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Assistive Technology for Children with MDS

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Assistive Technology for Children with MDS

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Lega del Filo d'Oro Research Center, Molfetta, Italy

*Corresponding author: Fabrizio Stasolla, Lega del Filo d'Oro Research Center, Molfetta, Italy, E-mail: f.stasolla@libero.it
Int J Psychol Psychoanal; IJPP-1-001e (Volume 1, Issue 1), Editorial
Received: January 21, 2015: Accepted: January 22, 2015: Published: January 24, 2015
Citation: Stasolla F (2015) Assistive Technology for Children with Multiple Disabilities. Int J Psychol Psychoanal 1:001e
Copyright: © 2015 Stasolla F. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Children with severe to profound developmental and/or multiple disabilities (i.e. combination of sensorial, intellectual and motor disabilities) are commonly described as quite passive and isolated, with few opportunities to interact positively with the surrounding world, dues to their general conditions hampering their social image, status and overall desirability. Thus, those children present a very limited behavioral repertoire, often exhibiting lack of speech, failing locomotion, stereotypic behaviors, unawareness of sphincter control, withdrawal. Moreover, they are often reported with breathing abnormalities, dystonic movements, medical complications, seizures, postural and learning difficulties, highly compromising their inclusion within home, school and/or medical/rehabilitative settings. That is, they pose serious problems to parents, teachers, staff and caregivers dealing with their clinical conditions. One way to ensure this population with basic forms of independence and self-determination is the use of assistive technology- (AT) [1], based on learning principles (i.e. causal association between a behavioral response and environmental consequences) [2].

AT includes any technological device (e.g. microswitch, vocal output communication aid, tablet, laptop) aimed at enabling children with multiple disabilities with crucial minimal responses allowing them to favorably cope with the outside contexts. Thus, by producing a minimal behavioral response (e.g. eye blinking, small hand closure, slight head turning on one side), a child with severe to profound developmental disabilities will be capable of constructive engagement towards the environment, through the use of the aforementioned technological devices. For instance, by activating a microswitch with arms and/or legs movements a child may autonomously access to preferred stimuli contingently to the microswitch activation, enhancing his/her active role [3]. Furthermore, by using a speech generating device (SGD) a person may ask for social contact with one or more caregivers, who could look for his/her needs [4]. Combining a microswitch with an SGD a participant is provided with choice opportunities such as those presented by a computer-based program (CBP) [5]. Else, by adopting a microswitch cluster, one may envisage to pursue the dual objective of improving an adaptive response (e.g. object manipulation) and reducing challenge behavior such as hand mouthing [6]. Otherwise, for children with consciousness disorders dues to post-coma conditions, who emerged from a minimally conscious state, one may design a CBP fostering the opportunity of choices between preferred items and/or eventually the access to literacy process [7]. Finally, for individuals with pervasive developmental disorders such as autism who have, however, a high functioning, self-monitoring programs finalized to increase on-task behavior could be adopted [8] and/or behavioral interventions with the goal of increasing constructive engagement [9].

Beside the importance emphasized on the independence and self-determination, a growing interest is assigned to the quality of life of those individuals [10]. The latter construct (i.e. quality of life) basically includes personal well-being, health and happiness [11]. Unfortunately, those behaviors are particularly difficult to detect among non verbal population. To overcome this methodological issue, researchers usually refer to indices of happiness such as smiling, laughing, energized body movements with or without vocalizations, as an outcome measure of quality of life concerning children with multiple disabilities [12, 13]. Carrying out the effects on indices of happiness and quality of life for participants involved is the second rehabilitative purpose of an AT-based intervention, next to the option of assessing and corroborating its clinical validity through social validation procedures [14].

In light of above, new research in this area should undoubtedly deal with the following topics: (a) building new technological solutions, rigorously customer tailored, strictly responding to the constantly growing complexity of clinical conditions concerning the participants involved, (b) considering the economical coasts (i.e. by always pointing out cheap or less expensive solutions) allowing the availability of the technology to everyone, (c) promoting active and positive participation of the users, (d) integrating such programs with traditional interventions (e.g. physiotherapy, speech and/or stimulation sessions), and (e) eventually considering formal endorsements by experts such as psychologist, parents, teachers and caregivers as raters through social validation assessments [15].

References

1. Lancioni GE, Sigafoos J, OReilly MF, Singh NN (2012) Assistive Technology: Interventions for Individuals with Severe/Profound and Multiple Disabilities. New York: Springer.

2. Lancioni GE, Singh NN (2014) Assistive technologies for people with diverse abilities. New York: Springer.

3. Lancioni GE, O'Reilly MF, Singh NN, Stasolla F, Manfredi F, et al. (2004) Adapting a grid into a microswitch to suit simple hand movements of a child with profound multiple disabilities. Percept Mot Skills 99: 724-728.

4. Lancioni, GE, O'Reilly MF, Singh NN, Sigafoos J, Didden R, et al (2009) Persons with multiple disabilities accessing stimulation and requesting social contact via microswitch and VOCA devices: New research evaluation and social validation. Res Dev Disabil 30: 1084-1094.

5. Stasolla F, Caff AO, Picucci L, Bosco A (2013) Assistive technology for promoting choice behaviors in three children with cerebral palsy and severe communication impairments. Res Dev Disabil 34: 2694-2700.

6. Stasolla F, Perilli V, Damiani R, Caff AO, Di Leone A, et al. (2014) A microswitch-cluster program to enhance object manipulation and to reduce hand mouthing by three boys with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disabilities. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 8: 1071-1078.

7. Stasolla F, Caff AO, Damiani R, Perilli V, Di Leone A, et al. (2015) Assistive technology-based programs to promote communication and leisure activities by three children emerged from a minimal conscious state. Cognitive Processing 16: 69-78.

8. Stasolla F, Perilli V, Damiani R (2014) Self monitoring to promote on-task behavior by two high functioning boys with autism spectrum disorders and symptoms of ADHD. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8, 472-479.

9. Stasolla F, Damiani R, Caff, AO (2014) Promoting constructive engagement by two boys with autism spectrum disorders and high functioning through behavioral interventions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 8: 376-380.

10. Felce D, Perry J (1995) Quality of life: its definition and measurement. Res Dev Disabil 16: 51-74.

11. Lancioni GE, Singh NN, O'Reilly MF, Oliva D, Basili G (2005) An overview of research on increasing indices of happiness of people with severe/profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. Disabil Rehabil 27: 83-93.

12. Lancioni GE, Singh NN, O'Reilly MF, Oliva D, Smaldone A, et al. (2006) Assessing the effects of stimulation versus microswitch-based programmes on indices of happiness of students with multiple disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 50: 739-747.

13. Lancioni GE, Singh NN, O'Reilly MF, Sigafoos J, Oliva D, et al. (2010) Promoting ambulation responses among children with multiple disabilities through walkers and microswitches with contingent stimuli. Res Dev Disabil 31: 811-816.

14. Stasolla F, De Pace C (2014) Assistive technology to promote leisure and constructive engagement by two boys emerged from a minimal conscious state. Neuro Rehabilitation 35: 253-259.

15. Lancioni GE, O'Reilly MF, Singh NN, Groeneweg J, Bosco A, et al. (2006) A social validation assessment of microswitch-based programs for persons with multiple disabilities employing teacher trainees and parents as raters. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 18: 383-391.

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Assistive Technology for Children with Multiple Disabilities

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Lega del Filo d'Oro Research Center, Molfetta, Italy *Corresponding author: Fabrizio Stasolla, Lega del Filo d'Oro Research Center, Molfetta, Italy, E-mail: f.stasolla@libero.it Int J Psychol Psychoanal; IJPP-1-001e (Volume 1, Issue 1), Editorial Received: January 21, 2015: Accepted: January 22, 2015: Published: January 24, 2015 Citation: Stasolla F (2015) Assistive Technology for Children with Multiple Disabilities.

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Assistive Technology for Kids with Multiple Disabilities - Chau Nguyen

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The IDEA's Special Education Categories: Specific Learning Disability

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General Overview of Specific Learning Disability (SLD)

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General Overview of Specific Learning Disability (SLD)

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General Overview of Specific Learning Disability (SLD)

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What is Specific Learning Disability (SLD)?

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What is Specific Learning Disability (SLD)?

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IDEA (2004) Definition of Specific Learning Disability (SLD)

Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions

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The evaluation of a child suspected of having a learning disability involves collaboration between the child's parents and a team of professionals, including their teacher and a qualified diagnostician such as a school psychologist, speech therapist, or reading teacher. The evaluation includes classroom observations and may involve neuropsychological testing. The aim is to accurately diagnose the child and determine the best course of support.

