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1950 - Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

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1950 - Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

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An international treaty designed to protect human rights and freedom in Europe

Rights must be secured without discrimination on any ground - including sex

Important as it requires states to take measures for women's safety and rights - continent-wide reform

However, many feminist scholars argue that this does not challenge the structural and historical disadvantages women face

https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/Archives_1950_Convention_ENG

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1960s - The start of second wave feminism 

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1960s - The start of second wave feminism 

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- There were now an increased representation of women in the workforce.

Began in the USA, then spread to Europe.

Focus went beyond suffrage; now there was a focus on reproductive rights, workplace equality and sexuality

Liberal and radical feminist movements led the movement.

Large amounts of activism and protests

Gamble, S. (Ed.). (2001). The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Post feminism (2nd ed.). London Routledge

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1960 - The Women's Liberation Movement (WLM) emerged

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1960 - The Women's Liberation Movement (WLM) emerged

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A political and social movement - emerged as a part of the 2nd wave of feminism

A radical feminist movement focused on direct action

Focus on sexual liberation, gender roles and economic independence

Breakaway from the male-dominated leftist groups - women forming their own autonomous groups

Challenging sexism and redefining women's roles in society.

In almost all Western European countries, liberationists fought for the elimination of barriers to unrestricted access to contraception and abortions.

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1970 - Irish Women's Liberation Movement 

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1970 - Irish Women's Liberation Movement 

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- 'Equal pay, equality before the law, equal education, contraception for all, justice for deserted wives, unmarried mothers and widows, and one family one house' - Manifesto demands

In Ireland, women were described as 'cheap labour' - they got paid 54% of what their male counterparts got

Women had poor education and few rights in marriage

Raised awareness of women's disadvantages helped establish further political groups, crisis centres for women, and increased women's involvement in politics.

http://womeninhistory.scoilnet.ie/content/unit6/lberation.html

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The 1970s saw the founding of important feminist groups in Rome - Rivolta Femminile (Women's Revolt)

Founded by Carla Lonzi, Carla Accardi, and Elvira Banotti.

Demonstrations of over 50,000

Feminist groups tried to change the tide of collective socio-political consciousness, focusing on challenging male dominance and abortion rights, as well as women's unpaid labour in the home.

Import contributions to the international feminist sphere - especially regarding the role of male physical and sexual violence against women within the family as a use of disciplining force - similar to physical and psychological violent discipline seen used on factory workers.

Cuninghame, P. (2008). Italian feminism, workerism and autonomy in the 1970s. Amnis, (8). doi:https://doi.org/10.4000/amnis.575.

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1978 -  Organisation of Women of African and Asian Descent (OWAAD)

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1978 -  Organisation of Women of African and Asian Descent (OWAAD)

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In the second wave of feminism, there was a greater emphasis on Black feminism, accompanied by an increase in Black women-led groups. This was especially seen in the UK.

OWAAD was part of a larger movement of black and Asian feminists

They took an intersectional approach, arguing that racism and sexism are interlinked, and the experience of Women of colour is different and not mentioned enough in the feminist movement

Participated in campaigns and initiatives, plus inspired other movements and women.

Brixton Black Women’s Group. (1984). Black Women Organizing. Feminist Review, 17, 84–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/1395018

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1789- French Revolution - The March of the Women on Versailles 

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1789- French Revolution - The March of the Women on Versailles 

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Demonstrated women's active role in political change alongside men.

Forced King Louis XVI and his family to move from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace in Paris.

Inspired the actions of first wave feminism - radical movements of women

Caine, B & Sluga, G 2000, Gendering European history. Leicester University Press, London UK.

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First wave feminism - Primarily focused on legal issues and inequalities, especially suffrage

Modern feminism begins with Mary Wollstonecraft's - 'Vindication of the Rights of Woman'

emerged from the turbulence caused by the French Revolution

Did not speak of anything 'radical' - she wanted to raise women's overall moral and intellectual stature to make them into more rational citizens

Gamble, S. (Ed.). (2001). The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Post feminism (2nd ed.). London Routledge

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1956 - Women's Two Roles: Home and Work  published by Alva Myrdal and Viola Klein

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1956 - Women's Two Roles: Home and Work  published by Alva Myrdal and Viola Klein

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Published by a Swedish and English sociologist

Discusses the idea of the dual role of women. After WW2, they were expected to participate in wage labour and also take full responsibility for unpaid domestic labour

Myrdal and Klein discussed reforms that would allow women to balance these expectations

It was a social democratic response focusing on practical welfare reforms

Emergence of new ideas - helping to understand married women's employment

https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9781135034429_A24762316/preview-9781135034429_A24762316.pdf

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1902 - First Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance

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1902 - First Conference of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance

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Held in Washington, D.C.

