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A Twenty-First Century Definition of Dyslexia

The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) definition of dyslexia has been adopted by the U.S. National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development:

“Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.  These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction.”

Dyslexia is one type of specific learning disability.

Specific learning disability is defined as:

A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,  spoken or written, that may have manifested itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

Basic phonological processes include attention, visual processing, auditory processing, phonological processing, sensory-motor skills, cognitive abilities including association conceptualization and expression.

Understanding Dyslexia

A child with dyslexia will have difficulty reading but has the intelligence to be a better reader. Commonly has difficulty because of a disorder in phonological processing.

A child with dyslexia has weakness in decoding and results in difficulty with fluent word recognition, reasoning, critical thinking, concept formation and problem solving.

Early diagnosis is critical in narrowing the achievement gap and for ensuring the child receives evidence based intervention.

Dyslexia affects people of all cultures, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds equally.

Dyslexia is heritable so it runs in families. It's important to ask about family history when assessing a child for dyslexia.

Dyslexia occurs with other handicapping conditions for example: dysgraphia, dyscalculia, oral language impairment, and ADHD.

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Dyslexia is a neurobiological disorder with brain patterns called “neural signatures.”

Neural signatures of dyslexia are reliable.

Neural signatures reflect poor phonological and orthographic processing.

Neural signatures include the function and structure of the left hemisphere language regions, such as the left temporoparietal region related to phonological processing and the left occipitotemporal region related to orthographic processing.

Even before they are formally taught how to read, children show these unusual patterns if they are at high risk for developing dyslexia.

A child at high risk for dyslexia may have a related family member (e.g., a parent or sibling) with dyslexia.

A child at high risk for dyslexia may demonstrate weaknesses in foundational reading measures such as letter identification, letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness, and rapid naming.

Neural signatures for dyslexia are likely to change with reading intervention and can show a pattern similar to those of students without dyslexia.

Neural signatures of dyslexia are predictive of dyslexia risk and outcome.

Neural signatures of dyslexia are present even in gifted students whose discrepant reading may be masked because it is within the average range, resulting in misdiagnosis as not having dyslexia.

Reference:

California Dyslexia Guidelines

California Department of Education Sacramento, 2017 Pages 6-8

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Dyslexia as a Language-Learning Disability

1. Student's written language skills are negatively influenced by dyslexia.

2. Language includes three elements: form, content, and use.

3. Language form connects to the structure of language.

4. Language content connects to the meaning of language.

5. Language use connects to the function of language.

6. Students who are recognized to have a language learning disability are those who have a learning disability and language disorder.

7. Dyslexia impacts student's reading and writing expression, phonological processing, and phonological memory.

8. Phonological awareness signifies a student’s consciousness of sounds and access to the organization of oral language.

9. Phonemic awareness is a subdivision of phonological awareness. Phonemic awareness signifies the comprehension of how to use the distinct sounds of language called phonemes.

10. Phonological memory signifies the ability to have short time memory, for example being able to remember a phone number when its given to an individual, walking to your phone, and being able to dial it.

11. Rapid naming connects to the skill of naming words, digits, colors, and objects at a fast phase.

Reference

California Department of Education (CDE): California Dyslexia Guidelines, Sacramento, 2017.

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Key Points on Characteristics of Dyslexia by Age Group

1. Preschool Age (3-5 years):

Strengths: Often exhibit strong oral language skills and rich vocabularies.

Weaknesses: Difficulty with phonological awareness, such as rhyming and segmenting sounds.

2. Early Elementary (K-2):

Strengths: May excel in visual learning and creative thinking.

Weaknesses: Struggles with decoding, spelling, and recognizing sight words, which can hinder reading fluency.

3. Middle Elementary (3-5):

Strengths: May develop compensatory strategies, such as using context clues.

Weaknesses: Continued challenges with reading comprehension, particularly with complex texts.

4. Late Elementary (6-8):

Strengths: Often show improved problem-solving skills and creativity in assignments.

Weaknesses: Persistent issues with written expression, including grammar and organization in writing tasks.

5. Middle School (Grades 6-8):

Strengths: Ability to engage in higher-level discussions and conceptual thinking.

Weaknesses: Struggles with academic tasks requiring reading and writing, leading to frustration.

6. High School (Grades 9-12):

Strengths: Can excel in oral presentations and discussions, showcasing strong verbal skills.

Weaknesses: Challenges with time management and completing reading assignments, affecting overall academic performance.