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- Text to speech software reads text in a lifelike voice, assisting those with visual impairments such as blindness or dyslexia.
- Audio books offer various formats for listening to text, helping learning-disabled students.
- Graphic organizers help students organize thoughts in the writing process, popular among those with dysgraphia or disorders of written expression.
- Word prediction programs aid in spelling, word choice and sentence completion.
- Pencil grips, a low-tech assistive technology, corrects pencil grip to improve handwriting for those with dysgraphia.

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- Assign extra time on tests and assignments
- Typing instead of handwriting
- Small class size, can aid students with learning disabilities.
- IEP program, effective interventions and accommodations may evolve as the student grows and academic expectations change.

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USA, T. (2023, January 25). Assistive technology in the classroom. Transitions. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://www.transitionsusa.org/assistive-technology-for-learning-disabilities/#:~:text=Graphic%20organizers%20are%20one%20of,word%20choice%2C%20and%20sentence%20completion.

What is specific learning disorder? Psychiatry.org - What Is Specific Learning Disorder? (n.d.). Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/specific-learning-disorder/what-is-specific-learning-disorder#:~:text=A%20diagnosis%20is%20made%20through,individual%20with%20specific%20learning%20disorder.

YSERVIDEOS. (2013, September 1). The idea's special education categories: Specific learning disability. YouTube. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZidxNIR8xDg&ab_channel=YourSpecialEducationRights

YSERVIDEOS. (2013, September 1). The idea's special education categories: Specific learning disability. YouTube. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZidxNIR8xDg&ab_channel=YourSpecialEducationRights

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"Other health impairment (OHI) is a disability that covers a variety of conditions, diseases, disorders, and injuries that substantially affect a student's strength, vitality, or alertness. If a student's physical or mental condition is so bad that it hinders them from focusing and working in class. "

https://www.verywellfamily.com/other-health-impairments-2162517

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Other health impairment is a disability category included in the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It covers a variety of conditions, diseases, disorders, and injuries that substantially affect a student's strength, vitality, or alertness.

To be identified with an "other health impairment," the student's condition must cause a substantial impact on his educational performance. The student may qualify for special education services to help them learn and succeed. You may see "other health impairment" abbreviated as OHI.

What Is Other Health Impairment?

Other health impairments may be caused by chronic or acute health problems, meaning they can be ones that will last for a long time (or life) or ones that result from an illness or accident but improvement is expected. The condition would be expected to have an impact for at least 60 days.

Examples given in the Act include asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome. This list does not include all possible health issues that could result in a diagnosis of other health impairment.

Some of these conditions can be managed with medication and are less likely to have a substantial impact on learning ability. The designation only applies when the student's ability to progress in a typical classroom is affected by their debility. This designation allows the student to get access to the special education services they need.

The OHI category covers many conditions not already spelled out as disabilities in the IDEA. Examples of other disabilities that already have their own categories in IDEA are autism, blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, orthopedic impairment, specific learning disability, speech or language impairment, and traumatic brain injury. These are already separately listed and therefore are not OHI.

The OHI category includes a "heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment."﻿﻿ A student with attention deficit disorder, for example, who is distracted by the everyday classroom environment and who cannot pay attention may qualify for special education under the Other Health Impairment category if the problem is severe enough to affect his learning. ADHD is one of the most common conditions that result in referral for special education services as an OHI.﻿﻿

OHI and Special Education

In 2010-2011, 11% of special education students were classified under Other Health Impairments. By 2018-2019, the number of special education students under this classification grew to 15%.

Eligibility for Diagnosis

The IEP Committee of a school would consider a medical statement of the student's impairment. It should be permanent or expected to last for more than 60 days. The condition would be affecting the student's strength, vitality or alertness in the classroom environment and it has an adverse effect on their educational performance. Evaluations may be done assessing educational performance and identifying the student's needs for special education.

By Ann Logsdon
Ann Logsdon is a school psychologist specializing in helping parents and teachers support students with a range of educational and developmental disabilities.

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Other Health Impairment Disability Category for Special Ed Students

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Other health impairment is a disability category included in the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It covers a variety of conditions, diseases, disorders, and injuries that substantially affect a student's strength, vitality, or alertness. To be identified with an "other health impairment," the student's condition must cause a substantial impact on his educational performance.

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Give more time for completion of projects

Easier tasks

Place the student next to the teache

Keep them update with a schedule

Stay consistent

http://educ685disabilityresourcepage.weebly.com/other-health-impairments.html

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Documents

Informational Brochure
This brochure (select link above) provides an overview and available resources for parents and teachers who have students with Physical and Other Health Impairments

A Fact Sheet(select link above) created by the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. This document provides parents and educators with definitions, descriptions and strategies that can be used with students who have Other Health Impairments.

Media

Below is a short information video explaining Other Health Impairment as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004

Below is an informational Prezi that can be used to teach parents and educators about the classifications and characteristics of Other Health Impairments. Select the presentation to follow the link.

Strategies

Below are a few strategies suggested for students with ADD/ADHD from the National Association of School Psychologists- for more information, select the link above. Classroom Strategies for ADHD

provide brief assignments with immediate feedback

academic instruction should provided in the morning

rules are specific and clearly defined

for redirection, provide auditory cues

schedule times for physical activity

Some classroom strategies for students with Other Health Impairments from Project Ideal are: Classroom Strategies for OHI

Provide extended time

simplify tasks

assign seating close to the teacher

post daily and weekly schedules

provide structure and consistency

allow use of assisted technology.

Select the link above for more information

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"The term "other health impairment" refers to a health difficulty or medical condition that affects a student's strength or alertness-such as asthma, attention deficit disorder (ADD),...

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Allowing students to use assisted technology to assist them with the lesson. Since OHI can be associated to diabetes, epilepsy, ADHD, hepatitis  etc, It is best to keep them closer to the instructor for their and the other students safety.

http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/health-impairments/

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Definition

Other health impairment exists as an umbrella term encompassing hundreds of types of impairments that may result in a chronic condition limiting the individual's ability to effectively access the educational environment. This category is determined by limitations in the three areas of strength, vitality, and alertness, and these students may be cognitively intact. Three leading classifications under other health impairment include epilepsy, asthma, and diabetes.

However, it is the subcategory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) that will probably impact your classroom most frequently. According to the DSM-IV, AD/HD is defined as a "persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is more frequently displayed and severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development." (p. 85)

Because of the wide parameters of the other health impairment category, the bulk of this section will be devoted to those students with AD/HD, as they are the highest incidence condition in this category. They are also the students most likely to be impacted negatively by their condition; students with epilepsy, asthma and other conditions in the other health impairment category may have little or no adverse impact on educational performance when their conditions are properly medicated.

Prevalence

The U.S. Department of Education reports 5,971,945 students receiving special education services in the 2003-2004 school year. Of that number, 7.6% or 452,045 students, received special education services based on a classification of other heath impairments.

Because IDEA does not specifically define or count incidence of AD/HD, the exact prevalence of the condition is difficult to determine. However, it is estimated that from 2 to 9% of all children are identified as having the condition.

Characteristics

IDEA lists a number of different chronic health problems as possible reasons for the other health impairment label, including asthma, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, cardiac conditions, hemophilia, leukemia, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and nephritis. It would be impossible to list all of the possible characteristics under such a large disability category. The primary issue in other health impairments, whatever the condition, the resulting symptoms could adversely impact the student's educational performance. If a child has diabetes, but it is controlled through medication and does not impact learning, special education services are not appropriate for that child.

Students with AD/HD are categorized according to their characteristics into three distinct subtypes: predominantly inattentive AD/HD, predominately hyperactive-impulsive AD/HD and combined type AD/HD.

Students with the predominately inattentive type of AD/HD will exhibit six or more of the following characteristics:

Does not pay attention to detail and often makes mistakes across a number of activities

Has difficulty maintaining attention during activities

Does not complete schoolwork or other assigned activities

Has difficulty with organization of activities

Avoids activities that require mental effort or concentration

Loses materials necessary to complete assignments

Easily distracted

Forgetful in many activities

Students with the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type of AD/HD will exhibit six or more of the following characteristics:

Fidgets or squirms in seat

Gets up or leaves seat frequently during class

Runs about or climbs when inappropriate, and is generally restless

Difficulty in engaging in play activities quietly

Talks excessively

Blurts out answers

Has difficulty waiting for their turn

Interrupts others

Students with the combined type of AD/HD will have some features of both the inattentive type and the hyperactive-impulsive type of AD/HD. This is the largest population of students carrying the AD/HD label.

Impact on Learning

Students with AD/HD, no matter what subtype, can have deficits in three areas that may impact their educational performance. These three areas are executive functioning, intellectual functioning, and social/emotional functioning.

