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World War 2 came to an end when the US stormed Normandy and two large atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities and Nakasaki and Hiroshima. Germany was forced into large pay outs to pay back the Allies for all of the harm they had done.

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March 1946 Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech

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March 1946 Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” speech

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Winston Churchill was the famous Prime Minister of Great Britain during WWII and the years following. In this speech, Churchill. His speech went down in history as very polarizing, and he is also one of the best public speakers of all time.

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In one of the most famous orations of the Cold War period, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill condemns the Soviet Union's policies in Europe and declares, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent." Churchill's speech is considered one of the opening volleys announcing the beginning of the Cold War.

Churchill, who had been defeated for re-election as prime minister in 1945, was invited to Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri where he gave this speech. President Harry S. Truman joined Churchill on the platform and listened intently to his speech. Churchill began by praising the United States, which he declared stood "at the pinnacle of world power." It soon became clear that a primary purpose of his talk was to argue for an even closer "special relationship" between the United States and Great Britain-the great powers of the "English-speaking world"-in organizing and policing the postwar world. In particular, he warned against the expansionistic policies of the Soviet Union. In addition to the "iron curtain" that had descended across Eastern Europe, Churchill spoke of "communist fifth columns" that were operating throughout western and southern Europe. Drawing parallels with the disastrous appeasement of Hitler prior to World War II, Churchill advised that in dealing with the Soviets there was "nothing which they admire so much as strength, and there is nothing for which they have less respect than for military weakness."

Truman and many other U.S. officials warmly received the speech. Already they had decided that the Soviet Union was bent on expansion and only a tough stance would deter the Russians. Churchill's "iron curtain" phrase immediately entered the official vocabulary of the Cold War. U.S. officials were less enthusiastic about Churchill's call for a "special relationship" between the United States and Great Britain. While they viewed the British as valuable allies in the Cold War, they were also well aware that Britain's power was on the wane and had no intention of being used as pawns to help support the crumbling British empire. In the Soviet Union, Russian leader Joseph Stalin denounced the speech as "war mongering," and referred to Churchill's comments about the "English-speaking world" as imperialist "racism." The British, Americans, and Russians-allies against Hitler less than a year before the speech-were drawing the battle lines of the Cold War.
READ MORE: Cold War Timeline

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We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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In one of the most famous orations of the Cold War period, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill condemns the Soviet Union's policies in Europe and declares, "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent."

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Communist China at this point is entering a stage were communism is becoming rampent and popular. The first communist leader was Mao Zedong. This led the US to suspend diplomatic relationships for years to come.

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Northern Atlantic Treaty organization or NATO for short, is one of the biggest and most influential treaties in American history. It includes 30 countries from all over America and Europe. Its goal is intergovernmental military alliance.

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China at this point in time is growing as a power hungry Communist nation. Tibet is a small Asian country bordering China. The struggle for Tibet lasted a few years and China ultimately backed off.

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The Battle of Chamdo (or Qamdo; Chinese: 昌都战役) occurred from 6 through 19 October 1950. It was a military campaign by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to retake the Chamdo Region from a de facto independent Tibetan state after months of failed negotiations on the status of Tibet. According to Melvyn Goldstein, the campaign aimed not to invade Tibet per se but to capture the Lhasa army occupying Chamdo, demoralize the Lhasa government, and to exert pressure to get Tibetan representatives to agree to negotiations in Beijing and sign terms recognizing China's sovereignty over Tibet. The campaign resulted in the capture of Chamdo and further negotiations between the PRC and Tibetan representatives that eventually resulted in the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China.

Kham was the historical borderland between culturally Chinese and Tibetan areas and had been fought over by neighboring authorities. Prior to the establishment of the PRC, it roughly coincided with the Sikang Province under Kuomintang-led Republic of China, but its western half, known as Chamdo, was occupied and controlled by Tibetan authorities from Lhasa since the 1930's.

The Khampa Tibetans who lived there were fiercely independent, and they and Lhasa Tibetans held each other in mutual contempt and dislike, with the Khampas in some cases hating Lhasa rule even more than Chinese rule, which was why the Khampas did little to resist Chinese forces as they entered eastern Kham and subsequently took over the whole of Tibet. Likewise, the Qinghai ( Amdo) Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire.

