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Led by Mongol conqueror Kubalai Khan

Kubilai passed many laws to preserve the distinction between Mongol and Chinese. Nonetheless, he introduced some elements of Chinese culture into his court.

In the Yuan era, a new social structure was established in China, with the Mongols on top and their Central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies right below them in the hierarchy.

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Development in Middle East->Judaism is formed: 1800 BCE

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Development in Middle East->Judaism is formed: 1800 BCE

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Founded by Abraham, Judaism emerged around a group of people named "Israel".

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Development in Middle East Islam -> is formed: 610 CE

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Development in Middle East Islam -> is formed: 610 CE

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Founded by Muhammad at age 40 when he is visited by the angel Gabriel who recites him the first ideas of the Qur'an and named as God's prophet.

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Development in Europe ->  Christianity is formed: 50 CE       

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Development in Europe ->  Christianity is formed: 50 CE       

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Founded by Jesus Christ in Judea as a separate branch of Judaism. Rose to prominence through the Roman Empire's Edict of Milan which stopped Christian maltreatment.

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Led by Zhu Yuanzhang, named himself the Hongwu Empire. Spearheaded the fall of the House of Yuan with rebel armies.

The Hongwu emperor was mindful of his dependence on bureaucrats but he sought to put clear limits on their influence and to institute reforms that would check the abuses.

He also introduced measures that would improve the lot of the common people.

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The first civilizations form due to the rise of agriculture and trade cause humans to have an excess of food.

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Named the New Stone Age, Humans begin forming settlements in fertile river valleys. Intellectual advancements are being made as people's primary focus of food is abated.

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A time period characterized by its use of stone and bone tools

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Agriculture including crop growing and animal domestication leads to a fundamental change to human life. Humans go from nomadic to sedentary.

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Evolution forms the beginnings of the Homo Sapien species.

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The Bubonic Plague, also known as the Black Death, was a disease spread by rats and fleas that eventually spread to other parts of the world. The Black Death got its name from the black blotches that appeared on the victim's skin after receiving this disease and would die after a few days.

The Mongol era saw the spread of the bubonic plague in the fourteenth century.

The plague began in Western China or in Central Asia during the 1330s. Trade voyages and Mongol armies spread the disease more widely.

The plague killed 75 million to 200 million people in Eurasia, and its consequences were felt in a number of key regions.

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The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland (1217-1305 CE)

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The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland (1217-1305 CE)

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Hulegu focused his energies on conquering Mesopotamia and North Africa.

Early Mongol victories were eventually reversed by the Mamluk victory over the Mongols in 1260.

After this defeat, Hulegu decided to focus on the territory he already controlled.

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The Byzantine Empire was well positioned to serve as a intersection of commercial hubs in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Byzantium’s territories and the trading routes were regulated and defended by a large and complex government. Over time, Byzantine rulers came to reject the supremacy of the pope in Rome. The advent of the Crusades signaled the declining power of the Byzantine Empire.

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2nd caliphate, based in Damascus, Syria

The Islamic Caliphate reached its greatest size, from Spain to Central Asia; Ruled through collab w/ local elites

Christians and Jews tolerated as “people of the book”

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Discovery of the Americas for Europe: October 12, 1492

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Discovery of the Americas for Europe: October 12, 1492

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Christopher Columbus' expedition spots land on their journey towards India. Instead of arriving in India, Columbus and his crew arrived in the Americas that is populated by numerous Native American tribes and settlements.

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The Bantu migrations transformed the Central Africa to the south and west.

By 1200 C.E., Bantu migrants had settled extensively in what is today the nation of Zimbabwe and established a kingdom that was centered on an imposing walled complex, later dubbed “Great Zimbabwe.”

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Fall of Aztec and Inca Empires to the Spanish: 1519-1533 CE

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Fall of Aztec and Inca Empires to the Spanish: 1519-1533 CE

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Spanish Conquistadors conquer the 2 largest empires of the Americas. Hernan Cortes led the conquest into the Aztec Empire and Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Empire.