Executive functioning is the ability to process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Students with AD/HD display deficits in a number of executive functions, including working memory, internalization of speech, self-regulation, and reconstitution. These students often have an inability to learn from the experiences of the past and can repeatedly make the same mistakes. This problem with memory is often impacted by issues with self-regulation, as these students also have difficulty understanding the effect that their behavior can have on others. In addition, students with AD/HD have trouble internalizing their thoughts and can blurt out inappropriate comments. Reconstitution is the skill of analyzing thoughts and behaviors. It is this deficit in executive functioning that can be the most frustrating to these students: they may know exactly what is expected of them, but are unable to act accordingly.

The average level of intellectual functioning of students with AD/HD is a matter of controversy, but what is certain is that these students frequently have problems with academic achievement. Ten to forty percent of these students are also diagnosed with a learning disability of some type, and 30% have a reading disability. However, these students also can display a high degree of creativity and can display intense levels of focused concentration on a task of interest.

Students with AD/HD often exhibit a number of emotional issues as well, and as many as 25% of these students have some type of anxiety disorder. These emotional issues can lead to conflict with parents, teachers and peers; low self-esteem; difficulty making social connections; and higher rates of alcohol and substance abuse.

Teaching Strategies

Without the appropriate supports, students with AD/HD may experience long-term difficulties in academic, social, and emotional functioning. However, there are a number of strategies that can be taught to these students to enable them to have more control over their own educational outcomes:

Allow extra time for these students to shift from one activity or environment to the next.

Teach these students specific techniques for organizing their thoughts and materials. Organize the classroom accordingly, and keep all materials in permanent locations for easy access.

Allow extra time for finishing assignments or for testing.

For more complex activities, simplify steps to make them more manageable.

Seat the student close to the teacher and away from any peers that might be distracting.

Post a daily and weekly schedule that clearly delineates each activity. These schedules can then be used as prompts to direct the student back on task.

Keep these schedules as consistent as possible, and keep unstructured time at a minimum.

In a more global sense, teaching these students to create their own goals and objectives can help them learn to manage their lives across any number of environments and activities. This process includes the following steps:

Clearly define your goal.

Develop objectives to achieve this goal.

Define the actions necessary to achieve the desired outcome.

Teaching this process gives control back to the individual, allowing for greater motivation and self-awareness.

Assistive Technology:

There are no specific technological devices that are recommended for students with AD/HD, but there are a number of tools that can be helpful in strengthening and supporting the organizational abilities of these individuals. Low tech devices such as notebooks and dividers can be utilized to record and organize assigned homework and classroom tasks. For older students, personal digital assistants, dictating machines, and a variety of computer programs can perform the same task.

For most students in the other health impairment category, it is the needs of the individual that drive the designation of appropriate assistive technology. For the most part, the majority of these students can access and benefit from the same technological supports that are used with their normally developing peers.

Important Information

The following two publications from the U.S. Department of Education address important issues related to the instruction of children with ADHD:

Organizations

A.D.D. Warehouse

ADD Warehouse has built the world's largest collection of ADHD-related books, videos, training programs, games, professional texts and assessment products. They are a leading resource for the understanding and treatment of all developmental disorders, including ADHD and related problems.

300 Northwest 70th Avenue, Suite 102
Plantation, FL 33317

Web: www.addwarehouse.org

Adults, adolescents, and children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD)

CHADD provides education, advocacy and support to individuals with ADHD. They publish a variety of printed materials to keep members and professionals current on research advances, medications, and treatments affecting individuals with ADHD.

8181 Professional Place, Suite 150
Landover, MD 20785

Web: chadd.org

American Diabetes Association

The American Diabetes Association funds research to prevent, cure, and manage diabetes and delivers services at the community level.

1707 North Beauregard Street Alexandria, VA 22311

Web: www.diabetes.org

Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA)

The Asthma and Allergy foundation of America works to develop and implement public policies to improve the quality of life for people with asthma and allergies.

Web: aafa.org

Center for Disability and Development

Dept. of Educational Psychology
4225 Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843-4225

Council for Exceptional Children

The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is the largest international professional organization dedicated to improving educational outcomes for individuals with exceptionalities, students with disabilities, and/or the gifted. CEC advocates for appropriate governmental policies, sets professional standards, provides continual professional development, advocates for newly and historically underserved individuals with exceptionalities, and helps professionals obtain conditions and resources necessary for effective professional practice.

1110 North Glebe Road, Suite 300
Arlington, VA 22201-5704

Email: service@cec.sped.org
Web: www.cec.sped.org

Epilepsy Foundation-National Office

The Epilepsy Foundation of America® is the national voluntary agency solely dedicated to the welfare of the more than 3 million people with epilepsy in the U.S. and their families. The organization works to ensure that people with seizures are able to participate in all life experiences; to improve how people with epilepsy are perceived, accepted and valued in society; and to promote research for a cure.

4351 Garden City Drive, Suite 500
Landover, MD 20785-7223

Web: epilepsyfoundation.org

Epilepsy Foundation of Southeast Texas

2630 Fountain View, Suite 210
Houston, TX 77057

8802 Harry Hines Boulevard
Dallas, TX 75235

Email: dstahlhut@efset.org
Web: www.efset.org

Epilepsy Foundation, Central and South Texas

10615 Perrin Beitel, Suite 602
San Antonio, TX 78217

Email: staff@efcst.org

Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)

LDA is the largest non-profit volunteer organization advocating for individuals with learning disabilities and has over 200 state and local affiliates in 42 states and Puerto Rico. The membership, composed of individuals with learning disabilities, family members and concerned professionals, advocates for the almost three million students of school age with learning disabilities and for adults affected with learning disabilities. LDA's mission is to create opportunities for success for all individuals affected by learning disabilities and to reduce the incidence of learning disabilities in future generations.

4156 Library Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15234-1349

E-mail: info@ldaamerica.org
Web: www.ldaamerica.org

National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems, Inc

The National Disability Rights Network (NDRN) is the nonprofit membership organization for the federally mandated Protection and Advocacy (P&A) Systems and Client Assistance Programs (CAP) for individuals with disabilities. Collectively, the P&A/CAP network is the largest provider of legally based advocacy services to people with disabilities in the United States. Through training and technical assistance, legal support, and legislative advocacy, the National Disability Rights Network works to create a society in which people with disabilities are afforded equality of opportunity and are able to fully participate by exercising choice and self-etermination.

900 Second Street, NE, Suite 211
Washington, DC 20002

Web: www.napas.org

National Attention Deficit Disorder Association (ADDA)

The mission of ADDA is to provide information, resources and networking to adults with AD/HD and to the professionals who work with them. In doing so, ADDA generates hope, awareness, empowerment and connections worldwide in the field of AD/HD. Bringing together scientific perspectives and the human experience, the information and resources provided to individuals and families affected by AD/HD and professionals in the field focuses on diagnoses, treatments, strategies and techniques for helping adults with AD/HD lead better lives.

P.O. Box 543
Pottstown, PA 19464

Web: www.add.org

National Center for Learning Disabilities

The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) has developed this comprehensive site to help: parents make informed decisions affecting their children who have a learning disability or who may be at risk for learning disabilities; educators gain access to authoritative information about research-based instruction, assessment and support services; child care providers and early childhood teachers understand early literacy skill development, recognize warning signs and respond to young children's needs; and advocates promote educational rights and opportunities for all individuals with learning disabilities.

381 Park Avenue South, Suite 1401
New York, NY 10016

Web: www.ld.org

References

American Psychiatric Association (2000). (DSM-IV-TR) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.

Hunt, N., and Marshall, K. (2006). Exceptional children and youth. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R. & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Exceptional lives. Special education in today's schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

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Information on health impairments and the impact it may have on learning.

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Since OHI classifies several different disabilities, it is hard to specify one specific thing that should be done. The most common suggestion is helping them stay organized.

https://youtu.be/xnSvLRD1VMo?t=129

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Other Health Impairment: Students wit Disabilities

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An impairment in hearing, in one or both ears, with or without amplification, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a student’s educational performance but is not included under the definition of deafness.
Identiyfing hearing impairment - students have trouble with vocabulary, grammar, listening to lectures and participating in classroom discussions. It might feel as if these kids are not paying attention, when they actually haven’t even heard the instructions.

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Supporting children with hearing impairment

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Supporting children with hearing impairment

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Top 5 tips:
1. Identifying hearing impairment
2. Know how to manage the technology aids
3. Creating the right listening environment
4. Make sure you have the person's attention before you communicate with them.
5. Promote listening skills through reinforcements

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Assess, plan, do, review (England)

Our presentation explains how the 'assess, plan, do, review' cycle can be applied to deaf children to improve outcomes. It is intended for use by Teachers of the Deaf or other specialist staff with mainstream teachers or other education staff.

Download the 'Assess, plan, do, review' presentation

The National Sensory Impairment Partnership (NatSIP) have also produced guidance on how 'assess, plan, do, review' can be applied to deaf children.