Khampas like the Pandatsang clan had led rebellions for autonomy from Lhasa. Because of this, the Chinese communists viewed them as potential revolutionary allies. In January 1950, the communists officially proposed to aid the Pandatsang brothers' cause in exchange for them to stay on the sidelines during the "liberation of Tibet", but the Pandatsang brothers decided instead to send George Patterson to India to seek alternate aid. Pandatsang Rapga, leader of the pro- Kuomintang Tibet Improvement Party also offered the Lhasa-appointed governor of Chamdo, Ngabo Ngawang Jigme, some Khampa fighters in exchange for the Tibetan government recognizing the local independence of Kham. Ngabo refused the offer.

On 7 March 1950, a Tibetan government delegation arrived in Kalimpong to open a dialogue with the newly declared People's Republic of China and aimed to secure assurances that it would respect Tibet's "territorial integrity", among other things. The dialogue was delayed by a debate between the Tibetan, Indian, Britain and the PRC delegation over the location of the talks.

The Tibetan delegation eventually met with the PRC's ambassador General Yuan Zhongxian in Delhi on 16 September 1950. Yuan communicated a three-point proposal that Tibet be regarded as part of China, that China be responsible for Tibet's defense, and that China was responsible for Tibet's trade and foreign relations. Acceptance would lead to peaceful "liberation", or otherwise war. The Tibetans undertook to maintain the relationship between China and Tibet as one of preceptor and patron, and their head delegate, Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa, on 19 September, recommended cooperation (but with some stipulations about implementation). Chinese troops need not be stationed in Tibet, it was argued, since it was under no threat, and if attacked by India or Nepal could appeal to China for military assistance.

After the defeat of major Kuomintang forces in the Chinese Civil War, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) turned its attention to the Republic of China territories in the hinterland. Eastern Kham was the Chinese-held part of Sikang and the gateway to Tibetan areas. The 18th Army of the PLA formed the leading detachment advancing toward Tibet with the 52nd Division as its main force, and arrived at Ya'an on February 12, 1950. In March, the People's Liberation Army arrived in Kangding. By mid-April, the 18th Army had at least 30,000 passing through Kangding, and 10,000 Tibetans helped to build the road from Kangding to Garzê, which was completed in August. The 18th Army of the PLA assembled at Garzê on July 30, headquartered at Xinlong, and entered Litang from the east. The Qinghai Cavalry Detachment entered Gyêgu on July 22, forming a north-south pincer on Chamdo.

In June 1950, the PLA and the Tibetan army fought for the first time in Dengke. Dengke is located beside the main road from Garzê to Yushu, about 100 miles northeast of Chamdo. Former Chamdo governor Lhalu Tsewang Dorje had set up a radio station there. The People's Liberation Army traced the source of the radio signals and launched a raid across the Jinsha River and destroyed the radio station. Two weeks later (July), 800 Khampa militia (including 300 monks) raided Dengke, and killed 600 PLA soldiers. In the end, the PLA succeeded in occupying eastern Kham.

After months of failed negotiations, attempts by Lhasa to secure foreign support and assistance, and the troop buildups by the PRC and Tibet, the PLA crossed the Jinsha River on 6 or 7 October 1950 into Lhasa-controlled Chamdo, crossing the de facto border at 5 places.

Two PLA units quickly surrounded the outnumbered Tibetan government forces and captured the border town of Chamdo by 19 October, by which time 114 PLA soldiers and 180 Tibetan soldiers had been killed or wounded. The Chamdo governor and commander of Tibetan forces, Ngabo Ngawang Jigme, surrendered with his 2,700. Writing in 1962, Zhang Guohua claimed "5738 enemy troops "liquidated" and over 5700 "destroyed", and "more than 3,000" peacefully surrendered. Active hostilities were limited to a border area controlled by Lhasa northeast of the Salween River and east of the 96th meridian.

After confiscating their weapons, the PLA soldiers gave the prisoners lectures on socialism and a small amount of money, before allowing them to return to their homes. According to the Dalai Lama, the PLA did not attack civilians.

