like sounds has been described as Cooing. Producing sequences of vowel like sounds (high vowels similar to[i] and [u]. Babies make soft sounds like "oo" and "uu".

-Babbling (6-8 months): Producing a number of different vowels and consonants. Babies repeat sounds like "bababa" or "dadada."

-The One-Word Stage (12-18 months): First Words: Children say single words like "milk" to mean "I want milk."

-The Two-Word Stage (18-24 months): Two-Word Phrases: Children use two words together, like "big boat", "hit ball", "more milk".

-Telegraphic speech (2 and 2.5 years old): before we investigate this development, we should note a stage that is named as telegraphic speech. For instance, "this shoe all wet" , "cat drink milk".

The Acquisition Process: The Acquisition Process in language learning is how children naturally learn their first language. As the linguistic repertoire of the child increases, it is often assumed that the child is , in some sense , being "taught" the language.

-Learning through imitation: the major source of the child's speech production comes from studies of the structures used by young children. They may repeat single words or phrases , but not the sentence structures.

-Learning through correction: It is also means that adult "corrections" are very effective determiner of how the child speaks language.

Developing morphology: Developing morphology in language learning is about how children learn to use different parts of words (like endings) to change their meanings. the first to appear is the -ing form expressions like sitting, mommy reading book. -in ,in bag , not in that, -on , on bed , that on top, -plural -s , boys, cats.

Developing Syntax: Developing syntax in language learning is about how children learn to put words together to form sentences.

-Question Formation:

Simple Questions: Children learn to ask questions, like "Where is mommy?" and "Where kitty?"

-Negative Sentences:

Negation: Children learn to form negative sentences, like "I don't want that." or "I am not doing it".

Developing semantics: Developing semantics in language learning refers to how children learn and understand the meanings of words and sentences. Moreover, Developing semantics involves how children build their understanding of language meanings, which helps them communicate effectively and interpret the world around them.

-Later Developments: after the age of 5 "which tree has less apples?".

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Second language acquisition learning:

Second Language learning: There is something of an enigma in this situation , since there is apparently no other system of "knowledge" that people can learn better at 2 or 3 years of age than at 13 or 30. => help learners become as effective communicating in a foreign or second language as they are in their first language. Furthermore they are trying to learn another language , so the expression second language learning is used more generally to describe both situations. => Second language learning helps people communicate with others who speak that language and understand different cultures better.

Focus on teaching method: In second language learning, teaching methods focus on different ways to help people learn a new language. As very long time ago as 1483, William Caxton used his newly established printing press to produce a book of Right good lernyng for to lerne shortly frenssh and englyssh.

Focus on the learner: "Focusing on the learner" in second language learning means paying attention to the individual needs, preferences, and abilities of each student. And the most fundamental change in the are of L2 studies in recent years has been a shift from concern with the teacher, the book and the method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition process. Focusing on the learner helps each person feel good about learning and do their best in learning a new language.

Communicative Competence: Communicative competence can be defined as the general ability to use language accurately , appropriately and flexibly. "Communicative competence" refers to the ability to communicate effectively in a language, not just knowing the words and grammar, but also knowing how to use them correctly in different situations. And the first component is grammatical competence , which involves the accurate use of words and structures. And the next one called sociolinguistic competence => Communicative competence helps people communicate well in different places and with different people.

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Acquisition: there are some requirements to the process of language acquisition. The child needs to interact with other language-users in the first 2 to 3 years of development as a way to set the language capacity in tune with a language. The language is not naturally inherited by the child but is acquired. Input is the language which the learner is exposed to. When adults interact with babies, they may simplify the language into “baby talk”. Caregiver speech is assigning the interactive role to the children even before they are able to be an actual participant.

The Acquisition Schedule: children are able to develop language almost at the same time just like all of their other activities. Before talking, they first start with comprehending what they are hearing. One month old children can distinguish between [pa] and [ba]. At three months old, they can give a reaction to the speaking face. Cooing or Gooing is the first stage of developing into seaking of children and babbling is the next stage. The one-word stage in between 12 and 18 months is when children are able to make utterances of single-unit words that are recognizable. At the two-word stage at 18 to twenty months, children’s vocabulary is more than 50 words. They can combine two words together which relate in context. Telegraphic speech at the age of 2 to 2.5 years old is when children can speak with multiple words at a time.

The Acquisition Process: The child actually constructs how to speak a language by comprehending what they hear. Most of the time it is thought that children are taught how to speak but there isn’t really a way to teach the language to children. Children can understand what the adults say and repeat it the way they understand it.They can also learn through correction by more experienced language speakers.