Download the NatSIP guidance

Buddy up! Setting up a peer support scheme for deaf pupils in your school

Our toolkit for teachers explains how they can set up a peer support scheme for deaf pupils.
Download the guide now
There is also a separate guide for teachers in secondary schools.

Improving deaf children's literacy skills

This resource is made up of a 10-unit programme of lessons, exercises, games and specially designed books to improve deaf children's literacy skills by increasing their understanding of English morphology and syntax. It's aimed at helping deaf children who are aged 7-11 years and is most suitable for deaf children who are not performing at the expected level for their age.

Watch our video with Diana, a Teacher of the Deaf, who gives step-by-step instructions on how to use the resource.

Numeracy programme

Our briefing paper summarises a programme to improve deaf children's numeracy. It is intended to be used mainly with deaf children aged 5 to 11, according to the individual child's needs.
Download the 'Mathematics' briefing paper
Working memory

This programme aims to support primary school teachers in helping their deaf pupils to develop their working memory.

Research by Oxford University found that deaf pupils using these materials achieved more on working memory measures when compared with a group of children of the same age and intellectual skills who did not use the materials. Working memory is important because it is a skill which supports a child's progress in literacy and numeracy. Our briefing has more information on this research.
Working memory programme

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Primary education | Information for professionals

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Find out more about our free resources for teachers and other education professionals on deaf-friendly teaching and support for primary aged deaf children

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Providing Services and Accommodations for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in a Mainstream Setting

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https://www.ndcs.org.uk/information-and-support/being-deaf-friendly/information-for-professionals/primary-education/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSHRQRsvFYs

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Deafness refers to a severe hearing impairment which limits a child in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects the student’s educational performance. In other words, it is an inability to comprehend verbal language due to the lack of hearing ability characterized by deafness.
A person with this condition suffers from a hearing loss in pitch and loudness (> 90 decibels). They cannot fully hear even with amplification (hearing aids do not help).

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Facts from the WHO about deafness and hearing loss

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Facts from the WHO about deafness and hearing loss

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Overview

Over 5% of the world's population - or 430 million people - require rehabilitation to address their disabling hearing loss (432 million adults and 34 million children). It is estimated that by 2050 over 700 million people - or 1 in every 10 people - will have disabling hearing loss.

'Disabling' hearing loss refers to hearing loss greater than 35 decibels (dB) in the better hearing ear. Nearly 80% of people with disabling hearing loss live in low- and middle-income countries. The prevalence of hearing loss increases with age, among those older than 60 years, over 25% are affected by disabling hearing loss.

Hearing loss and deafness

A person who is not able to hear as well as someone with normal hearing - hearing thresholds of 20 dB or better in both ears - is said to have hearing loss. Hearing loss may be mild, moderate, severe, or profound. It can affect one ear or both ears and leads to difficulty in hearing conversational speech or loud sounds.

'Hard of hearing' refers to people with hearing loss ranging from mild to severe. People who are hard of hearing usually communicate through spoken language and can benefit from hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other assistive devices as well as captioning.

'Deaf' people mostly have profound hearing loss, which implies very little or no hearing. They often use sign language for communication.

Causes of hearing loss and deafness

Although these factors can be encountered at different periods across the life span, individuals are most susceptible to their effects during critical periods in life.

Prenatal period

genetic factors including hereditary and non-hereditary hearing loss

intrauterine infections - such as rubella and cytomegalovirus infection.

Perinatal period

birth asphyxia (a lack of oxygen at the time of birth

hyperbilirubinemia (severe jaundice in the neonatal period)

low-birth weight

other perinatal morbidities and their management.

Childhood and adolescence

chronic ear infections (chronic suppurative otitis media)

collection of fluid in the ear (chronic nonsuppurativeotitis media)

meningitis and other infections.

Adulthood and older age

chronic diseases

smoking

otosclerosis

age-related sensorineural degeneration

sudden sensorineural hearing loss.

Factors across the life span

cerumen impaction (impacted ear wax)

trauma to the ear or head

loud noise/loud sounds

ototoxic medicines

work related ototoxic chemicals

nutritional deficiencies

viral infections and other ear conditions

delayed onset or progressive genetic hearing loss.

The impact of unaddressed hearing loss

When unaddressed, hearing loss impacts many aspects of life at individual level:

communication and speech

cognition

education and employment: In developing countries, children with hearing loss and deafness often do not receive schooling. Adults with hearing loss also have a much higher unemployment rate. Among those who are employed, a higher percentage of people with hearing loss are in the lower grades of employment compared with the general workforce.

social isolation, loneliness and stigma

impact on society and economy

effects on years lived with disability (YDLs) and disability adjusted life years (DALYs).

WHO estimates that unaddressed hearing loss poses an annual global cost of US$ 980 billion. This includes health sector costs (excluding the cost of hearing devices), costs of educational support, loss of productivity, and societal costs. Of these costs, 57% are attributed to low- and middle-income countries.

Prevention

Many of the causes that lead to hearing loss can be avoided through public health strategies and clinical interventions implemented across the life course.

Prevention of hearing loss is essential throughout the life course, from prenatal and perinatal periods to older age. In children, nearly 60% of hearing loss is due to avoidable causes that can be prevented through implementation of public health measures. Likewise, most common causes of hearing loss in adults, such as exposure to loud sounds and ototoxic medicines, are preventable.

Effective strategies for reducing hearing loss at different stages of the life course include:

immunization;

good maternal and childcare practices;

genetic counselling;

identification and management of common ear conditions;

occupational hearing conservation programmes for noise and chemical exposure;

safe listening strategies for the reduction of exposure to loud sounds in recreational settings; and

rational use of medicines to prevent ototoxic hearing loss.

Identification and management

Early identification of hearing loss and ear diseases is key to effective management.

This requires systematic screening for detection of hearing loss and related ear diseases in those who are most at risk. This includes:

newborn babies and infants

pre-school and school-age children

people exposed to noise or chemicals at work

people receiving ototoxic medicines

older adults.

Hearing assessment and ear examination can be conducted in clinical and community settings. Tools such as the WHO "hearWHO" app and other technology-based solutions make it possible to screen for ear diseases and hearing loss with limited training and resources.

Once hearing loss is identified, it is essential that it is addressed as early as possible and in an appropriate manner, to mitigate any adverse impact.

Measures available to rehabilitate people with hearing loss include:

the use of hearing technologies, such as hearing aids, cochlear implants and middle ear implants;

the use of sign language and other means of sensory substitution,such as speech reading, use of print on palm or Tadoma, signed communication; and

rehabilitative therapy to enhance perceptive skills and develop communication and linguistic abilities.

The use of hearing assistive technology, and services such as frequency modulation and loop systems, alerting devices, telecommunication devices,captioning services and sign language interpretation, can further improve access to communication and education for people with hearing loss.

WHO response

WHO's work on ear and hearing care is to promote integrated people-centred ear and hearing care (IPC-EHHC).

WHO's work is guided by the recommendations of the WHO World report on hearing (2021) and the World Health Assembly resolution on prevention of deafness and hearing loss.

WHO's work includes:

guiding, assisting and supporting Member States to increase awareness on EHC issues;

facilitating data generation and dissemination of ear and hearing care related data and information;

providing technical resources and guidance to facilitate planning and health systems capacity building for ear and hearing care;

supporting heath workforce training in ear and hearing care;

promoting safe listening to reduce the risk of recreational noise-induced hearing loss through the WHO Make Listening Safe initiative;

observing and promoting World Hearing Day as an annual advocacy event;

building partnerships to develop strong hearing care programmes, including initiatives for affordable hearing aids, cochlear implants and services; and

advocating for ear and hearing care through the World Hearing Forum.

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Deafness and hearing loss fact sheet from WHO: providing key facts and information on causes, impact, prevention, identification, management and WHO response.

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1. Use text to speech assistive technology
2. Provide class note-taker
3. Make accommodations; quiet classrooms, seating close to the teacher, closed captioning on all video media.

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https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/procedural-support-disability-categories

https://engage-education.com/blog/how-to-support-a-child-with-a-hearing-impairment-in-school/

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Emotional Disturbance is just one consideration in making any students Individualized Education Plan (IEP).  It is one of 14 Disabilities listed under the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA).  Please watch the above video for some background information about Emotional Disturbance.

Assistive Technologies and Accomodations

Stop Watch

For student with Emotional Disturbance, the use of a stopwatch could help reduce their fears with regards to completing a task on time.  It’s a simple piece of technology that they can use to be able to see how much time has passed, and how much time they have left.

Text to Speech and Speech to Text

Depending on the circumstance, text-to-speech or speech-to-text software could help a student with Emotional Disturbance who has an inability to learn.  Text-to-speech could be used for a student who is having difficulty reading, whereas speech-to-text software could help a student who has more trouble watching videos in a non-native language.