With the capture of Chamdo, the PLA believed the objective to have been reached, unilaterally ceased hostilities, and sent Ngabo to Lhasa to reiterate terms of negotiation, and waited for Tibetan representatives to respond through delegates to Beijing.

On 21 October, Lhasa instructed its delegation to leave immediately for Beijing for consultations with the PRC government, and to accept the first provision if the status of the Dalai Lama could be guaranteed, while rejecting the other two conditions. It later rescinded even acceptance of the first demand, after a divination before the Six-Armed Mahākāla deities indicated that the three points could not be accepted, since Tibet would fall under foreign domination.

On 24 October, all military operations ended.

After news of the defeat at the Battle of Qamdo reached Lhasa, Regent Ngawang Sungrab Thutob stepped down, and the 14th Dalai Lama was enthroned ahead of plans. In February 1951, five plenipotentiaries from Tibet were sent to Beijing to negotiate with the PRC government, led by chief representative Ngabo. In late April 1951, the Tibetan Kashag delegation went to Beijing to conclude peace talks, again led by Ngabo, who would go on to serve in the high ranks of the PLA and PRC government. The Seventeen Point Agreement was eventually signed between the Chinese and the Tibetans.

After releasing the captured, Chinese broadcasts promised that if Tibet was "peacefully liberated", the Tibetan elites would not be denied their positions and power.

Some Khampa fighters continued their opposition. Local warlords later became united under a common objective and hence resulted in the formation of Chushi Gangdruk with assistance from the CIA.

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The Battle of Chamdo (or Qamdo; Chinese: 昌都战役) occurred from 6 through 19 October 1950. It was a military campaign by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to retake the Chamdo Region from a de facto independent Tibetan state after months of failed negotiations on the status of Tibet.

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January, 1951, The US opens the first United Nations office in New York City. 

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January, 1951, The US opens the first United Nations office in New York City. 

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The United Nations, or UN for short, is a large intergovernmental organization that aims for peace and security. The UN to this day engages in peace conflicts all over the world, and is widely known as a powerful organization.

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January, 1952, US detonates its first hydrogen bomb.

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January, 1952, US detonates its first hydrogen bomb.

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At this point in time the US, the nuclear arms race was in full swing. It was a competition for countries to see how could arm themselves the strongest, best, and quickest. The creation and detonition of the hydrogen bomb was a large win for the US.

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The United States detonates the world's first thermonuclear weapon, the hydrogen bomb, on Eniwetok atoll in the Pacific. The test gave the United States a short-lived advantage in the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union.

Following the successful Soviet detonation of an atomic device in September 1949, the United States accelerated its program to develop the next stage in atomic weaponry, a thermonuclear bomb. Popularly known as the hydrogen bomb, this new weapon was approximately 1,000 times more powerful than conventional nuclear devices. Opponents of development of the hydrogen bomb included J. Robert Oppenheimer, one of the fathers of the atomic bomb. He and others argued that little would be accomplished except the speeding up of the arms race, since it was assumed that the Soviets would quickly follow suit.The opponents were correct in their assumptions. The Soviet Union exploded a thermonuclear device the following year and by the late 1970s, seven nations had constructed hydrogen bombs. The nuclear arms race had taken a fearful step forward.

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The United States detonates the world's first thermonuclear weapon, the hydrogen bomb, on Eniwetok atoll in the Pacific. The test gave the United States a short-lived advantage in the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union.

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February, 1955, First McDonald's restaurant is opened.

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February, 1955, First McDonald's restaurant is opened.

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Founded by Ray Kroc, it first started as a small burger stand. This stand developed into one of the largest food chains in the world, with thousands of locations in over 100 countries. It serves over 1 billion people every year.

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November 1956, Dwight Eisenhower wins the re-election.

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November 1956, Dwight Eisenhower wins the re-election.

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Eisenhower was widely known as a good president. He represented the republican morals very well, and won over his people enough to win his second term in 1956, enraging many of his opponents on the right.

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NASA is the US space organization, and is known throughout the world for its efficiency and success. NASA also launched its first Satellite into space, the Explorer 1. This was a huge step for space exploration all over the world and created a foundation for what was to come.

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Editor's Note: This is the 29th in a series of essays on exploration by NASA's Chief Historian, Steven J. Dick.

It may well be argued that NASA has become the world's premier agent for exploration, carrying on in "the new ocean" of outer space a long tradition of expanding the physical and mental boundaries of humanity. Fifty years ago, however the agency that pushed the frontiers of aeronautics, took us to the moon, flew the space shuttle, built the International Space Station and revealed the secrets of the cosmos, was in its birth throes, and fundamental decisions were being made that profoundly shaped all that was to come.

The driving force, of course, was the launch of Sputnik on Oct. 4, 1957, followed by its even weightier successors. In the midst of the Cold War, a country that aspired to global preeminence could not let that challenge pass. Although the United States already had its own satellite plans in place as part of the International Geophysical Year, the Russian events spurred the Space Age, and in particular gave urgency to the founding of an American national space agency.

In the wake of the Sputniks, events moved quickly toward the development of NASA, especially considering the weighty issues that had to be resolved. Should there be a new agency, or one built on an already established institution, such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), or the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA)? Or should it be part of a military agency - the Army and Air Force were both keen, based on their missile work. If it was military or civilian agency, then how to divide the tasks peculiar to each function? Should the new agency include aeronautical activities? Should it have the power to implement international agreements, how should those agreements be used as an instrument of foreign policy, and what should the new agency's relationship be with the State Department?

Already on Nov. 25, 1957 Senator Lyndon B. Johnson began hearings on American space and missile activities in the Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee of the Senate Armed Services Committee. This led on Feb. 6, 1958 to the establishment of a Senate Special Committee on Space and Aeronautics, with the goal of establishing a space agency, and Senator Johnson as its chairman. On the House side of Congress the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration was created on March 5, chaired by House majority leader John W. McCormack.

Meanwhile, in the Executive Branch President Eisenhower had asked his science advisor, James R. Killian, Jr., to convene the Presidential Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) for deliberations on the subject. By March 5 Eisenhower had approved a memorandum, dated the same day and signed by Nelson Rockefeller, chairman of the President's Advisory Committee on Government Organization, on which Killian also served. It proposed a civilian space agency built around the NACA, which by this time spent about half its total effort on space-related projects, including the Vanguard, X-15, and Defense Department missile programs. In the following weeks legislation was drafted by the Bureau of the Budget, NACA and Killian's office. One of those Bureau of Budget drafters, Willis H. Shapley (son of the famous Harvard astronomer Harlow Shapley), later became a Deputy Associate Administrator of NASA. Another drafter, Paul G. Dembling - general counsel for the NACA during the crucial 1957-58 period and later the NASA general counsel - recalled that it was a high pressure situation "because other agencies [than NACA] were seeking the mantle, and we didn't know exactly where we all stood." Dembling, who is still alive and well today, recalls there was no one source for drafting such legislation, and he relied on past decisions by the General Accounting Office. The legislation that emerged called for a new agency rather than a strengthened NACA, responding to the criticism of some that NACA had become too lethargic to deal with the onrush of events, and that a new start was needed.

On April 2, Eisenhower sent the draft legislation to Congress establishing the "National Aeronautics and Space Agency." At the behest of Eilene Galloway, who worked for the Congressional Research Service and served as a consultant to both Senator Johnson and Congressman McCormack during the drafting of the final Space Act, the name was changed to "National Aeronautics and Space Administration." It was her belief that an "Administration" with an "Administrator" would be vested with more power than a mere "agency" with a "director," and in fact that the new institution would need that power to coordinate with many other agencies. Galloway, too, is alive and well today, still offering her reminiscences at age 101.

After Congressional hearings during spring 1958, Congress passed the legislation and President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act into law on July 29, 1958. Although it had generally been assumed that Hugh Dryden, the head of the NACA, would be appointed administrator, three weeks later, on Aug. 19, T. Keith Glennan - the President of Case Institute of Technology since 1947 and a former member of the Atomic Energy Commission - was sworn in at the White House as NASA's first Administrator, with Dryden as his Deputy Administrator. NASA formally opened for business on Oct. 1, 1958.

