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Kings were an almost constant presence in Mesopotamian history, though the size of their holdings changed from small city-states to large empires. To control their holdings, kings used a variety of methods to portray a positive image and cement a strong and impressive reputation. Kings cemented their power and strengthened their reputation in an array of ways including showcasing their prowess in battle, connecting themselves to the gods through building temple spaces, and organizing tribute from subjects. As these historical artefacts show, kings used their artistic depictions to reflect their role within their kingdom and the duties they wanted to emphasize, with these roles/duties evolving over time depending on the period.

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The Standard of Ur is a wooden box found in the Royal Tombs of Ur from around 2500 BCE which is decorated on all four sides with mosaics made of shell, red limestone, and lapis lazuli and set in bitumen. One side shows a battle with a Sumerian army charging against the enemy and prisoners being taken to a larger figure(likely the king). The other side shows men bringing animals and fish, which may be potential tribute and having a banquet.

Since the item was found in the Royal Tombs of Ur, it's likely a funerary object connected to the king in some way. Especially because of the luxurious materials like red limestone and lapis lazuli, this must be an expensive good belonging to a wealthy person, rather than a burial good associated with one of the servants in the tomb.The Early Dynastic Period when the Royal Tombs of Ur were created predates the Akkadian Empire when Mesopotamia was made up of individual Sumerian city-states ruled by kings.

In Weavers, Scribes, and Kings Podany mentions that the "tallest among them was almost certainly the king and was probably the same man with whom the object was buried." (Podany 2022, 85). Podany emphasizes the contrast between the battle scenes and tribute scenes which show us "a leader who is dominant in both war and peace and whose world is orderly even in the aftermath of a bloody battle" (Podany 2022, 86). The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean details the wide-ranging role of the king in this period which involved "control over the administration of justice, the economy and the military" (Bang 2013, 109) along with "organizing distribution of rural surplus and of trade goods [which]...established the patterns for the tributary economy" (Bang 2013, 114). We can see this responsibility of being a leader of the military and of the redistributive bureaucracy in the depiction of the king on the royal standard. He is overseeing the taking of prisoners and commanding an army when they're in battle, and taking tribute from his subjects and holding court in peacetime. This showcases two important duties of kings, which continued to be reflected for hundreds of years in Mesopotamia history: being a military and political leader. This depiction of the king shows him handling all aspects of his duty with ease, affirming both his ability to command his armies and secure his kingdom, and his ability to rule the citizens in his local area and effectively distribute tribute, which is notable in an area which continued to be heavily property-based. However, it's notable that this version of a king evolves over time. While many future Mesopotamian leaders will harken back to this imagery of leading the military, economy, and the justice system, the degree to which they emphasize each part will change. The depiction in the tombs of Ur represents an ideal, holistic king while later depictions may play up the role of an administrator of justice or of a warrior.

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Gudea of Lagash- The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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The statue of Gudea of Lagash is a diorite statue from the Mesopotamian city of Girsu in 2090 which depicts Gudea, the king of the city-state of Lagash. This is one of many diorite statues commissioned by Gudea, who rebuilt many of the temples of Lagash and placed statues like this one in them. Gudea reigned after the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, when Mesopotamia once again turned into a group of smaller city-states run by kings.

These statues were used to dedicate a temple, in this case a temple to the god Ningirsu, and send a message to the gods with this one reading in part "He [Gudea] also built the individual houses of other great gods of Lagas...the house of my personal god...Let the life of Gudea who built the house, be long".

Gudea's kingdom was fairly peaceful, but the presence of these statues and his building of temples showcases the importance of religion to his role as king and the idea of a king as a builder, especially as a builder of temples. In Weavers, Scribes, and Kings, Podany describes how Gudea revitalized religious spaces and "named his years for religious activities and construction projects and filled his inscriptions with details of the buildings he commissioned" (Podany 2022, 168). In The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, Bang explains that many city-states had "gods themselves represented their entire cities(Ningirsu for Lagash" (Bang 2013, 104). As a peacetime king ruling a smaller city-state, Gudea shifts his role from the warriors of the Akkadians to a dedication builder of temples. Gudea's rule is characterized by the revitalization and investment into religious spaces, rather than victory monuments and frequent battles. This provides him with a way to showcase his power and dedication in times of peace, highlighting a connection to gods and investing large amounts of resources in temple spaces. Additionally, Gudea cemented his power by tapping into the sentiments that the citizens felt towards the god of the city(Ningirsu), turning the temple into a way for him to connect directly with Ningirsu and gain a direct connection with the gods, showing how kings can consolidate their power by focusing on national/city-state identity.

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Victory Stele of Naram-Sin -Louvre Museum

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The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin is a large limestone tablet from the city of Sippar around 2250 BCE that depicts a victory by the Akkadian king Naram-Sin. Naram-Sin is shown as a large figure at the top of the image wearing a helmet, necklace and bracelet and carrying a bow and arrow and ax, with several Akkadian soldiers marching under him in orderly fashion. The people he is conquering are depicted cowering before him or being crushed under his feet.

The exact use of the object is unclear(it was taken to Susa in the 12th century BCE) and its inscription has been largely removed, but it's clearly meant to showcase Naram-Sin's prowess in battle and power. It depicts him in a moment of majestic victory and showcases his supremacy over others by showing him as a leader of troops and physically larger than any other figure.

The stele reflects the growth and development of the Akkadian empire and the depiction of power by its kings. The Akkadian empire was the first empire in the Ancient Near East, and began with Sargon of Akkad. Sargon and subsequent kings, like his grandson Naram-Sin, were conquerors who expanded their empire and consolidated large amounts of territory within Mesopotamia. In her book Weavers, Scribes, and Kings, Podany describes how Akkadian kings "presented themselves as conquerors who terrified their opponents; powerful(even divine) rulers" (Podany 2022, 163). Naram-Sin specifically was a notable conqueror who defeated a rebellion within the Akkadian Empire claiming "to have done so in just one year, and to have killed 95,340 men in the process", along with restoring his aunt "to her position in Ur" as high priestess. (Podany 2022, 162). The stele is notable and connected to his achievements both for its depiction of his victory and for Naram-Sin's depiction as "godlike: he is much bigger than anyone else," and his "helmet: it has horns on both sides. These too were reserved for gods." (Podany 222, 163). Through his victory stele, Naram-Sin reminds his subjects, including those who rebelled against him, of his abilities as a conqueror and depicts himself in godlike proportions. Akkadian kings consolidated power by showcasing themselves as great soldiers. Naram-Sin continues this legacy of depicting oneself as a strong conqueror who can defeat any opponent and directly connects himself to the gods, showcasing a level of "divine" power and elevating himself to godly status through his helmet. Through this depiction of himself as a divine warrior, Naram-Sin focuses the role of the king on that of an expanding conqueror, which was a primary role of Akkadian kings.