Self-Graphing

Students with Inappropriate Behvaviour as a result of Emotional Disturbance could use Self-Graphing to track how they have behaved over time.  This could be combined with a Reward System, and hopefully reduce occurrences of Inappropriate Behaviour.

Power Cards

“Power Cards are visual aids developed by educators and parents to help students make sense of social situations, routines, the meaning of language, and the ‘hidden curriculum’ embedded in all environmental settings.”  (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967467.pdf)  Power cards could help a student build their Personal Relationships, and navigate other challenging social situations.

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https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/5-tips-for-handling-ebd-kids-emotional-behavior-disorder-in-an-inclusive-classroom/

http://idea-resources.weebly.com/emotional-disturbance.html

https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c/4

https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/procedural-support-disability-categories

https://www.ldatschool.ca/assistive-technology/

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ967467.pdf

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According to NHS (National Health Service),

Deaf-blindness is a combination of sight and hearing loss that affects a person's ability to communicate, access information and get around. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/deafblindness/

"Dual sensory loss" or "multi-sensory impairment" are common name for Deaf-blindness.

A deafblind person won't usually be totally deaf and totally blind, but both senses will be reduced enough to cause significant difficulties in everyday life. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/deafblindness/

The deafblind person will be able to use another sense to support themselves to learning.

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Most deafblind people will still have some hearing or vision. So provide enough care and support will be the most effective way.

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Assistive Technology (AT) is any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially or off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
https://deafblind.ufl.edu/topics/assistive-technology/

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FAVI Deaf-Blind Collaborative » College of Medicine » University of Florida

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Homepage

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Overview of a variety of communication technologies from a deaf-blindness

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Overview of a variety of communication technologies from a deaf-blindness

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Communication Technology for Persons Who Are Deafblind

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iCanConnect: a program that provides free equipment and training for deaf-blindness.
Also, is a national program with local contacts that help deaf-blindness people stay connected with others.

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Telecommunications - Many different options are available for those who are D/deaf or HoH, including amplified telephones, TTY / TDD, Text-to-911, and video chat.

https://www.levelaccess.com/blog/understanding-assistive-technology-how-do-deaf-blind-people-use-technology/#:~:text=Braille%20displays%3A%20A%20device%20that,with%20websites%20using%20their%20voice

Assistive listening devices - magnifying a video or instructor’s voice or sound, which is then translated to a student’s hearing aid or cochlear implant, allowing them to follow along with lessons.

Infrared systems - transmit audio signals to a magnetic field around a student’s head — produced by a receiver — which a hearing aid can tap into.

Communicators - generate speech so students have an easier time interacting with their teachers and peers.

https://enablingdevices.com/blog/assistive-technology-in-the-classroom/#:~:text=Speech%2Dto%2Dtext%20software%20and,benefit%20from%20communicators%2C%20as%20well.

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Screen readers - a program that analyses the layout and content of a website and provides a text to speech translation.

Braille displays device - translate digital text into braille dots that can be read with the fingers.

Dictation - Speech recognition software allows a user to navigate, type, and interact with websites using their voice.

https://www.levelaccess.com/blog/understanding-assistive-technology-how-do-deaf-blind-people-use-technology/#:~:text=Braille%20displays%3A%20A%20device%20that,with%20websites%20using%20their%20voice

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices - have large, textured icons with bright, colorful hues that enable students with visual impairments to better communicate.

Musical light box - helps students with visual impairments strengthen their writing skills by providing a backlight for tracing.

https://enablingdevices.com/blog/assistive-technology-in-the-classroom/#:~:text=Speech%2Dto%2Dtext%20software%20and,benefit%20from%20communicators%2C%20as%20well.

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Kit for the Visually Impaired | Enabling Devices

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Enabling Devices provides of a range of assistive technology and adapted products for people with disabilities, their teachers and therapists.

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Ubitone is a communication device.

By using vocal recognition as a machine learning technique and Braille dictionary, ubitone translate the voice into an understandable form for deaf-blindness. The device has six rings with vibrators and It transmits 6-dot cells of Braille as vibration to six fingers. The app on a smartphone performs processing and communicates information by linking with the device via Bluetooth. The speech recognition engine and Braille dictionary are all completed in the application, so they can be used without problems in offline environments such as tunnels.

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https://www.jamesdysonaward.org/ja-JP/2019/project/ubitone/

https://www.levelaccess.com/blog/understanding-assistive-technology-how-do-deaf-blind-people-use-technology/#:~:text=Braille%20displays%3A%20A%20device%20that,with%20websites%20using%20their%20voice

https://enablingdevices.com/blog/assistive-technology-in-the-classroom/#:~:text=Speech%2Dto%2Dtext%20software%20and,benefit%20from%20communicators%2C%20as%20well.

https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/deafblindness/

https://leher.org/campaigns/infographics/5-ways-deafblindness-crippling-children/

https://deafblind.ufl.edu/topics/assistive-technology/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0QiTu26Own0

https://www.icanconnect.org

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Visual impairment, including blindness, is defined under the Federal (IDEA) standard as a vision impairment that negatively impacts a child's academic performance even with vision correction. The phrase refers to both partial sight and total blindness (Visual Impairment Including Blindness - Special Education Nation, n.d.) .

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As defined by the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (n.d.), the different types of visual impairment with regards to education are as follows:

Partially Sighted
- denotes the requirement for special schooling due to some sort of visual issue.

Low Vision
- describes a significant visual impairment that is not always restricted to distant vision. All people with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the use of eyeglasses or contact lenses, are said to have low vision. They learn by a mix of their eyesight and other senses, albeit they may need adjustments to the lighting, the print size, and occasionally braille;

Legally blind
- refers to students with better eye vision less than 20/200 or if their field of vision is extremely narrow (20 degrees at its widest point).

Totally Blind
- are students who are completely blind and learn through braille or other non-visual tools.

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Understanding Vision Impairment in Children - Lily-Grace

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In 2014, NICHCY reported that individuals under the age of 18 experience visual impairments at a rate of 12.2 and 0.06 legally blind or fully blind for every 1,000 people.

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Characteristics of Students with Visual Impairments

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Characteristics of Students with Visual Impairments

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Depending on the intensity, kind of loss, age at which the disease manifests, and overall functional level of the student, visual issues might have an impact on a student's development. Numerous adolescents with various disabilities, including visual impairments, may experience delays in physical, cognitive, and/or social development.

A young learner with visual impairments has limited motivation to investigate intriguing objects in their surroundings and may thus pass up chances to engage in experiences and learn new things. There's a chance that this lack of investigation won't end until either learning becomes rewarding or until help is offered.

The pupil might not be able to copy social behavior or comprehend nonverbal clues since they cannot see their parents, guardians, or peers. Visual impairments might provide challenges to a developing student's independence (NICHCY).

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Accommodations and Considerations for Students with Visual Impairments

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Accommodations and Considerations for Students with Visual Impairments

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The Intermediate Unit 1 vision support program operates under the guiding principle that all visually impaired pupils are valuable and significant persons who are more alike than different from other kids. The vision support program's main objective is to equip students with various degrees of visual impairment with the skills they need to contribute to society in a positive way (Visual Impairment Support, n.d.).

Vision support services may be direct or indirect in the areas of:

Concept skills

Academic skills

Auditory skills

Sensory and motor skills

Orientation and mobility skills

Career and vocational skills

Organizational and productivity skills

Braille skills

Recreation and leisure skills

Assistive technology skills

Social skills

Independent daily living skills

Utilization of low vision skills

According to new research, accommodations let students get access to the course material rather than lowering the requirements for their grade level. The quantity or complexity of the material taught to the pupil is unaffected. Accommodations are modifications to the program's usual procedures that give a student with a handicap an equal chance to participate and enable the student to succeed. The criteria are not fundamentally or significantly lowered or altered by these revisions.(Accommodations & Modifications, n.d.)

The goal of accommodations is to reduce or remove the disability's impediment with daily life. The district and state testing would be linked to these adjustments. The student's continuous educational program must include accommodations; they cannot be added during tests mandated by the state. When selecting accommodations, they must:

be based on current, unique student needs; lessen how a handicap affects access to the present curriculum;

be precise about the accommodations' location, timing, recipients, and mode of delivery.

include recent feedback from therapists, instructors, parents, and students;

be based on the particular demands that exist right now in each subject area.

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Assistive Technology for Students with Visual Impairment

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Assistive Technology for Students with Visual Impairment

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According to the IDEA, an assistive technology device is any item, piece of equipment, or product system that is used to raise, maintain, or improve the functional capacities of people with disabilities, regardless of whether it was purchased commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized. Additionally, it levels the playing field for visually impaired children so they may compete more successfully in the classroom and with their sighted classmates in the employment market of today (Sec. 300.5 Assistive Technology Device, 2017).