It is instructive to recall the objectives for NASA that emerged in section 102 of the final Space Act:

1. The expansion of human knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space;

2. The improvement of the usefulness, performance, speed, safety, and efficiency of aeronautical and space vehicles;

3. The development and operation of vehicles capable of carrying instruments, equipment, supplies, and living organisms through space;

4. The establishment of long-range studies of the potential benefits to be gained from, the opportunities for, and the problems involved in the utilization of aeronautical and space activities for peaceful and scientific purposes;

5. The preservation of the role of the United States as a leader in aeronautical and space science and technology and in the application thereof to the conduct of peaceful activities within and outside the atmosphere;

6. The making available to agencies directly concerned with national defense of discoveries that have military value or significance, and the furnishing by such agencies, to the civilian agency established to direct and control nonmilitary aeronautical and space activities, of information as to discoveries which have value or significance to that agency;

7. Cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups of nations in work done pursuant to this Act and in the peaceful application of the results thereof;

8. The most effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources of the United States, with close cooperation among all interested agencies of the United States in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, facilities and equipment

The Space Act has been amended many times since 1958 (see online reference below for details), but these goals have been little changed. In NASA's Authorization Act for 1985 the expansion of human knowledge "of the Earth" was added to goal 1, reflecting increased concern about Earth resources and global climate change. And in the Authorization Act for 1989 a ninth goal was added: "The preservation of the United States preeminent position in aeronautics and space through research and technology development related to associated manufacturing processes." Other sections of the Space Act dealt with the civilian-military coordination, international cooperation, the demise of the NACA, the transfer of functions from other government agencies, and intellectual property rights.
Beyond the logistical questions in the founding of a new space agency were larger issues not fully grasped at the time. In creating NASA, Pulitzer-Prize historian Walter McDougall argued, Congress was creating a technocratic institution, where technocracy is defined as "the institutionalization of technological change for state purposes, that is, the state-funded and-managed R&D explosion of our time." He saw Sputnik as a saltation that sparked this technological revolution. McDougall later revised this point in light of the events of the Space Age. Historian Robert MacGregor has also recently challenged the view of Sputnik as a technological saltation, arguing that technocratic ideas of the relation of science to the state were already well established by this time. In particular he points to the parallels between the Atomic Energy Commission and NASA, and further argued that "NASA's rise in the 1960's as an engine of American international prestige was rooted in atomic diplomacy, and that certain debates in Congress about the new agency were largely approached from within a framework of atomic energy, thereby limiting the range of discourse and influencing the shape of the new agency." MacGregor finds of special importance the sections of the National Aeronautics and Space Act that were inspired by the Atomic Energy Acts of 1946 and 1954, especially the relation of the Department of Defense to the new agency, the role of international cooperation, and the apportionment of intellectual property. Issues great and small were involved in the founding of NASA. It may truly be said that NASA has achieved the goals laid out in section 102, sometimes in spectacular fashion, with the possible exception of objective 4, involving studies of the long-range benefits and problems related to spaceflight.

That objective is now being undertaken in the NASA History Division, as witnessed in the recent publication of Societal Impact of Spaceflight (see http://history.nasa.gov/sp4801-part1.pdf.) and other planned publications. Perhaps no goal is more important for sustaining a robust space program than ensuring that society has a vested interest in the aeronautics and space activities of NASA and the other space agencies that have sprouted up around the world over the last 50 years.

Further Reading

Galloway, Eilene, "Sputnik and the Creation of NASA: A Personal Perspective," in NASA: 50 Years of Exploration and Discovery (Faircount, 2008), pp. 48-49.

Goldstein, Edward S., David S. Schuman and Gregory C. La Rosa. "Present at the Creation: Paul G. Dembling, Author of NASA's Founding Legislation," in NASA: 50 Years of Exploration and Discovery (Faircount, 2008), pp. 50-51.

Griffith, Alison. The National Aeronautics and Space Act: A Study of the Development of Public Policy (Washington, D.C., 1962)

Hall, Cargill, "Origins of U. S. Space Policy: Eisenhower, Open Skies and Freedom of Space," in Exploring the Unknown, Vol. 1, John M. Logsdon, editor, pp. 213. ff.