Invited all National women's suffrage organisations to date

The aim was to help advance and coordinate women's suffrage movements globally

Created a global community network and a network of national representatives to serve as official correspondents.

https://rbscpexhibits.lib.rochester.edu/viewer/6022

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1810- Amendment to the Guild Regulation of 1720 in Sweden

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1810- Amendment to the Guild Regulation of 1720 in Sweden

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This amendment secured the right of women of legal majority to apply and also granted a permit to work within all guild professions, handicrafts and trades without having to meet the standard requirements applied to male applicants

Same independent professional opportunities available to men

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Halted the feminist and women's rights movements

However, there was a transformation of gender roles across Europe, which for many women was a moment of liberation

Taking on men's work in defence industries, tending to broken soldiers as nurses

In Russia, women were participants of combat, Maria Bochkareva being the most famous, the first Russian woman to command a military unit

Caine, B & Sluga, G 2000, Gendering European history. Leicester University Press, London UK.

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Sweden wins the first Euros

The official beginning of a structured, pan-European women's national team tournament of UEFA.

Major turning point for women's sport - women's football was banned for over 50 years in England due to its popularity - players across Europe fought the ban, not allowing football to be male-dominated anymore.

Although there was a lack of coverage and low attendance, it laid the foundation for its future growth.

Inspired many young women and was a significant step forward for women's sport, contributing to its popularity today. 45+ million people watched the 2025 Euro final.

https://impetusfootball.org/2025/06/28/a-potted-history-of-the-uefa-womens-euros/

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1989 - Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term "Intersectionality" 

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1989 - Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term "Intersectionality" 

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' Intersectionality is a lens through which you can see where power comes and collides, where it interlocks and intersects. It’s not simply that there’s a race problem here, a gender problem, and a class or LGBTQ problem there. Many times that framework erases what happens to people who are subject to all of these things.' - Crenshaw, 2017.

Although she was an American author, her work had an impact globally.

She highlighted the importance of recognising overlapping forms of discrimination, such as her struggles of being black and a woman. This struggle is outside the traditional understanding of racism and sexism.

Her work is an important pillar in the development of feminism

https://www.law.columbia.edu/news/archive/kimberle-crenshaw-intersectionality-more-two-decades-later

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Injustices faced by mothers in unhappy marriages

Fought for her 3 sons abducted by her husband

Led to the Infant custody act(1839) - allowed wives of good character have custody of children under 7 and access to their older children

London, England

Gamble, S. (Ed.). (2001). The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Post feminism (2nd ed.). Routledge, London.

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A female student society at the University of Bern 

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1867 - Switzerland is the first European country to allow women to enroll in university  

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1867 - Switzerland is the first European country to allow women to enroll in university  

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Attracted women from wealthy families and other European countries - Majority from the Russian empire.

Women could study mathematics, medicine, sciences, psychology or law.

Did not separate men and women; they sat side by side

Pioneers for the advancement of female higher education in Europe

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Married Women's Property Act of 1870 (England)

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Married Women's Property Act of 1870 (England)

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- Granted married women the right to keep their own wages and inheritances as their separate property

Only applied to up to £200 - however still a big move for women's independence

Gamble, S. (Ed.). (2001). The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Post feminism (2nd ed.). Routledge, London

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1902 - German Union for women's Suffrage 

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1902 - German Union for women's Suffrage 

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Insisting that the nations of Europe would be spared future wars only when women had the right to vote.

Worked tirelessly for women's political rights up to the Nazi era.

Protests and posters used to press for female suffrage

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1903 - National Association for Women's Suffrage (Sweden)

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1903 - National Association for Women's Suffrage (Sweden)

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- Important founders included Anna Whitlock, Lydia Wahlström, and Signe Bergman.

Held yearly meetings in Stockholm

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1903 - Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) founded

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1903 - Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) founded

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Formed by Emmeline Pankhurst

Use of direct action and violence

1908 demonstrations in London attended by over 300,000

https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/overview/startsuffragette-/

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1904 - International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) Established

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1904 - International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) Established

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Leading international organisation campaigning for suffrage, connecting national groups across Europe.

Founders: Carrie Chapman Catt, Millicent Fawcett, and Susan B. Anthony

Highlights the impact of these feminist movements and organisations

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1906 - Finland becomes the first European country to grant Universal suffrage 

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1906 - Finland becomes the first European country to grant Universal suffrage 

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- Led by the Finnish Social Democratic Party and its autonomous League of Working Women.

Mobilisation of working-class women, the issue of suffrage had been put on the agenda since 1893.

Larger numbers of women in the workforce - they began advocating for their own social rights, including the vote.

A class, gender and nationalism struggle.

Irma, Sulkunen. (2007). Suffrage, gender and citizenship in Finland – A comparative perspective. Nordeuropaforum. 17.

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1915 - Women's International League for Peace and Freedom developed 

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1915 - Women's International League for Peace and Freedom developed 

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'A group of courageous women who refused to accept war as inevitable'

1,136 suffragists from twelve countries met in The Hague, the Netherlands

Envisioned a world where conflicts were resolved through dialogue, justice, and cooperation.

https://www.wilpf.org/history/

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1918 - Women's suffrage achieved in major European countries

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1918 - Women's suffrage achieved in major European countries

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Emmeline Pankhurst urged women to work in industry to support the war effort - proving they could do the same work as men, therefore, they were given the vote(England)

Germany, Austria, Denmark and Poland - movements all across Europe - change was a direct result of the political and social upheaval at the end of World War I

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In major European cities, there was a shift during the 'roaring 20s' - a change in fashion and hair

However, the modern independent woman was still a minority

There was still a need for feminist activism and pressure across Europe; new questions arose about how other rights could be achieved. Also, how women can enter the political sphere now that they have the vote.

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1929 - Virginia Woolf publishes ' A Room of One's Own'  

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1929 - Virginia Woolf publishes ' A Room of One's Own'  

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Landmark feminist essay

Historical analysis of women's exclusion from literature

Virginia Woolf was a pioneer of feminism, a strong advocate for gender equality, she pushed boundaries using literature.

Woolf was a critic of male-dominated literature; she said that finding a female author on a bookshelf was near impossible. It denied women the opportunity for their voices and opinions to reach the masses.

Woolf, Virginia. 1929. A Room of One’s Own. London: The Hogarth Press Ltd.

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Chrystal Macmillan - president until 1933

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1929 - Open Door International: For the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker

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1929 - Open Door International: For the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker

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New international association

Founded after a conference in Berlin

Emerged after many countries had female suffrage - now they could focus on a wider range of issues.

During WW1, women occupied traditionally 'male' jobs; therefore, after the war, it put a new focus on women's employment and their rights as workers.

Its goal was the economic emancipation of women; the pressure group focused on employment and financial inequality.

Opposing the exclusion of married women from the world of work and the limiting of women's workdays.

https://archives.lse.ac.uk/names/fe2f2c32-75dc-0e29-a6ba-a818ec548ec5

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After a long fight for female suffrage - they didnt get the vote after WW1, like many other countries, due to fears they would vote as the preists told them, this would constitute a threat to the constitutional republican order

Hubertine Auclert was a leading French feminist, suffragist, and founder in 1876 of the Société le Suffrage des Femmes (Women’s Suffrage Society) in 1883.

Aidt, T. S. (2022). Review of Forging the Franchise: The Political Origins of the Women’s Vote. Journal of Economic Literature, 60(3), 1039–1051. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27183099

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1949 - Simone de Beauvoir published 'The second sex' 

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1949 - Simone de Beauvoir published 'The second sex' 

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Highlighted how historically women have been treated as second to men - they have been 'othered'

Set the tone for the next surges of feminist action, inspiring women to question established gender roles and their treatment in society