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Episodic Memory: a kind of long-term memory that helps people recall an event from the past. An example of this is might be recalling a conversation you had in the past, or maybe receiving your high school diploma (Psychology Today, n.d).

Semantic Memory: a person’s long-term storage of knowledge; it can be comprised of facts you learned in school, what a concept means and how it relates to each other, or a definition of a word. An example of this information like the current year, a capital of a state, or the meaning of a word (Psychology Today, n.d).

Procedural Memory: a kind of long-term memory that describes how to do things, both mentally and physically, and is involved in learning skills. An example of this is how to tie your shoes, sending an email, or how to throw a ball (Psychology Today, n.d).

Short Term and Working Memory: these two terms are used interchangeably. They refer to the retention of information for a short amount of time. Short-term memory is when you recall a statistic or the name of an acquaintance. Working memory is involved in the temporary storage of information that is being mentally manipulated. An example of short-term memory is the current temperature, what happened in a movie you just saw, or the appearance of someone you just met. An example of working memory is the number you just calculated for a math problem or the name of a person in the beginning of a sentence (Psychology Today, n.d).

Sensory Memory: a kind of short-term memory that recalls something you just experienced with your senses like sights and sounds. A brief memory of something seen is called iconic memory and the brief memory of something heard is called echoic memory. Some  sensory memories can be preserved long-term. Visual-spatial memory is memory of how objects are organized in space.  Auditory memory, olfactory memory, and haptic memory are terms for stored sensory impressions of sounds, smells, and skin sensations, respectively. An example of sensory memory is the smell of food you just walked past or the way a car that just drove by looks (Psychology Today, n.d).

Prospective Memory: a kind of forward-thinking memory. This includes recalling from the past an intention you plan to do in the future. An example of this remembering to call someone back, to pay your bills, or stop at the grocery store on your way home (Psychology Today, n.d).

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Memories are formed when of neurons fire together when activated (Sousa, 2022). There are three stages of memory. These stages are sensory and immediate memory, working memory and long-term memory (Sousa, 2022) Long-term memory can then be divided into two types. These types are declarative memory, which can be divided into episodic and semantic memory, nondeclarative memory that includes procedural memory, perceptual representation system, classical conditioning, and nonassociative learning (Sousa, 2022). Learning involves the brain, nervous system, and the environment. In addition, how people acquire information and skills. The amount of information retained depends on when the information is presented. New material for students should be presented first, then rehearsed through either rote rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal (guided and independent practice), finally there should be closure. Several teaching methods are effective for memory retention. These methods include Lecture/Direct Instruction, Visual Material, Verbal and Visual Information, Learn by Doing/Practice, and Practice and Teaching Others (Sousa, 2022). The more practice and rehearsal of new information helps increase retention as well as students getting enough sleep.

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Complex trauma experienced in childhood can affect the brain, learning and socio-moral development. Students who have experienced trauma often misbehave in class, are not interested or engaged in learning, and can struggle to have positive relationships with adults and peers (Hobbs et.al, 2019). Trauma-informed approaches in school settings involve understanding hoe trauma affects students and provides ways to with students that attends to the specific needs of these students. Exposure to stressful circumstances can reduce the volume and activity in the hippocampus, which is where memory is stored (Hobbs et.al, 2019). This can be repaired in classrooms through classroom management that requires proactive rather than reactive responses, teaching self-regulation and providing routines that are predictable and consistent, and building positive relationship with students who have trauma and their teachers and peers (Hobbs et.al, 2019).

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1.     Give directions in multiple ways: Students benefit from both verbal and visual directions. Modeling activities helps students retain the information. This especially is beneficial for English Language Learners. This allows for understanding and memorization of instructions. Encouraging students to repeat the directions given and explain the meaning of these directions will also help with retention (Thorne, 2023).

2.     Teach students to be active readers: This helps enhance short-term and working memory. Do this by having students underline, highlight, or jot key words down in the margin when reading chapters. Then go back and read what is underlined, highlighted, or written in the margins. To transfer this information to long-term memory, they can make outlines or use graphic organizers (Thorne, 2023).

3.     Write down steps to math problems: This helps students who have a weakness in working memory. They should not rely on mental computations when solving math problems. By writing down the steps they are doing they are preventing themselves from losing their place and forgetting the task they are doing (Thorne, 2023).

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Learning information called transfer and it happens in two parts, The first part is transfer during learning (effect on past learning on the processing of new material) and transfer of learning (when a learner applies the new material to future situations) (Sousa, 2022).  There are two types of transfer. Positive transfer is learning done in the past helps the learner with new learning. Negative Transfer is interference of past learning in the learner’s understanding of new learning (Sousa, 2022). For students to successfully transfer they need to recognize how the skills and knowledge they have learned in school applies to future situations (Sousa, 2022). Four factors affect transfer of memory. These factors include the context and degree of original learning, similarity, critical attributes, and association (Sousa, 2022). To teach for transfer we need to consider the time sequence and the complexity of the transfer. A great way to do this is through journal writing because it helps students reflect on their learning.

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References

Hobbs, C., Paulsen, D., & Thomas, J. (2019, May 23). Trauma-Informed Practice for Pre-service teachers. Oxford Research Encyclopedia: Education. https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1435

Sousa, D. A. (2022). How the Brain Learns (6th ed.). Corwin, A Sage Publishing Company.

Thorne, G. (2023). 10 Strategies to Enhance Students’ Memory | Reading Rockets. Www.readingrockets.org. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/brain-and-learning/articles/10-strategies-enhance-students-memory

Types of Memory | Psychology Today. (n.d.). Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/types-of-memory