Hunley, J. D., editor. The Birth of NASA: The Diary of T. Keith Glennan (NASA SP-4105, 1993). Online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4105/sp4105.htm (Glennan was NASA's first Administrator.)

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Legislative Origins of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, Proceedings of an Oral History Workshop, conducted April 3, 1992. Monographs in Aerospace History # 8, (NASA History Office, 1998). Online at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/40thann/legislat.pdf , or a larger file with graphics at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/40thann/legorgns.pdf

MacDougall, Walter. ... The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985)

MacGregor, Robert R. "Imagining an Aerospace Agency in the Atomic Age," in Remembering the Space Age, Steven J. Dick, ed. (NASA History series, forthcoming)

National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, as amended, with legislative history showing changes over time, online at http://history.nasa.gov/spaceact-legishistory.pdf

Portree, David S. F. NASA's Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age, Monographs in Aerospace History #10 (NASA History Division, September, 1998). Online at http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/monograph10/

Rosholt, Robert L. An Administrative History of NASA, 1958-1963 (NASA SP-4101, 1966).

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NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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Editor's Note: This is the 29th in a series of essays on exploration by NASA's Chief Historian, Steven J. Dick. It may well be argued that NASA has become the world's premier agent for exploration, carrying on in "the new ocean" of outer space a long tradition of expanding the physical and mental boundaries of humanity.

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January 1959, Alaska admitted as a state.

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January 1959, Alaska admitted as a state.

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Alaska has no borders with the US. It is in the most Northern part of Canada and houses over 600,000 american residents. Many people who live here are of Native Alaskan descent. It is known for good fishing, hunting, and scenic views.

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On January 3, 1959, the United States of America added the largest state ever admitted to the Union when Alaska became the 49 th state. Purchased from Imperial Russia in 1867, Alaska is one of history's greatest land bargains, at only about 2 cents per acre!

Digging Deeper

Alaska immediately comes to mind when you think of our Northernmost state, but in reality it isthe Easternmost the Westernmost state as well! (Baffle your friends with this bit of trivia!) While Alaska was once the least populous state, the oil industry has changed things and Alaska now boasts a larger population (738,432 in 2016) than both Vermont and Wyoming. (Population in 1959 was only about 200,000.) At 1.26 people per square mile, Alaska is the least densely populated state, but has the second highest median annual household income at $75,112 (people in New Hampshire pull down about $500 more per year). Although only around 15% of Alaska's population is of native ancestry, these Native Alaskans speak 20 different native languages. About a third of Alaskans are either atheist or agnostic, or have no stated religion, among the highest percentage of all states. Alaskans have the lowest individual tax burden of the citizens of any state.

Alaska is so big, twice the size of Texas, that if it were its own country it would rank #19 in the world. (663,268 square miles.) That is bigger than Texas, Montana and California combined. Despite its size, Alaska is largely a maritime oriented state, with most people living near the coast, and the state boasting over 300 islands (Aleutian Island chain) in its territory. Alaska's sea coast is longer than all the rest of the United States coastline combined!

Although Alaska is often thought of as an Arctic wilderness, you may be surprised to know that the highest temperature recorded in Alaska was 100 F in 1915 (Ft. Yukon). Even more surprising, this makes Alaska tied with Hawaii for having the lowest maximum recorded temperature of all states. (More trivia to baffle your pals.) Of course, the lowest temperature recorded in Alaska, -80 F (Prospect Creek, 1971) is the lowest low temperature ever recorded in the United States. Initially Caucasian interest in Alaska concerned the fur harvest, and then the rich fishing grounds, with a major Gold Rush thrown in back in 1896-1899, but today over 80% of Alaska's economy is from the petroleum industry oil and natural gas). Fisheries remain an important smaller portion of the Alaskan economy.

The most populous city in Alaska is Anchorage, with 291,826 people, while the state capital, Juneau, has only 31,275, making Juneau only the third largest city in the state (Fairbanks has just a few more people than Juneau). Despite its low population, and the fact that Juneau is the only state capital that cannot be reached by road (!), Juneau is not even close to the least populous state capital, Montpelier, Vermont, which has only 7,600 people. Juneau is, however, the largest US state capital by size, with a whopping 3255 square miles, making it the second largest city in the US and larger than Rhode Island or Delaware. In fact, the 4 largest US cities by area are all in Alaska (Sitka, Juneau, Wrangell, and Anchorage).