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Failure to reconcile differences between the western and eastern parts of Christianity led in 1054 to a schism in the Christian community between the Latin church centered on Rome and the Orthodox Church headed by the Byzantine patriarch.

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Western Africa was dominated by a succession of land empires.

The earliest of the expansive savanna states, Ghana, emerged by the end of the third century C.E. Ghana and its successors were shaped by a blend of African and Islamic influences.

The kingdom of Maghrib in Western North Africa was an Islamic land that gained its independence from the Abbasid regime.

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Native Americans are severely mistreated by Spain and other colonizing European Nations. The encomienda system is established and forces Native Americans to pay unfair taxes and work free labor for European nations. Native Americans were treated extremely poorly and often discriminated against. Figures such as Bartolomé de Las Casas, a Dominican priest, advocated for the rights of Native Americans after having witnessed firsthand the mistreatment they faced.

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When the Black Death was introduced into Europe, about one-third of the population died. This caused a shortage of laborers, which led to an increase in wages and improved working conditions. Many people fled and many blamed the Black Death on minority groups, showing more hostility. Rural protests broke out with peasants demanding more rights and higher wages but were shut down with great brutality. The plague loosened serfdom for peasants, as there was a shortage of workers. This made them more determined to work and allowed them to move freely. Family structures were also changed because more people wanted to protect their property holdings against the burden of too many children, so they started marrying later.

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The Magna Carta was an agreement signed by King Jong of England that required the king to get permission from the nobles to address certain changes. The creation of parliaments followed the signing of the Magna Carta, the House of Lords (nobility), and the House of Commoners (wealthy people). The development of parliaments was significant because it made people realize that a ruler’s power should be limited.

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The Crusades were a series of military campaigns initially launched by western Christians to free the Holy Land from Muslims. It temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms. Later, crusades were used for other purposes such as commercial wars and exterminating heresy. The crusades confirmed the importance of Sejuk leadership. In the last decades of the 12th century, the Muslim princes were united under Saladin, and rapidly overwhelmed most of the crusaders’ outposts.

Effects: The crusaders’ first-hand experiences in the Eastern Mediterranean intensified the European borrowing from the Muslim world. The Europeans recovered much of the Greek learning that had been lost to northern Europe during the waves of nomadic invasions after the fall of Rome.

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Europe and Middle East Religious Tensions: 1095-1291 CE

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Europe and Middle East Religious Tensions: 1095-1291 CE

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Timur-i Lang conquest of Delhi Sultanate (1398 CE)

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Timur-i Lang conquest of Delhi Sultanate (1398 CE)

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A wave of nomadic conquests, led by Timur-i Lang spread across Central and West Asia, and this time extended to Northern India. In 1398 Timur’s forces defeated the rule of the Delhi sultanate and proceeded to destroy the city and slaughter tens of thousands of its inhabitants. For more than a century after the fall of Delhi, the Indian subcontinent was divided among warring kingdoms that often pitted Hindu against Muslim rulers.

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A time period defined by political instability in the Catholic church due to their abusive and manipulative actions that went against the Bible's teachings. The Catholic Church was originally called out by Martin Luther who wrote 95 Theses on complaints about the Catholic Church. Indulgences and Simony were the main points of contention that Luther highlighted. Luther's actions led to many new branches of Christianity forming and the division of power in the Catholic Church.

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Abbasid caliphate

Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, created 3rd caliphate

Capital moved to Baghdad, Iraq; power was dispersed, not centralized.

Struggled with Byzantines, Persians, Turks, Europeans

Presided over “Golden Age of Islam”

Flourishing trade: manufacturing, silk roads, Indian ocean

Extensive learning: math, science, medicine, engineering, Greeks & Romans

1258CE Mongol conquest caused collapse

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The Song dynasty was built on the foundations of earlier Chinese empires and kingdoms such as the Tang Dynasty. The basis of China’s success was its core regions’ wheat, millet, and wet-rice agriculture and strong accomplishments from the "scholar-gentry." The “scholar-gentry” where officials who staffed the Chinese imperial bureaucracy. (the wealthy & educated elites) who held a lot of power. Despite all of this, by 1200 C.E., the Song dynasty was in decline due to ruling classes competing for power. Nomadic peoples (Tangut, then Jurchens) pushed Song to the south.

