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With the aid of some of the president's other advisers and elder statesmen from the Democratic Party, Clifford succeeded in persuading Johnson that the present number of U.S. troops in Vietnam (about 550,000) should constitute an upper limit and that Johnson, as chief executive, should make a dramatic gesture for peace. In a nationally televised speech on March 31, Johnson announced that he was "taking the first step to de-escalate the conflict" by halting the bombing of North Vietnam (except in the areas near the DMZ) and that the United States was prepared to send representatives to any forum to seek a negotiated end to the war. He followed this surprising declaration with news that he did not intend to seek reelection that year.

Three days later Hanoi announced that it was prepared to talk to the Americans. Discussions began in Paris on May 13 but led nowhere. Hanoi insisted that, before serious negotiations could begin, the United States would have to halt its bombing of the rest of Vietnam. Meanwhile, fighting continued at a high intensity. The communist high command determined to follow the Tet attacks with two more waves in May and August. At the same time, Westmoreland ordered his commanders to "keep maximum pressure" on the communist forces in the South, which he believed had been seriously weakened by their losses at Tet. The result was the fiercest fighting of the war. In the eight weeks following Johnson's speech, 3,700 Americans were killed in Vietnam and 18,000 wounded. The communists were reported by Westmoreland's headquarters as having lost about 43,000 killed. The ARVN's losses were not recorded, but they were usually twice that of the Americans.

In October the Soviets secretly informed Washington that the North Vietnamese would be willing to halt their attacks across the DMZ and begin serious negotiation with the United States and South Vietnam if the United States halted all bombing of the North. Assured by his military advisers that such a halt would not adversely affect the military situation, Johnson announced the cessation of bombing on the last day of October. The bombing halt achieved no breakthrough but rather brought on a period of prolonged bickering between the United States and its South Vietnamese ally about the terms and procedures to govern the talks. By the time South Vietnam joined the talks, Richard M. Nixon had been elected president.

Nixon and his close adviser on foreign affairs, Henry A. Kissinger, recognized that the United States could not win a military victory in Vietnam but insisted that the war could be ended only by an "honourable" settlement that would afford South Vietnam a reasonable chance of survival. A hasty American withdrawal, they argued, would undermine U.S. credibility throughout the world. Although public opinion made it impossible to commit more troops, Nixon was still confident he could end the war with a favourable settlement. He planned to achieve this through bringing pressure to bear from the Soviets and China, both of whom were eager to improve their relations with the United States, and through the threat of massive force against North Vietnam. To signal to Hanoi that he could still inflict punishment by air, the president decided to act on the proposal of Gen. Creighton Abrams, who had succeeded Westmoreland in July 1968, that the United States bomb the secret communist base areas in Cambodia near the Vietnamese border.

When the communists launched another wave of attacks in South Vietnam in early 1969, Nixon secretly ordered the bombing to proceed. Cambodian premier Norodom Sihanouk, tired of his uninvited Vietnamese guests, had confidentially approved the attacks, and Hanoi was in no position to complain without revealing its own violation of Cambodia's neutrality. Although elaborate measures had been taken in Washington and Saigon to ensure that the air attacks be kept completely secret, the story broke in The New York Times in May. Infuriated by this breach of security, Nixon began a series of measures to plug "leaks" of information; these became part of a system of illegal surveillance and burglary that eventually led to the Watergate scandal of 1972.

In view of the surprisingly good performance of the South Vietnamese army at Tet, and responding to growing pressure in the United States to begin a withdrawal of U.S. troops, the Nixon administration decided to accelerate a program to provide South Vietnam with the high-quality weapons and training that would enable them gradually to take over sole responsibility for fighting the ground war-a program labeled Vietnamization. In June 1969 Nixon announced the withdrawal of 25,000 U.S. troops from Vietnam. In September he announced further troop withdrawals, and by March 1970 he was announcing the phased withdrawal of 150,000 troops over the next year. Abrams protested that the still inexperienced and incompletely trained ARVN could hardly take over the job at such a rapid pace, but the withdrawals were enormously popular at home, and the White House soon found them politically indispensable.