Alaska is the only state to have all three North American bears, the Polar Bear, Brown (Grizzly) Bear and the Black Bear. Other large mammals include the Moose (the State Mammal), Caribou, Elk, Sitka Deer, Musk Ox, Bison, Mountain Goat, Dall Sheep, Arctic Fox, Red Fox, Coyote, Gray Wolf, Cougar (mountain lion), Lynx, and a host of smaller mammals, including several species of Bats. Alaska is also home to numerous marine mammals, all sorts of seals and whales, including Orcas. Alaska is truly a paradise for hunters, fishermen and observers of wildlife.

Of course, the addition of Alaska as the 49 th State created a need to change the 48 star flag that had flown since 1912 when New Mexico and Arizona joined the Union, and the official design was to have 7 rows of 7 stars each, in a staggered pattern. This is our rarest flag, because only a year later we added Hawaii and our flag became the familiar 50 star version we see today.

One final bit of Alaska trivia: The state insect is the Four Spot Skimmer (dragonfly).

Question for students (and subscribers): What are favorite Alaska stories or trivia facts? Please share them with your fellow readers in the comments section below this article.

If you liked this article and would like to receive notification of new articles, please feel welcome to subscribe to and becoming one of History and Headlines by liking us on Facebook our patrons!

Your readership is much appreciated!

Historical Evidence

For more information, please see...

Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Alaska. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014.

Naske, Claus M. and Herman E. Slotnick. Alaska: A History. University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.

Ritter, Harry. Alaska's History: The People, Land, and Events of the North Country (Alaska Pocket Guide). Alaska Northwest Books, 1993.

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January 3, 1959: Alaska Admitted as 49th State (Fun Facts)

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On January 3, 1959, the United States of America added the largest state ever admitted to the Union when Alaska became the 49 th state. Purchased from Imperial Russia in 1867, Alaska is one of history's greatest land bargains, at only about 2 cents per acre!

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Multiple months during 1960, Cuban missile conflict. 

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Multiple months during 1960, Cuban missile conflict. 

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While flying over Russia, an American realized there were huge soccer fields being built, and knew that Cubans aren't known for playing soccer. This information lead to the discovery Russia was planting missile silos all over Cuba, and this then led to the start of the Cold War.

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Kennedy versus Nixon:

In 1960, the presidential election pitted two candidates—Vice President Richard M. Nixon and Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy (JFK). John F. Kennedy made a speech on the 15th of July, 1960. In JFK's 1960 speech accepting the Democratic presidential nomination, JFK showcased the muscular language that would help stamp the rest of his campaign and his presidency: "We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier—the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils—a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats." JFK eventually wins the election and became the 35th president of the United States.

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The Bay of Pigs was a failed landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in 1961 by Cuban exiles who opposed Fidel Castro's Cuban Revolution.

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The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that divided Berlin. Construction of the Wall was commenced by the German Democratic Republic on the 13th of August.

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The Freedom Riders were a group of white and African American civil rights activists who did bus trips through the American South. This was to protest segregated bus terminals. All Freedom Riders would try to use the "white-only" restrooms and lunch areas at bus stations. The groups were confronted by police officers—as well of those who did not agree with the Freedom Riders movement.

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1961: On the month of May, President John F. Kennedy sends helicopters and 400 Green Berets to South Vietnam and authorizes secret operations against the Viet Cong.

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The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation. It was between the United States and the Soviet Union caused by America's discovery of Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba.

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Co-Founded by an extremely historical figure, Caesar Chavez, he led a group of people and dedicated themselves to improving the treatment, pay, and working conditions of farm workers. The United Farm Workers were farm workers who stood for their working conditions.

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1963, The Publication of the Feminine Mystique

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1963, The Publication of the Feminine Mystique

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Publish on February 19, 1963, the book shocked the ground of American Society. Rooted in a myth of pleasant and domesticity and supported by the physical and emotional labor of women. The author, Betty Friedan, was widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.