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Soon after Ogedei was elected as the great khan, the Mongol advance into China was resumed. Kubilai Khan led the Mongols in their defeat of the Song. In 1271, he established the Yuan dynasty. The Mongols would fully rule China for less than a century, but their relatively brief control was crucial to the overall Mongol period in world history. Mongol control of China proved crucial in facilitating unprecedented contacts and opportunities for dissemination of Chinese technologies.

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A period with multiple scientific advancements in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry. In this time period, modern science was born due to the creation of the scientific method and significant scientific advancements due to figures such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, and Nicolaus Copernicus.

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The creation of interlocking Mongol states was the single most important development in world history between 1200 and 1450.

The Mongol period was so important because it accelerated and redirected interregional exchanges that had already been reshaping societies in many parts of Afro-Eurasia.

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Chinese trade expeditions (1405-1433 CE)

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Chinese trade expeditions (1405-1433 CE)

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First, the Chinese explored and dominated the trade of the Indian Ocean, led by admiral Zheng He. Then, the Chinese government stopped voyages out of China. Nine great treasure ships both established trade connections and seeked tribute payments along the way. Zheng He had an improved compass, excellent maps, huge vessels with ample supplies, and goods for trade. China’s emperors called the expeditions to a halt in 1433. The shift in Chinese policy unintentionally cleared the way for the West to expand.

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Teotihuacan in Central Mexico from around 500 CE to 800 CE

The nomadic Toltecs built a large empire centered in central Mexico. They established a capital at Tula about 968CE and adopted many cultural features from sedentary peoples, and added a militaristic ethic, including a cult of sacrifice.

Northern nomadic invasions probably caused the collapse of the Toltec empire around 1150CE. Power shifted to valley of Mexico.

Militant Aztecs migrated to region. Around 1325 they founded Tenochtitlan on lake islands. By 1434, the Aztecs had become the dominant regional power. Became very successful tribute-based empire.

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Development of the Printing Press (1440 CE)

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Development of the Printing Press (1440 CE)

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The invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg allowed the printing of more books and writings, which quickened the spread of knowledge. This increased literacy and discoveries in Europe and throughout other regions because writing became more accessible. Communication and education became more efficient and easily spread.

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Start of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (1441)

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Start of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (1441)

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The start of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade involved importing forced laborers from Africa to the Americas. Slaves were bought using sugar, tobacco, cotton, etc, which slaves produced. As an effect of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, diseases were spread, large imports of European goods, and the undermining of local businesses. As the demand for cheap labor and plantations increased, more and more slaves were imported, leaving Africa divided and the mistreatment of slaves, who were also treated like property.

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The Ottoman Empire was established after a series of raids of Turkic warriors, led by Osman I. The Ottoman Empire was able to last for so long because they utilized their centralized power with a single ruler, had a strong military, and had a unified faith tied to the state. The Ottomans were best known for their achievements in the arts and science. Some of these included calligraphy, painting, poetry, textiles, etc. Elaborate mosques and public buildings were constructed, further making their culture more distinctive. They also practiced advanced mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, physics, geography and chemistry. Eventually, the Ottoman army fell behind on weapons and military tactics, making them more weak adn vulnerable to invasion.

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Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453 CE)

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Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453 CE)

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In 1453, the Ottomans captured the city of Constantinople. The three layers of land walls that had protected the city for centuries were assaulted by the well over 100,000 strong army of the Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II, “The Conqueror”. A massive siege cannon battered a portion of the walls, allowing waves of Ottoman troops to overwhelm the defenders and loot the city. This marked the end of the Roman empire and the end of the medieval period.