Though popular at home, the withdrawals lowered the morale of the troops remaining in Vietnam by underlining the apparent pointlessness of the war. By 1970 signs of serious problems in morale and leadership were seemingly everywhere. These signs included increased drug abuse, more frequent and serious racial incidents, and even "fraggings," the murder or deliberate maiming of commissioned and noncommissioned officers by their own troops with fragmentation weapons such as hand grenades. News of the My Lai Massacre, a mass murder by U.S. soldiers of several hundred civilians in Quang Ngai province in 1968, became public at the end of 1969, further undermining convictions about the righteousness of the U.S. military effort in Vietnam. From 1965 to 1973, more than 30,000 U.S. military personnel either in Vietnam or in service related to Vietnam received dishonourable discharges for desertion (though only a small number of desertions actually took place on the battlefield). Another 10,000 deserters were still at large when the United States withdrew from the war in 1973; most of these took advantage of clemency programs offered under Pres. Gerald R. Ford in 1974 and Pres. Jimmy Carter in 1977. Also during the period 1965-73, about half a million men became "draft dodgers," illegally evading conscription into the armed forces or simply refusing to respond to their draft notices. More than 200,000 men were charged with draft evasion and more than 8,000 convicted. Of those convicted, most were either offered clemency by Ford or pardoned by Carter.

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Vietnam War - De-escalation, Negotiation, Vietnamization

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Vietnam War - De-escalation, Negotiation, Vietnamization: Nixon and his close adviser on foreign affairs, Henry A. Kissinger, recognized that the United States could not win a military victory in Vietnam but insisted that the war could be ended only by an "honourable" settlement that would afford South Vietnam a reasonable chance of survival.

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What was the widening of the Vietnam War?

Despite President Nixon committing to the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam in 1969, when he announced the policy of Vietnamisation, thousands more were sent to fight in the conflict as it expanded into neighbouring countries.

Where was the Vietnam War widened to?

The Vietnam War was widened to Cambodia, on the western border of South Vietnam, and to Laos, on the western border of North Vietnam.

When was the Vietnam War widened to Cambodia and Laos?

Nixon sanctioned a bombing campaign on Cambodia in March 1969, and an attack on Laos in early 1971.

Why was the Vietnam War widened to Cambodia and Laos?

The Vietnam War was widened to Cambodia and Laos in an attempt to weaken the Vietcong. The Ho Chi Minh Trail that supplied the Vietcong ran through both countries, and US forces also wanted to destroy Vietcong bases positioned just across the border in Cambodia.

What happened when the Vietnam War was widened to Cambodia?

The following happened when the war stretched into Cambodia:

❖ In March 1969, US air forces were authorised to carry out a bombing campaign targeting the Ho Chi Minh Trail and Vietcong bases.

❖ The bombing was kept secret as it was at odds with Nixon's policy of withdrawal and he wanted to avoid international condemnation.

❖ When the bombing campaign failed to achieve its objectives, a ground invasion of Cambodia was launched. Nixon announced a need for 150,000 more troops, which was met by a wave of protests.

❖ The US troops alienated the local population in Cambodia. A communist group called the Khmer Rouge saw its membership increase rapidly as a result, as the local peasants were convinced the USA planned to take over.

What happened when the Vietnam War was widened to Laos?

The following happened when the war widened into Laos:

❖ After extensive training under Nixon's policy of Vietnamisation, the ARVN was sent to carry out an attack on Ho Chi Minh's army in Laos.

❖ The ARVN was quickly pushed back into Vietnam.

❖ The ARVN's actions provoked a retaliatory attack on South Vietnam by the North Vietnamese army in the spring of 1972.

❖ The ARVN's attacks led to the Pathet Lao, a communist organisation in Laos, becoming more popular with the locals. By 1973, it controlled much of Laos.

What were the consequences of widening the Vietnam War to Cambodia and Laos?

The widening of the war in Cambodia and Laos had a number of consequences:

❖ The attacks further increased the need for US troops, which was unpopular with the American people.

❖ The attacks led to further protests across America.

❖ North Vietnamese troops attacked South Vietnam.

❖ It highlighted the failures of the policy of Vietnamisation.

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The Widening of the War into Cambodia and Laos

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Turbocharge your history revision with our revolutionary new app! Clever Lili is here to help you ace your exams.

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Fifty Years Ago This Spring, Millions of Students Struck to End the War in Vietnam

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In May 1970, 4 million students went on strike across the country, shutting down classes at hundreds of colleges, universities, and high schools and demanding an end to the Vietnam War. Fifty years later, their rebellion remains an inspiration, as radical student politics is back on the agenda.

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50 years ago today, the shooting of 4 college students at Kent State changed America | CNN

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The shootings turned the tide of public opinion against the Vietnam War, and some political officials even argued that it played a role in the downfall of the Nixon administration. Today, the incident symbolizes the political and social divides brought on by the Vietnam War.

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What Were the Pentagon Papers? | History

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Timeline Details | Vietnam War Commemoration

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The Vietnam War Commemoration is conducted according to the 2008 National Defense Authorization Act to help honor and pay tribute to Vietnam Veterans and their families.