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This was a civil rights movement, a massive protest, march. About 250,000 people gathered in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. It was also the occasion of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s now iconic "I Have A Dream" speech.

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The Iconic "I Have A Dream" speech was made at the March To Washington movement. It was told to us by one of the most famous civil rights activists—Martin Luther King, Jr.

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1963, The Assassination of John F. Kennedy

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1963, The Assassination of John F. Kennedy

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John F. Kennedy was assassinated, while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas. John F. Kennedy was assassinated by a former U.S. Marine Lee Harvey Oswald.

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First proposed by John F. Kennedy before his death, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended segregation in publics places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, 🤬 or national origin. It is considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement.

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, was to overcome legal barriers that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This act was considered one of the most far-reaching pieces of the civil rights legislation along with the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

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The domestic development during the Nixon Administration was a floundering economy. Stagflation was the halt of this economy which was doubling the employment and also quadrupling inflation. One of the biggest causes for stagflation was the flood of new workers mainly baby boomers and women into the labor markets.

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The Tet offensive was 100 attacks on south Vietnam coordinated by North Vietnam. The reasoning behind the attacks were to foment rebellion throughout the South Vietnamese Population. It was also for the United States to sort of muzzle its involvement in the war.

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This event caused the start of the gay rights movement. They were violent acts for the ending of discrimination of Jews. By 1973 they had created over 800 gay organizations and every major city had a visible gay community.

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This event was a protest put on by 89 Native -Americans and supporters where they occupied Alcatraz. The protest lasted 19 months and the cause for it was that the native Americans thought they rightfully deserved the land on Alcatraz.

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Richard Nixon suggested the creation of this agency for environmental protection. This agency did so much as fuel economy, Radiation Protection, and pollutant discharge elimination system.

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The Watergate Scandal was political incident involving Richard Nixon's Administration. there were a total of 178 people involved in this scandal most of them were Nixon's administrations top officials and they were convicted of doing illegal activities. Some of the activities included kidnapping, a money trail, suspicious audio tapes, and the eventual resignation of Nixon.

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Title IX of the Educational Amendments passed in 1972

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Title IX of the Educational Amendments passed in 1972

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This  Amendment no longer allowed women to be excluded from earning an education from any type of program receiving federal assistance. Pretty much it advanced the advancement of women in the work force because without an education there is not much you can do. Mainly this amendment was directed toward athletics so that young women could participate in high school sports.

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1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (Salt I)

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1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (Salt I)

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This Treaty limited the number of missiles with nuclear warheads and prohibited the creation of missile defense systems. This treaty was signed during the Moscow summit and it was very beneficial for Russia as they were sold a quarter of Americas Grain at a favorable Price.

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The last U.S combat troops had been pulled out of Vietnam including 600 American prisoners of war around this time. After the withdrawal from the U.S the cease fire in Vietnam was broken and the communist forces gained the upper hand.  which ended up leading to South Vietnam losing the war and it marked the U.S's least successful war in history.

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This act was passed by congress due to the Watergate revelations with several pieces of legislation to help lessen the executive Power. The acts required the President to inform congress within 48 hrs if U.S troops are deployed in combat.

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This decision made in the supreme court made history because it struck down the laws on not allowing abortions during the first three months of pregnancy. The majority of the court felt that women have a right to choose whether or not they want to keep their child. This resulted in backlash from many roman Catholics and conservatives who felt that everyone has a right to life which helped fuel conservative political come ups in the seventies and beyond.

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August 9, 1974 Retirement of Richard Nixon

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August 9, 1974 Retirement of Richard Nixon

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Nixon ended up retiring on August 9 due to the Watergate scandal which dwindled down his political support. He eventually resigned and it proved to the public people that not even the President was above the Law. (Seems like its similar to whats going on right now with Trump)

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After Nixon resigned from office the vice president took office and one of the most challenging problems he faced and his most important development was the struggling economy. The nation during his short presidency had entered a recession almost as bad as the great depression. Instead of taking action he launched public campaign featuring lapel buttons also known as "Whip Inflation Now" because his administration felt inflation was the nations #1 Enemy.