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In 1501, the Safavids founded a dynasty that conquered modern-day Iran. They were Shi’a. There were repeated efforts made to bring Turkic chiefs under control. Abbas the Great, a Safavid shah, made the most extensive use of youths captured in Russia and educated and converted to Islam. Persian became the language of court and bureaucracy, and it influenced the organization of court rituals and Safavid shahs. Safavid rulers took grand titles and presided from high thrones. Shi’a ideology was modified to become a major pillar of the dynasty and empire. Mullahs were supervised by the state. Non-Shi’a were pressured to convert. Religion became an integral part of Iranian identity. Abbas I established his empire as a major center of international trade and Islamic culture. Isfahan was the capital of the Safavid empire under Abbas the Great. It was a major example of Safavid architecture. The social system was dominated by warrior aristocracies. Early rulers encouraged the growth of handicraft production and trade in their realms. One reason for the decline of the Safavid Empire was Abbas’s fears of usurpation by one of his sons. Another reason was that the practice of confining princes to an atmosphere of luxury and intrigue that permeated the court led to a sharp fall in the quality of Safavid rulers. Additionally, factional disputes and rebellions shook the empire from within.

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During the period following the disintegration of the states of Tihuanaco and Huari (c.550–1000 C.E.), smaller regional states exercised power in the Andes.

Inca empire rose to power. Huayna Capac consolidated the conquests; by his death in 1527 the Inca empire—Twantinsuyu—stretched from Colombia to Chile, and eastward to Bolivia and Argentina. From 9 to 13 million people were under Inca rule.

Inca empire became second great American empire.

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The Renaissance, a cultural and political movement grounded in urban vitality and expanding commerce, began in Italy during the 14th century.

The Renaissance, above all, was a cultural movement, inspired by the humanists’ passion for the Ancient Greek and Roman past. It began in Florence and focused on literature and the arts.

The earlier phases involved literary and artistic themes more friendly to the secular world than the previous religiously oriented outlook. Artists and writers became more concerned with personal reputation and glory.

The early Renaissance did not represent a full break from medieval tendencies. It had little impact outside of Italy, and in Italy it focused on high culture. Still, the Renaissance marked the beginning of important changes in Western development.

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The Mughal Empire was a South Asian empire that was founded in 1526. Babur was the founder of the Mughal Dynasty. Originally, he directed raids into North India only to support his campaigns to win back his lost kingdom. After decades of wars on the steppes that repeatedly ended in defeat, he was forced to give up his dream of reclaiming his homeland and to turn his full energies to the conquest of Northern India. Under Babur, Islam reached the peak of its influence as a political and cultural force in South Asian history. His rule produced some of the world’s most sublime architecture and art. However, he did little to reform the very ineffective bureaucracy. Akbar, another leader, had a vision of empire and sense of mission that hinged on uniting India under his rule. He did this by pursuing a policy of reconciliation and cooperation with Hindu. Blending elements of many religions with which he was familiar, he invented a new faith, the Din-i-Ilahi, that he believed would unite his Hindu and Muslim subjects. He also pushed for social changes he believed would greatly benefit his subjects, reforming the position of women. Overall, Mughal India was highly regarded because it reached the peak of its splendor, cities had large size and opulence, and it had huge armies. Mughal India influenced trading by providing major overseas destinations for European traders, increasing demand for Indian textiles. The empire began to decline when the need for reforms were ignored, and it eventually succumbed to the British Raj in 1857.

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The Italian Renaissance Cont. (1450-1500 CE)

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The Italian Renaissance Cont. (1450-1500 CE)

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During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Renaissance blossomed further. New realism appeared in painting, and religion declined as a central focus. Humanism, a focus on humanity as the center of endeavor, was a central focus.

Renaissance ideas influenced politics and commerce.

However, by the 16th century, Italy declined as the center of the Renaissance. (See Northern Renaissance)

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The Northern Renaissance emerged in France, the Low Countries, Germany, and England and spread to eastern Europe. Northern Humanists like Erasmus tended to be more religious than Italian humanists.

Writers such as Shakespeare, Rabelais, and Cervantes mixed classical themes with elements of medieval popular culture and established a new set of classic works.

Northern rulers became patrons of the arts, tried to control the power of the church, and sponsored trading companies and colonial ventures.

Renaissance influence can be overstated. Feudal political forms remained strong. Ordinary people were little touched by the new values, and general economic life was not much altered.