Assistive technology in the field of visual impairment is classified into two major groups based on the individual's functional vision skills or lack of vision: low vision devices and blindness devices (Visual Impairment Including Blindness - Special Education Nation, n.d.).

From "low tech" magnifiers and large print materials to audio books and tape recorders, the use of a cane or a Braille Writer or slate and stylus, to "high tech" devices like modified computer systems, portable note-takers, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), refreshable Braille displays, and reading systems for both low vision and blind students, assistive technology may range widely.

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Assistive Technology for Visual Impairments or Blindess

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Accommodations & Modifications. (n.d.). Teaching Students With Visual Impairments. https://www.teachingvisuallyimpaired.com/accommodations--modifications.html

Sec. 300.5 Assistive technology device. (2017, May 3). Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.5

Visual Impairment including Blindness - Special Education Nation. (n.d.). https://sites.google.com/site/specialeducationnation/visual-impairment-including-blindness

Visual Impairments NICHCY Disability Fact Sheet :: (n.d.). Teacher Tools OnlineÂ®. https://teachertoolsonline.com/views/teachers/public/articles/detail/article/c/a116/

Visual Impairment Support. (n.d.). Special Education Services. https://www.iu1.org/departments/special-education-services/visual-impairment-support

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What was formerly known as mental retardation, intellectual disabilities are defined as “significantly sub average general intellectual functioning”. Intellectual disabilities are characterized by having significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior concerning conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills.

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There are two categories of cause for intellectual disability.

Timing

Refers to the time of onset of the disability and has implications for causes.

Prenatal- before birth

Perinatal - during the birth process

Postnatal-  after birth

Type

Biomedical

Factors that relate to biology, such as genetics and nutrition

Social

Relate to social and family interaction, such as stimulation and adult responsiveness

Behavioral

Relate to potentially causal behavior, such as dangerous activities and maternal drug abuse

Educational

Relate to availability of educational supports that promote mental development of adaptive skills

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Important to form support systems for students which can include: parents students, educators and adult support providers

A functional curriculum is important for teaching skills for independent living.

Preschool students benefits from paralinguistic atmosphere teach to elicit communication and language from them

Elementary students can develop abilities to function effectively in schools and post school environments by using the self-determined learning model.

Students in transition programs benefit from community-based instruction.

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Early Childhood Students:
Teachers can use the pre-linguistic milieu teaching method to reach children who do not speak.  This method teaches children to make frequent, clear request s or comments using hand motions or sounds while maintaining eye contact with the person to whom they are speaking.
A few basic principles include:
Always remember to follow the child’s lead and keep in mind that focus is easier when the subject is of interest to the child.  Begin a session once you have determined the child’s interest .  Communication should be face to face with the child and it is important for the teacher to maintain eye contact while the child speaks.

By placing a favorite toy, out of reach, in the room will help set the stage for communication and give the teacher the opportunity to encourage the child to ask for the toy.  Changing the order of items in the room could also give the child a reason to question or comment.

When using strategic games like Pat-a-Cake or Peek-a-boo, be mindful that children learn the game ritual.  If the teacher changes or interrupts the game, it may cause the child to communicate in order to keep playing.  Both of these games encourage face to face contact and communication.

Elementary and Middle School Students:

By using the self-determined learning model of Instruction, teachers can help  middle school students’ progress in achieving general curriculum goals as well as other educational goals.

Teachers can begin by presenting the student with a problem that he or she needs to solve and then begin asking the student to consider the questions…What is my goal?, What is my plan? And what have I learned?

Secondary and Transition Students:

Teaching in an actual community setting (Community-Based Instruction) will help students learn transition-related skills.  This type of learning will also connect the curriculum to everyday life experiences.

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Once the special education team has determined that supplementary aids and services are needed, they can discuss which ones will be most effective for the particular student.  Various technologies are included in this area.  One such technology is created by The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST).  Cast offers various learning tools that follow the Universal Design For Learning (UDL).  Some of these include the UDL book builder, curriculum self check, lesson builder, and science writer.  These tools are helpful for the student as well as the teacher.  This specific software is an audio and video based curriculum that defines words and gives videos and examples of how to use them.  Teachers can tailor the content to their students capabilities.

Assistive technology (AT) is another aspect of special education.  AT is any item, piece of equipment, or product system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.  ATs can be high tech or low tech.  High tech devices include computers, electronic equipment or software.  Low tech devices are any devices that are manually operated, not electronic.

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https://sites.google.com/site/todayssped/idea/idea-categories/intellectual-disability

Additional Resources:

http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual

http://www.slc.sevier.org/disabstu.htm

http://www.cast.org/udl/index.html

http://bookbuilder.cast.org/

http://www.edutopia.org/assistive-technology-young-children-special-education

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Important to form support systems for students which can include: parents students, educators and adult support providers

A functional curriculum is important for teaching skills for independent living.

Preschool students benefits from paralinguistic atmosphere teach to elicit communication and language from them

Elementary students can develop abilities to function effectively in schools and post school environments by using the self-determined learning model.

Students in transition programs benefit from community-based instruction.

Early Childhood Students:

A few basic principles include:

Elementary and Middle School Students:

Teachers can begin by presenting the student with a problem that he or she needs to solve and then begin asking the student to consider the questions...What is my goal?, What is my plan? And what have I learned?

Secondary and Transition Students:

Teaching in an actual community setting (Community-Based Instruction) will help students learn transition-related skills. This type of learning will also connect the curriculum to everyday life experiences.

http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual

http://www.slc.sevier.org/disabstu.htm

http://www.edutopia.org/assistive-technology-young-children-special-education

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Intellectual Disability - Exceptional Lives

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Important to form support systems for students which can include: parents students, educators and adult support providers A functional curriculum is important for teaching skills for independent living. Preschool students benefits from paralinguistic atmosphere teach to elicit communication and language from them Elementary students can develop abilities to function effectively in schools and post school environments by using the self-determined learning model.

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https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism

https://www.autismspeaks.org/signs-autism

https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-diagnosis-criteria-dsm-5

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Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. According to the Centers for Disease Control, autism affects an estimated 1 in 36 children in the United States today.

We know that there is not one autism but many subtypes, most influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Because autism is a spectrum disorder, each person with autism has a distinct set of strengths and challenges. The ways in which people with autism learn, think and problem-solve can range from highly skilled to severely challenged. Some people with ASD may require significant support in their daily lives, while others may need less support and, in some cases, live entirely independently.

Several factors may influence the development of autism, and it is often accompanied by sensory sensitivities and medical issues such as gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, seizures or sleep disorders, as well as mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression and attention issues.

Signs of autism usually appear by age 2 or 3. Some associated development delays can appear even earlier, and often, it can be diagnosed as early as 18 months. Research shows that early intervention leads to positive outcomes later in life for people with autism.

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What is autism spectrum disorder (asd)? Click here to read the definition, learn about different types of autism and how to help autistic kids.

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Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication.

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What are the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism?

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What are the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism?

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The DSM-5 is now the standard reference that healthcare providers use to diagnose mental and behavioral conditions, including autism.

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The autism diagnosis age and intensity of autism’s early signs vary widely. Some infants show hints in their first months. In others, behaviors become obvious as late as age 2 or 3. Not all children with autism show all the signs. Many children who don’t have autism show a few. That’s why professional evaluation is crucial.

Some associated development delays can appear even earlier, and often, it can be diagnosed as early as 18 months. Research shows that early intervention leads to positive outcomes later in life for people with autism.

The range and severity of symptoms can vary widely. Common symptoms include difficulty with communication, difficulty with social interactions, obsessive interests, and repetitive behaviors.

Early recognition, as well as behavioral, educational, and family therapies may reduce symptoms and support development and learning.

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A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, as manifested by the following, currently or by history

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for example, from abnormal social approach and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation; to reduced sharing of interests, emotions, or affect; to failure to initiate or respond to social interactions.

2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, ranging, for example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of facial expressions and nonverbal communication.

3. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships, ranging, for example, from difficulties adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to difficulties in  sharing imaginative play or in making friends; to absence of interest in peers.

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following, currently or by history

1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g., simple motor stereotypies, lining up toys or flipping objects, echolalia, idiosyncratic phrases).

2. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns or verbal nonverbal behavior (e.g., extreme distress at small changes, difficulties with transitions, rigid thinking patterns, greeting rituals, need to take same route or eat food every day).

3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus (e.g, strong attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, excessively circumscribed or perseverative interest).

4. Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the environment (e.g., apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or movement).

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities or may be masked by learned strategies in later life).

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of current functioning.

E. These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) or global developmental delay. Intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder frequently co-occur; to make comorbid diagnoses of autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, social communication should be below that expected for general developmental level.