7. Post-Secondary (College and Beyond):

Strengths: Often develop strong advocacy skills and self-awareness regarding their learning needs.

Weaknesses: May still face difficulties with reading-intensive coursework and written assignments.

8. Social Emotional Impact:

Across all age groups, students with dyslexia may experience low self-esteem and anxiety related to academic performance.

9. Variability in Strengths:

Individual strengths can vary widely; some may excel in math, arts, or other non-verbal areas, highlighting the need for personalized learning approaches.

10. Importance of Early Intervention:

Early identification and tailored support can significantly mitigate weaknesses and enhance strengths, promoting academic and social success.

These points outline the evolving nature of dyslexia characteristics and emphasize the need for supportive interventions at every developmental stage.

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Chapter 9: Screening and Assessment for Dyslexia - Neftali Gonzalez

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Chapter 9: Screening and Assessment for Dyslexia - Neftali Gonzalez

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1. Early Identification is Crucial: Identifying dyslexia early is essential as the achievement gap starts in first grade and persists into adolescence (p. 42). Early intervention can significantly improve reading outcomes and prevent long-term academic struggles.

2. Universal Screening is Key: Universal screenings for dyslexia should begin in kindergarten and target critical skills like phonemic awareness and decoding (p. 44). Regular screenings help ensure that at-risk students are identified and receive appropriate interventions before falling behind.

3. Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS): MTSS provides a structured framework that addresses the academic, behavioral, and social-emotional needs of students with dyslexia (p. 45). This system allows for differentiated support, from general classroom instruction to more intensive, targeted interventions.

4. Progress Monitoring: Monitoring student progress continuously helps educators determine the effectiveness of interventions and guides instructional adjustments (p. 43, p. 49). Progress monitoring ensures that interventions are data-driven and can be adjusted to meet the student’s evolving needs.

5. Differentiated Interventions: Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions offer increasingly targeted and intensive support based on students' specific needs (p. 47-48). These interventions include small-group instruction and individualized support, tailored to address the unique learning challenges of each student.

6. Importance of a Multisensory Approach: Structured, sequential, and multisensory instruction is essential for dyslexic students, focusing on explicit teaching of phonological skills (p. 48). This approach engages multiple senses—visual, auditory, and kinesthetic—to enhance learning and retention.

7. Family Involvement: Collecting family history and involving families in the intervention process helps provide a broader understanding of the student’s needs (p. 42). Family engagement also promotes consistency between home and school, supporting the child’s progress across settings.

8. Support for English Learners: Assessing English learners requires differentiating between second-language acquisition and dyslexia (p. 42-43). Educators must use culturally responsive practices and tools that account for the student’s linguistic background when evaluating for dyslexia.

9. Collaboration Among Specialists: Effective dyslexia interventions require collaboration among educators, specialists, and psychologists to create comprehensive support plans (p. 45). A team-based approach ensures that students receive holistic and coordinated services across multiple domains.

10. Compliance with IDEA: The guidelines are aligned with the requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), ensuring that students with dyslexia are evaluated and receive services promptly (p. 45-46). Schools must follow legal mandates to ensure that students suspected of having dyslexia are not denied timely assessments or necessary supports.

California Dyslexia Guidelines
California Department of Education
Sacramento, 2017

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Determining a specific disability

California follows certain regulations for determining whether a student has a specific disability.

The student has a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading, reading comprehension, mathematical reasoning/calculation.

Student does not achieve adequately for their age or meet grade level standards in one or more specific areas when provided with learning experiences and instruction even educators use processes based on student response to research- based interventions.

Student does not achieve adequately for their age or meet grade level standards in one or more specific areas when provided with learning experiences and instruction that is determined by the group to be relevant to the identification of a specific learning disability, using appropriate assessments.

5 0 4 PLANS

A student who does not qualify for an IEP, including a student with dyslexia, may nevertheless be entitled to protection under Section 504. Accommodations or services may be provided to those students.

Here are items that may be included in a 504 plan:

individual/ small group instruction

written materials that are read by the teacher to the student

provision of outlines, study guides or organizers.

audio recordings of books

text-to-speech technology

recordings of lectures

use of highlighters to organize written info

* If a parent would like a 504 developed for their child, they can talk to their school district and request 504 plan procedures.

Reference: California Dyslexia Guidelines

California Department of Education Sacramento, 2017

Pages 60-62