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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement centered in France during the 18th century. There were scientific advances which were applied to the study of human society, such as the basic principles of human affairs. A few thinkers applied these principles to other areas. This encouraged further changes in habits and beliefs of ordinary people. It initiated new intellectual currents and complex cultural changes. A few important figures were economist Adam Smith, author Denis Diderot, and feminist thinker Mary Wollstonecraft.

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Gun and Slave Cycle Kingdoms 1700-1834 CE

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Gun and Slave Cycle Kingdoms 1700-1834 CE

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Due to the prominence of the the atlantic slave trade, many African kingdoms began trading slaves for weapons such as firearms. Using these firearms, these kingdoms were able to expand rapidly into surrounding weaker nations that had not yet adapted to firearm-based warfare. This led to a cycle being established where the expansion caused by new firearms created new slaves, leading to even more guns being procured. An example of this was the state of Asante, which was established along the gold coast. This allowed it to easily trade with European powers and acquire guns. As a result, the kingdom of Asante expanded rapidly as it gained new slaves to trade and more guns to use.

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Europeans usually only established small coastal fortresses, not conquering large territories. They sold Asian products and European guns and decorative items in exchange for slaves. One exception to this was Portugal’s expeditions into Angola in search of slaves. Another more important exception was the 1652 establishment of the Dutch colony, Cape Colony, at the Cape of Good Hope. Dutch settlers, known as Boers, began to fan out on large farms, directly contacting Bantu farmers. This created a long battle for control of Southern Africa.

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Decisive Battle between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires where the Ottoman's superior military technology of muskets and cannons led to the crushing defeat to the Safavid's cavalry and the battle. This battle was important as it emulated the fight between the Sunni and Shi'a variants of Islam, proving that the Sunni variant was superior through the Ottoman's victory.

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Russia emerged as a power through territorial expansion and the strengthening of tsar rule. Before 1471, Russia was ruled as a Mongol vassal state. This influenced Russia because it motivated Russian landlords to adopt Mongol dress and social habits, it reduced Russian cultural life. Also, economic life deteriorated because of decreased trade and manufacturing. Russia’s military needs influenced social developments by the recruitment of soldiers, tsars granting territories to military nobles, which included strict controls over serfs. It caused serfs to flee to border regions, which caused stricter controls on serfs as well as providing more military muscle and labor for further Russian expansion. Early Romanov tsars established western contacts by launching diplomatic missions to leading Western states, establishing trading contacts with Russia. They did this because Russia’s cultural and economic subordination to the Mongols had put them at a commercial and cultural disadvantage.

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The Protestant Reformation Begins (1517)

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The Protestant Reformation Begins (1517)

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The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement whcih resulted in a new form of Christianity called Protestantism. Martin Luther, a teacher and a monk, led this movement after he published a document he called Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, or 95 Theses. Luther's statements challenged the Catholic Church's authority especially when it came to the indulgence system.

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Rebirth of Silk Road during Mongol Rule (13th and 14th Centuries)

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Rebirth of Silk Road during Mongol Rule (13th and 14th Centuries)

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The Silk Road is neither an actual road nor a single route. The term instead refers to a network of routes used by traders for more than 1,500 years, from when the Han dynasty of China opened trade in 130 B.C.E. until 1453 C.E., when the Ottoman Empire closed off trade with the West. The Mongols, who ruled a vast empire, safeguarded a northern Silk Road land route that crossed the Eurasian steppes.

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The Indian Ocean Exchange was a long-distance trade route across the Indian Ocean between civilizations in Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa. They transported goods usch as gold, silk, spices, textiles, etc, in advanced ships such as dhows. This promoted economic

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After the introduction of the Camel to North Africa, trade flourished through the Saharan desert. Muslim Traders used the camel to trade for salt and gold in the North African Empires, both sought after resources during the post-classical Era. The travel of Muslim traders also spread Islam to North African nations.

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Starting in the 1400s, Western sailors started to take control and advantage of the lands they reached. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal sponsored Portuguese exploration voyages. European colonists set up large estates to produce cash crops. Colonists brought in slaves from Northwestern Africa.