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Severity levels for autism spectrum disorder

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Severity levels for autism spectrum disorder

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Level 1 "Requiring support”

Social communication:

Without supports in place, deficits in social communication cause noticeable impairments. Difficulty initiating social interactions, and clear examples of atypical or unsuccessful response to social overtures of others. May appear to have decreased interest in social interactions. For example, a person who is able to speak in full sentences and engages in communication but whose to- and-fro conversation with others fails, and whose attempts to make friends are odd and typically unsuccessful.

Restricted, repetitive behaviors:

Inflexibility of behavior causes significant interference with functioning in one or more contexts. Difficulty switching between activities. Problems of organization and planning hamper independence.

Level 2 "Requiring substantial support”

Social communication:

Marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication skills; social impairments apparent even with supports in place; limited initiation of social interactions; and reduced or  abnormal responses to social overtures from others. For example, a person who speaks simple sentences, whose interaction is limited  to narrow special interests, and how has markedly odd nonverbal communication.

Restricted, repetitive behaviors:

Inflexibility of behavior, difficulty coping with change, or other restricted/repetitive behaviors appear frequently enough to be obvious to the casual observer and interfere with functioning in  a variety of contexts. Distress and/or difficulty changing focus or action.

Level 3 "Requiring very substantial support”

Social communication:

Severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication skills cause severe impairments in functioning, very limited initiation of social interactions, and minimal response to social overtures from others. For example, a person with few words of intelligible speech who rarely initiates interaction and, when he or she does, makes unusual approaches to meet needs only and responds to only very direct social approaches

Restricted, repetitive behaviors:

Inflexibility of behavior, extreme difficulty coping with change, or other restricted/repetitive behaviors markedly interfere with functioning in all spheres. Great distress/difficulty changing focus or action.

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Delay in reaching language, thinking, social, or motor skills milestones is called developmental delay.

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What Are The Main Signs Of Developmental Delay In Children? - Bing video

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signs for developmental delay - Search Videos

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autism spectrum disorders (ASDs)

cerebral palsy

fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

Landau Kleffner syndrome

myopathies, including muscular dystrophies

genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome

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Audiobooks
For younger children, teachers can use the AbleNet Bookworm to transform any book into an audiobook. Older kids might appreciate a better variety of stories found on subscription websites like Audible.

Text-to-Speech Software
A text-to-speech software could help students to gain control of what they need to say.

FM Systems
FM systems can help by connecting the teacher and student in an audible way with radio broadcast technology.

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Trust Your Gut

No one knows your child as well as you do. So, if you feel like something may be wrong, there is a good chance that it may be.

Act Early

If you are worried then it never hurts to reach out for opinions and help. With any developmental delay, early treatment is key.

Be Vigilant

Your child’s pediatrician is your go-to person if you suspect that your child is not developing on schedule; but it is you who is your child’s ultimate advocate. If you have a concern, be vigilant in requesting a developmental screening.

Get a Professional Assessment

There are two types of professional assessments that your child can receive when determining a developmental delay; medical and educational. Your pediatrician or a specialist can provide medical assessments in addition to your child’s well-child visit and your local school system can perform an educational assessment.

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autismspeaks.org

devdelay.org

parentcenterhub.org

parentcenterhub.org

ed.gov

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Developmental Delay: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & More (healthline.com)
Assistive Technology to Help Students with Developmental Delays Succeed Academically - The Tech Edvocate

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Children reach developmental milestones at their own pace, and some move faster than others. Two siblings in the same family may reach milestones at different rates.

Minor, temporary delays are usually no cause for alarm, but an ongoing delay or multiple delays in reaching milestones can be a sign there may be challenges later in life.

Delay in reaching language, thinking, social, or motor skills milestones is called developmental delay.

Developmental delay may be caused by a variety of factors, including heredity, complications during pregnancy, and premature birth. The cause isn't always known.

If you suspect your child has developmental delay, speak with their pediatrician. Developmental delay sometimes indicates an underlying condition that only doctors can diagnose.

Once you get a diagnosis, you can plan for therapies or other early interventions to help your child's progress and development into adulthood.

Fine motor skills include small movements like holding a toy or using a crayon. Gross motor skills require larger movements, like jumping, climbing stairs, or throwing a ball.

Children progress at different rates, but most children can lift their head by 3 months old, sit with some support by 6 months, and walk well before their second birthday.

By age 5, most children can stand on one foot for 10 seconds or longer and can use a fork and spoon.

Exhibiting some of the following signs can mean that your child has delays in developing certain fine or gross motor functions:

floppy or loose trunk and limbs

stiff arms and legs

limited movement in arms and legs

inability to sit without support by 9 months old

dominance of involuntary reflexes over voluntary movements

inability to bear weight on legs and stand up by about 1 year old

Falling outside the normal range isn't always cause for concern, but it's worth getting your child evaluated.

According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, the most active time for learning speech and language is the first 3 years of life, as the brain develops and matures.

The language learning process begins when an infant communicates hunger by crying. By 6 months old, most infants can recognize the sounds of basic language.

At 12 to 15 months old, infants should be able to say two or three simple words, even if they aren't clear.

Most toddlers can say several words by the time they are 18 months old. When they reach the age of 3, most children can speak in brief sentences.

Speech and language delay aren't the same. Speaking requires the muscle coordination of the vocal tract, tongue, lips, and jaw to make sounds.

A speech delay occurs when children aren't saying as many words as would be expected for their age.

A language delay occurs when children have difficulty understanding what other people say or can't express their own thoughts. Language includes speaking, gesturing, signing, and writing.

It can be hard to distinguish between speech and language delay in young children. A child who understands things and can express their needs (maybe by pointing or signing) but isn't speaking as many words as they should may have an isolated speech delay.

Poor hearing can cause speech and language delay, so your doctor will usually include a hearing test during diagnosis. Children with speech and language delay are often referred to a speech-language pathologist.

Early intervention can be a big help.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a term used to describe several neurodevelopmental conditions. Autistic people may think, move, communicate, and process senses differently from neurotypical people.

Autism is usually diagnosed in early childhood and includes a noticeable delay in language and social development.

Your pediatrician will ask about your child's development at each of their well visits. In fact, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children be screened for symptoms of autism at 18 and 24 months using standardized screening tools.

Symptoms are sometimes obvious early on, but may not be noticed until a child reaches 2 or 3 years of age.

Signs and symptoms of ASD vary, but usually include delayed speech and language skills and challenges communicating and interacting with others.

Every autistic person is unique, so symptoms and the way people experience them vary greatly.

Some symptoms include:

not being responsive to their name

dislike of cuddling or playing with others

lack of facial expression

inability to speak or difficulty speaking, carrying on a conversation, or remembering words and sentences

repetitive movements

development of specific routines

coordination problems

There is no cure for ASD, but therapies and other approaches can help give your child extra tools to communicate, relieve stress, and, in some cases, manage daily tasks.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about of children between the ages of 3 and 17 have one or more developmental disabilities.

Most developmental disabilities occur before a child is born, but some can occur after birth due to infection, injury, or other factors.

Causes of developmental delay can be difficult to pinpoint, and a variety of things can contribute to it. Some conditions are genetic in origin, such as Down syndrome.

Infection or other complications during pregnancy and childbirth, as well as premature birth, can also cause developmental delay.

Developmental delay can also be a symptom of other underlying medical conditions, including:

Remember that children develop at different rates, so it's possible that what you think of as a delay might be normal for your child. However, if you're concerned, it is important to get your child evaluated by professionals.

School-age children diagnosed with a developmental delay, may be eligible for special services. These services vary according to need and location.

Check with your physician and your school district to find out what services are available. Specialized education, especially when started early, can help your child progress and achieve more in school.

Treatments for developmental delays vary according to the specific delay. Some treatments include physical therapy for help in motor skill delays, and behavioral and educational therapy for help with ASD and other delays.

In some cases, medications may be prescribed. An evaluation and diagnosis from a pediatrician is crucial to come up with a treatment plan specially designed for your child.

Many genetic and environmental factors figure into a child's development and can contribute to delays. Even women who have a healthy pregnancy and proper care during and after pregnancy can have children with developmental delays.

Although causes of delays can be hard to pinpoint, there are many treatments and support services available to help.

The sooner you can diagnose a delay, the better it will be for your child's development into adulthood.

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Children reach developmental milestones at their own pace, and some move faster than others. Two siblings in the same family may reach milestones at different rates. Minor, temporary delays are usually no cause for alarm, but an ongoing delay or multiple delays in reaching milestones can be a sign there may be challenges later in life.

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Speech and language impairment is defined as a communication disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write. Speech and Language Impairment can be divided into two groups: speech impairments and language impairments.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNYAb7VimC8

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Speech Language Impairment: Students with Disabilities

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There are 3 basic types of speech impairments

Articulation disorders

Is a common condition when your child can’t make specific sounds. For example, they may always replace “r” with “w” or “th” with “s.”

Fluency disorders.

Involves trouble speaking in a fluid way. Where there is difficulty in timing and rhythms and repetitions of sounds. Common fluency disorders are stuttering and cluttering. Stuttering is characterized by repetitions or blocks in speech. Cluttering is characterized by very fast and contorted speech.

Voice disorders

Are problems with the quality or use of one's voice, such as loudness, pitch, and resonance due to issues with the larynx.

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs when a sudden external physical attack damages the brain. It is one of the leading causes of disability and death in adults. TBI can be confined to one area of ​​the brain or multiple. TBI can be temporary or permeant. TBIs can occur immediately, while some are progressive, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which is common in athletes where repeated blows to the head occur, such as in football, boxing, and mixed martial arts. TBI symptoms can range from mild to severe.

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Overview of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

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There are 5 basic types of speech impairments:

Phonological  Disorders

Difficulty in the sound production (quality and pitch) of words

Morphological Disorders

A disorder that affects morphological awareness.

Semantic Disorders

Are characterized by poor vocabulary, inappropriate use of words, or word comprehension.

Syntactic Deficits

Difficulty in putting words in order, especially where words have multiple meanings, and understanding rudimentary grammar rules.

Pragmatic Difficulties

Difficulty in understanding and using language and/or words in various social contexts and norms, such as not making eye contact, understanding personal space, taking turns and etc.

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Speech pathologists and assistive technology

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Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC):

AAC is a range of strategies and tools to communicate other than natural speech. AAC can be low tech, meaning any device that doesn't require to use of a battery, or high tech, which are devices that require the use of electricity.

List of AAC Devices

Voice amplification systems,

Fluency assistance devices,

Artificial larynx

Communication boards,

Speech output software,

Symbol-making software, and

Speech-generating devices.

PECS

Text-to-Speech Software

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Accommodations for speech impairments

There are lots of things that you can put in place to support a child with a speech impairment. Putting these accommodations in place will help make the child’s learning experience better.

Simple things like where a child sits in the classroom are important. They need to have easy access to the teacher in case the student needs any extra support.

The use of non-verbal communication cards if they need to ask a question or if they need some help.

Encourage them to take part in class discussions if they feel comfortable doing so. You can ask them questions that they can easily answer with communication cards or with hand gestures and facial expressions. If a child wants to talk, then be patient with them. Try not to correct any speech difficulties because this could knock their confidence and they may not want to attempt it again.

Make sure all the other children listen to them and are patient with them too. If people talk over them or don’t listen, they may be discouraged to do it again and it can knock their confidence.

You also need to make sure that they feel supported throughout the school day, and that you give positive reinforcement when they achieve something. Being positive, and giving them praise when they do well, will encourage them to continue learning.

If there is a certain area that the child particularly struggles with, then help them with it and come up with a solution to make it easier for the child. Having a good support system will help the child to feel comfortable, and they will be more willing to ask for help when they need it.

You can also be a good speech model for the child. Make sure you speak clearly and correctly to the class so that everybody can understand what you are saying. If a child has any questions, make sure you give the answer as clearly and concisely as you can.

Accommodations for language-impaired students

Making sure the child is in close proximity to you is very important, just as it is for a child with a speech impairment. This means the child can easily ask for help when they need it.

Children with language impairments may struggle to understand verbal communication, so use communication cards with them.

Make sure you work at the student's pace. They might not find learning as easy as other children do, but that’s OK. As long as the child works at their own pace and understands what they are learning, that’s good. But it’s also OK if they need extra help to understand what they are doing.

Making sure you use clear, easy-to-understand language is very important too. If you speak too fast or in an unclear way, this can make it even more difficult for the child to understand what you are saying. If you speak in a calm, clear way, then they have a better chance of understanding what you are saying.

Using visual cues can also be really helpful for a child with language impairment. It allows them to have a better understanding of what they are learning about. These don’t have to be complicated images or videos, as long as it is clear what the image is and how it relates to the topic they are learning, then it can be a good reinforcement for them.

Teach positive communication and listening in the classroom. It is important that all children are patient and listen to what another person is saying when they are talking. This is particularly important for children with language impairment. If a child with a language impairment decides to give it a go, then making sure everyone is patient and listens to them is very important. If people talk over them or don’t listen, then they may be discouraged to do it again.

Last but not least, always check with the child that they understand what they are doing and ask if they need any extra support. Some children may not feel comfortable asking for help themselves. So, making sure that you ask, when possible, is a great way for them to communicate any issues they may have.

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Twinkl (2023, January 29). Accommodations for Speech and Language Impairments. https://www.twinkl.com/teaching-wiki/accommodations-for-speech-and-language-impairments

McPherson, D. (2022, September 23). What Assistive Technology for Speech and Language Disorders Are Available and How do They Work? Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://www.autismparentingmagazine.com/assistive-technology-speech-language-disorders/

Minnesota’s Guide to Assistive Technology (n.d.). Types of Assistive Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://mn.gov/admin/at/getting-started/understanding-at/types/

Ponca City Public Schools (n.d.). Speech and Language Disabilities. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://www.pcps.us/departments/special_education_services/special_education_categories/speech_and_language_disabilities#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20basic%20types,fluency%20disorders%2C%20and%20voice%20disorders.

Larrazabal, M. (n.d.). How to differentiate stuttering from cluttering. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://www.betterspeech.com/post/stuttering-and-cluttering#:~:text=How%20are%20stuttering%20and%20cluttering,rapid%20and%2For%20irregular%20speech.

Speech Pathology Australia. (2018, August 19). Speech pathologists and assistive technology [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vXBzAGtsG-w&feature=emb_title

Teachings in Education. (2020, April 21). Speech Language Impairment: Students with Disabilities [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/MNYAb7VimC8

Cleveland Clinic (n.d.). Articulation Disorder. Retrieved January 29, 2023, from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23454-articulation-disorder

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http://educ685disabilityresourcepage.weebly.com/other-health-impairments.html

http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/health-impairments/

https://youtu.be/xnSvLRD1VMo

https://www.verywellfamily.com/other-health-impairments-2162517

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https://equalentry.com/assistive-technology-for-kids-with-multiple-disabilities/

https://ldaamerica.org/info/successful-strategies-for-teaching-students-with-learning-disabilities/

https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijpp/ijpp-1-001e.php?jid=ijpp

https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1300&context=education_ETD_masters

/https://aerbvi.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MDDB-Sharons-Story-2015.pdf

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A brief loss of consciousness in some cases. However, many people with mild TBI remain conscious after the injury.

Headache

Confusion

Lightheadedness

Dizziness

Blurred vision or tired eyes

Ringing in the ears

Bad taste in the mouth

Fatigue or lethargy

A change in sleep patterns

Behavioral or mood changes

Trouble with memory, concentration, attention, or thinking

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A headache that gets worse or does not go away

Repeated vomiting or nausea

Convulsions or seizures

Not being able to wake up from sleep

Larger than normal pupil (dark center) of one or both eyes. This is called dilation of the pupil.

Slurred speech

Weakness or numbness in the arms and legs

Loss of coordination

Increased confusion, restlessness, or agitation

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Individuals with TBI may experience a variety of difficulties.  The following adaptive devices may be helpful.

·       Recording Devices

·       Writing Assistance

·       Motorized Wheel Chair

·       Adaptive Utensils

·       Smartphones

·       Smartwatches

·       Speech-Generating Devices

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Accommodations  & Consideration TBI Leaners

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Accommodations  & Consideration TBI Leaners

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Provide repetition and consistency

Demonstrate new tasks, state instructions, and provide examples to illustrate ideas and concepts

Avoid figurative language

Reinforce lengthening periods of attention to appropriate tasks

Probe skill acquisition frequently and provide repeated practice

Teach compensatory strategies for increasing memory

Be prepared for students' reduced stamina and increased fatigue and provide rest breaks as needed

Keep the environment as distraction-free as possible

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Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities. (n.d.). Traumatic Brain Injury. Project Ideal. Retrieved January 27, 2023, from http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/traumatic-brain-injury/

Flint Rehab (2022, February 25). The Best Adaptive Equipment for Traumatic Brain Injury Recovery. Retrieved January 27, 2023, from https://www.flintrehab.com/adaptive-equipment-for-traumatic-brain-injury/

University of Illinois (n.d.). Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Common Assistive Technologies. Illinois University Library. Retrieved January 27, 2023, from https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=497977&p=3409451

Johns Hopkins University (n.d.). Traumatic Brain Injury. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved January 27, 2023, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/traumatic-brain-injury

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (n.d.). Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Retrieved January 26, 2023, from https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/traumatic-brain-injury-tbi

MUSHPWeb1. (2011, March 22). Overview of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0WBMM7WKL4