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The biggest ever bombing campaign by US B-52 aircraft took place over Christmas 40 years ago, when the US dropped at least 20,000 tonnes of explosives on North Vietnam, mostly Hanoi. More than 1,000 Vietnamese died, but some claim the assault may have helped bring about the deal signed a month later that led to an end to US involvement in the war.

Operation Linebacker II was President Richard Nixon's attempt to hasten the end of the Vietnam War, as the growing strength of the Viet Cong caused heavy casualties among US ground troops.

The capture and torture of downed airmen in the north, regularly paraded on television, was also an embarrassment for Washington. Nixon was under pressure to bring the troops home.

At the same time, long-running negotiations in Paris between the warring parties had broken down.

The relationship between American negotiator Henry Kissinger and the government in the south was strained, while Le Duc Tho - representing the northern Communist government - was refusing to budge on the issue of prisoner releases. So the Americans decided to take decisive action.

On the evening of 18 December, 129 B-52s roared over Hanoi - huge bombers each capable of carrying many tonnes of explosives.

They flew in formation, in successive waves made up of smaller cells, containing three planes.

Thousands of metres below them, the sirens sounded and residents of Hanoi raced for the shelters.

Among them was Ha Mi, who was 10 years old at the time and remembers sheltering under the stairs of her family home with her sister, listening to the bombers overhead.

"You can hear them coming from very far away," she remembers. "Advancing, they are looming, coming towards you with a very low hum. It's frightening."

The Americans had been using fighter jets over Hanoi for years, targeting fuel depots and munitions stores, but Ha Mi recalls it was the B-52s, and their massive payloads of bombs, that struck terror into Vietnamese hearts.

"The fighter jets were faster and would only drop one or two bombs, then they were gone," says Ha Mi, who works as a journalist for the BBC Vietnamese Service.

"The B-52s were slower... and the bombing is more regular. Boom, boom, boom, for a longer period of time. It's more threatening,"

The bombing was suspended on Christmas Day, but during the days either side, the US Air Force flew 729 night-time sorties over North Vietnam with devastating effect.

Later, Kissinger would describe the communists as being "on their knees" as a result.

But it was a dangerous mission for the American airmen. The North Vietnamese had sophisticated Soviet-made surface-to-air missiles or SAMs, and plentiful supplies of anti-aircraft artillery. They also had a number of Soviet MiG-21 fighter jets.

The lull on Christmas Day gave the Vietnamese a chance to regroup. When bombing resumed on 26 December, they put up strong resistance.

A rare recording of the radio communications inside one of the US B-52s survives from that night. One airman can be heard saying, "I've never seen so much triple A [Anti-aircraft artillery] in my life."

Another comments: "Those SAMs came right up past my window, they were damn close."

In just one night, more than 2,000 homes were destroyed around Kham Thien, a busy shopping street in Hanoi. About 280 people were killed and at least as many again injured. Ha Mi had a friend, whose house was hit.

"There were a few houses still standing, but most of it was just rubble, flattened on the ground - or even just a big hole. Houses were just gone, it was horrible. I remember seeing people just standing there looking at it - but there was nothing there. Everything was just gone."

The US Air Force lost two B-52s that night out of a total of 15. A number of fighter jets and support aircraft were also destroyed during the 11 days of Linebacker II. At least 30 US airmen were killed and more than 20 went missing in action, others were captured after ejecting over North Vietnam.

At the time the communist authorities said about 1,600 Vietnamese were killed, but many suspect the true figure is far higher.

Linebacker II came to an end on 29 December and by 8 January all parties were back in the negotiating room in Paris. The Paris Peace Accords were signed by the end of the month, leading to the release of some US prisoners of war and paving the way for an end to US military involvement in Vietnam.

The wording of the agreement was almost exactly the same as it had been at the beginning of December - before the Christmas bombing campaign.

Rebecca Kesby's interview with Ha Mi will be broadcast on 26 December on the BBC World Service's Witness programme. You can download a podcast of the programme or browse the archive.

You can follow the Magazine on Twitter and on Facebook

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North Vietnam, 1972: The Christmas bombing of Hanoi

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The biggest ever bombing campaign by US B-52 bombers took place over Christmas 40 years ago, when the US dropped 20,000 tonnes of explosives on North Vietnam.

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The 1972 "Christmas Bombing" Paves the Way for the End of the Vietnam War | Nixon | PBS LearningMedia

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Learn why Nixon resorted to a 12-day "Christmas Bombing" of North Vietnam after peace talks between the United States and North Vietnam collapsed and why he refused to explain the bombing campaign to the American people, in this video from Nixon | AMERICAN EXPERIENCE.

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The ‘Fall of Saigon’ in 1975, how the news reported it