Developed Morphology: when children are at the age of  2 and 2.5 years old, children can develop beyond the telegraphic forms, incorporating -ing and -s into their speeches.

Developing Syntax: the development in syntax of children can vary but the most common pattern is Stage 1(18-26 months), STage 2(22-30 months) and Stage 3(24-40 months).

Developing Semantics: can be developed by being exposed to language, social interactions.

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Acquisition: has some basic requirements. A child requires interaction with other languages to bring the general language capacity into contact with a particular language such as English.

The Acquisition Schedule: is a timeline or plan that outlines the steps and milestones to acquire something. It is used in various contexts, including Project management in children's education, Learning, and development.

The Acquisition Process: often assumed that the children's linguistic proudction appears to be mostly a matter of trying out constructions and testing whether that work or not

Developing Morphology: usually followed by the prepositions. plays an important role in language learning, related to how words are formed. In English vocabulary learning, as n learn words, they acquire free morphemes, such as “seed,” and they gradually learn to add a bound morpheme, the “-y” suffix. to form the adjective “seedy”.

Developing Sytanx: includes studying how to structure sentences, learning how to expand sentences and learning how to combine short sentences into longer, difficult-to-understand sentences into easy-to-understand, grammatically correct sentences.

Developing Semantics: is a part of language development from infancy to adulthood in which children attach meanings to words and can compare one word to another. This happens when children start before they can talk or read.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 13: First Language Acquisition

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 13: First Language Acquisition

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Second Language Learning: There are numerous ways being suggested to let the learners learn a foreign language or the language that is also their first language. There are two situations when using the term “second language learning”. First is a language which is not used in the environment of the learners. Second is the language that is spoken in their environment. There is another distinction of acquisition and learning. Acquisition is when the learner acquires the new language through a subconscious process, intuition and Learning is when the learner acquires the new language in a conscious process. For some people, the process of writing is easier than speaking. The time of puberty is the best time for people to learn a new language, after that it would be harder to acquire a new language. Some affective factors would make the learner not be able to learn the new language. Emotional reaction, such as how a book is dull so it would be harder for the learners to relate to what was written in the book. The lack of empathy towards other cultures would also make it hard to learn a language.

Focus on Teaching Method: While there are many obstacles that could prevent the process of acquiring a new language, there are various learning techniques to help with learning. The Grammar-Translation Method is the traditional way to learn languages. Grammar rules, lists of vocabulary are the basics needed for this method, the learners would need to remember them. The Audiolingual Method is to practice the oral drills to improve the fluentness in that language. Communicative Approaches is to approach language teaching based on learning using language.

Focus on the learner: Shifting focus onto the learners themselves is a way to help better the process of learning. There are two types of transfer, positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer is using L1 similar to L2 when performing L2. Negative transfer is using L1 with not the same grammar accuracy or other errors in the process of performing L2. Interlanguage is adopting both L1 and L2 into the learning of L2. Motivation can come in two forms, instrumental and integrative. Instrumental where the learners read and research on their own to achieve their goals. Integrative is learning for social purposes. Task-Based is creating activities for learners to interact with one another to exchange information.

Communicative Competence: is the ability to learn the acquired language with flexibility, appropriately.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 14: Second Language Acquisition/Learning.

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Nguyễn Phạm Gia Nghi - Chapter 14: Second Language Acquisition/Learning.

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Second Language Learning: Acquisition and Learning: Acquisition Barriers: Focus on Teaching Method: Focus on the Learner: Communicative Competence:

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Second Language Learning: is the process by which people learn a second language. Second language acquisition is also a science devoted to studying that process. This general knowledge will help us understand how the brain operates when accepting a new language. A second language can be learned from many different environments. If the learner is in the classroom, the classroom environment is also called a "formal environment", if the learner is not learning in the school but at work. or outside of life, that environment is called the "natural environment". Another term is called foreign language environment or second language environment, the distinction here is whether the target language is commonly used or not.

Focus on teaching Method: Teaching methods are the techniques used to help students achieve learning outcomes, there are different ways of implementing these methods. Teaching methods help students: master subject content. learn how to apply content in specific contexts. In this approach, teachers control class time, content delivery, and decision-making, limiting innovative thinking and student engagement. Students in teacher-centered education lack autonomy and control over their learning, hindering their ability to pursue knowledge independently

Focus on learner: Requires all students to engage in educationally engaged subject activities that identify actions around student learning. That requires, for example, that all teacher selection and discipline be merit-based and focused on what is best for students.

Communicative Competence: the ability to use language with correct grammar and sentence structure, even in different social environments. The communicative competence model includes four domains: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategy.