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John Wycliffe | Biography, Bible, Beliefs, Reformation, Legacy, Death, & Facts. (1998, July 20). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/J

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John Wycliffe's Body Burned (Spring 1428)

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John Wycliffe's Body Burned (Spring 1428)

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During Wycliffe’s life, he translated the bible into English and had a great reputation throughout England and Oxford.  He taught people that the bible was the one true religious authority, not the pope.  His reasoning for translating the bible aligns directly with this view, as he translated it so those who read it could understand its true meaning.  He was feared by the church for his so-called heretical teachings. This brought them to the decision to burn his remains and throw the ashes into the Swift River 44 years after his death in 1384.  Referring to Wycliffe's influence, John Stacy states: "Most of Wycliffe’s post-Reformation, Protestant biographers see him as the first Reformer, fighting almost alone the hosts of medieval wickedness”.

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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). St. Peter’s Basilica | History, Architects, Relics, Art, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www

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Construction Begins on St. Peter's Basilica (April 18th, 1506)

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Construction Begins on St. Peter's Basilica (April 18th, 1506)

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The construction of Saint Peter’s Basilica began on April 18th, 1506.  Saint Peter’s Basilica would become one of the most renowned churches of Roman Catholicism after its completion in 1615 by Paul V.  During its construction, the church raised money through the sale of indulgences to help fund the project.  This practice would later be harshly criticized by Martin Luther.  Today, St. Peter’s is one of the four major churches throughout the world that are deemed major basilicas.  Placing emphasis on the modern view of the Basilica, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state:  “St. Peter’s Basilica is one of the most renowned works of Renaissance Architecture and features many notable Baroque elements. It is often regarded as the greatest building of its age".

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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2022, October 24). Ninety-five Theses | Description, History, Significance, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://

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Martin Luther Posts his 95 Theses (October 31st, 1517)

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Martin Luther Posts his 95 Theses (October 31st, 1517)

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Martin Luther was harshly critical of several aspects of the Roman Catholic Church.  He was fiercely against the sale of indulgences, and believed that it was wrong to sell forgiveness via indulgences.  He also found several problems with the means of which the pope utilized his power.  Due to the invention of the printing press, these statements spread throughout the entirety of Europe in mere weeks.  This event marked the unintentional beginning of the Protestant Reformation.  Emphasizing Martin's reason to write his theses, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “Outraged at what he considered grave theological error, Luther wrote the Ninety-five Theses".

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 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998a, July 20). Diet of Worms | Germany [1521]. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Diet-of-Wo

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The Diet of Worms (April 16th-18th, 1521)

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The Diet of Worms (April 16th-18th, 1521)

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The diet of worms was a hearing lead by Charles V that gave Luther a chance to take back his criticisms of the church.  The event was arranged after Luther publicly defended his statements and burned the papal bull issued to him.  The pope would have had Luther executed on the spot, but Frederick of Saxony intervened, causing the church to hold the diet and give Luther another chance.  At the diet, Luther refused to recant his beliefs stated in the 95 theses after given time to change his stance.  For this he was excommunicated from the church.  Showing the effects of Luther's defense of his beliefs, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “Nevertheless, [The outcome of the diet of worms]  inhibited Luther’s travels throughout his lifetime and made him dependent on his prince for protection”.

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Mark, J. J. (2022, November 25). German Peasants’ War. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/German_Peasants'_War/

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The German Peasants’ War originated through the German peasants’ ideals against oppression by landlords and nobles.  They caused uprisings throughout the Holy Roman Empire, and some groups decided to form armies.  The revolts didn’t end up lasting very long, as Martin Luther’s condemnation of the war played a great part in their defeat.  Several retaliating attacks and strengthening of rules and restrictions also contributed to the end of the war.  Throughout the revolts, a grand total of over 100,000 casualties took place.  Showing similarities between this event and a future struggle, Joshua J. Mark states: “It was later characterized as epitomizing the struggle between the working class and their overlords by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels".

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Hanson, M. (2022, February 2). Act of Supremacy. English History. https://englishhistory.net/tudor/act-of-supremacy/

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The Act of Supremacy was ultimately the result of King Henry VIII’s wife, Catherine of Aragon, being unable to produce a male child.  He wanted a male child to keep his reign alive, as he was incredibly motivated from a political standpoint.  Due to his wife’s inability to give birth to a boy, Henry wanted to get an annulment, rendering his marriage nonexistent.  The pope refused to give him the annulment, causing Henry to call parliament and pass the Act of Supremacy.  This Act declared Henry VIII the top authority; the Supreme Head of the Church of England, taking the pope out of the situation entirely.  Showing how the Act of Supremacy affected future religious warfare, Marilee Manson states: “[The result of the act of supremacy] because particularly important in the second version of the Act of Supremacy When Jesuit priests infiltrated England during the reign of Elizabeth I in an attempt to enlist support for Roman Catholic causes in Europe".

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Institutes of the Christian Religion". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Jan. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Institu

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Institutes of the Christian Religion Published (1536)

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Institutes of the Christian Religion Published (1536)

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When he was 27, John Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion, which held several of Calvin’s beliefs.  Calvin’s ideas regarding religion aligned with Martin Luther, stating that faith alone leads to salvation and scripture is the sole religious authority.  Differing from Luther, however, Calvin believed in the concept of predestination, stating that destination in the afterlife, be it heaven or hell, is chosen by God far, far in advance.  It was originally published in Latin in 1536, and later in French in 1541.  He published the final edition in 1559, that was over four times as long, which would later be organized into four smaller books and published in several other languages.  Emphasizing the influence of this work, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “John Calvin's masterpiece, a summary of biblical theology that became the normative statement of the Reformed faith".

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Jesuit". Encyclopedia Britannica, 28 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jesuits. Accessed 27 November 2022.

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Society of Jesus Founded (September 27th, 1540)

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Society of Jesus Founded (September 27th, 1540)

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Ignatius of Loyola, a converted knight, was the creator of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).  His belief that spiritual warfare through knowledge was necessary was the leading factor to the formation of the Jesuits.  During its activity, spiritual exercise was utilized by the Jesuits and those they met to help reconnect spiritually.  Traditional medieval practices were rejected in order to spread the message more effectively.  The Jesuits also pushed particular emphasis on obedience to the pope during their pursuit.  Showing the small, but lasting existence of the Society of Jesus, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “By 1626 the number of Jesuits was 15,544, and in 1749 the total was 22,589".

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Council of Trent". Encyclopedia Britannica, 6 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Trent. Accessed 

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Activity of the Council of Trent (1545-1563)

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Activity of the Council of Trent (1545-1563)

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The Council of Trent was one of three pieces to the counter-reformation movement, meeting three times within its 18 years of activity.  It pushed emphasis on scripture and tradition, and defended the pope’s power.  All of these were in direct response to Martin Luther’s doctrines.  The Council also attempted to create better, more educated priests through building seminaries, or schools exclusively for priests.  The church also decided to fight corruption within itself, leading to the end of the sale of indulgences. Showing the results of the activities of the council, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “What emerged from the Council of Trent was a chastened but consolidated church and papacy, the Roman Catholicism of modern history".

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Peace of Westphalia". Encyclopedia Britannica, 17 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia. Ac

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European powers signed the Peace of Westphalia after the end of the thirty years war, which took four phases and 12 million deaths to finally come to a close.  The Thirty years war was initially a fight for religious freedom.  This was due to Emperor Ferdinand II attempting to push absolute Roman Catholic rule onto his land.  The Peace of Westphalia did severe damage to the amount of power the Roman Catholic church had, also taking power from the Habsburgs and the pope.  It essentially said that German princes are free to choose what religion the land will follow, not exclusively Roman Catholicism.  Emphasizing the effects of the 30 Years War and Peace of Westphalia, the editors of Encyclopedia Britannica state: “Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty".