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From 395 CE to 1453 on the strait linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, the Byzantine Empire thrived as a transit and trade point between Europe and Asia. Previously in 324 CE, the Byzantine empire rose to existence by the foundation of the city Constantinople, but it really came to power after the final division to Eastern and Western Roman Empire in 395 CE. Since the empire was built off the Roman Empire, it put the old Roman road system to use, utilizing it for movement of people, armies and goods from Portugal to Constantinople. At the same time, trade was manipulated by ships over long distances, traveling as far as places like Russia and Ethiopia. Silk and spices from the east, furs from Russia, grains from Egypt in exchange for silk and  olives and wines from the empire itself brought great prosperity. Trading was not only good outside the empire with other countries, but inside the empire too. This is because there were low tax rates, common currency, and custom fees as well as the government intervened with trade, so private individuals were not able to operate factories. But besides accomplishments in being one of the largest trading centers, the Byzantine Empire changed influenced religion too. A branch of Christianity developed in the Byzantine Empire, after its split from the Roman Empire called the Eastern Orthodox Church which was based in Constantinople (Byzantines capital). In order to spread Christianity , the empire sent Chistain missionaries to help expand its faith. One of the place the Byzantine Empire and Eastern Orthodox Church affected the most was Kievan Rus, where the Chirsitanity (Eastern Orthodox Church, specifically) spread due to Byzantine missionaries, the baptism of Vladimir I, prince of Kiev, in 988 and finally, Chirsitanity being declared the state religion. All in all, the Byzantine empire influenced many cultures, primarily due to its role in shaping Christian Orthodoxy and had one of the most vigorous economies, with a  trading network that extended across almost all of Eurasia and North Africa.

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This is an Islamic manuscript from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library in Timbuctu, Mali. It is written in Arabic script and because of it's Islamic origins it is safe to assume that the text details something about the Islamic faith or teachings and it is written by a Muslim scholar who was brought to Mali.

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This is a primary source written by Al Bakri, an Arab and Muslim historian who wrote many works, especially about Islam and West African Empire. This is a reliable source because the author is experienced and well renouned for his historical writings. This particular document provides context and details on the Gold-Salt Trade. He provides details such as gold nuggets are reserved for kings, while the dust goes to the civilians. It is also stated that the best gold comes from the town of Ghiyaru. It is not clear if that is a fact or an opinion.

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Ghana and Mali were two West African Kingdoms heavily involved in the Gold-Salt trade, a niche of the Trans Saharan Trade. Ghana began this endeavour, but Mali quickly rose and replaced them as the hub of this trade. This trade connected West Africa (Ghana and Mali) to North Africa because of the North African demand for West African Gold. In return the North Africans exported salt. While salt might seem like a much less important good it was actually heavily relied on. It's uses included taste for food, preservation of food, and fuel for humans due to the loss of sodium from sweat. Along with the gold and salt spread between these areas the spread of Islam was also  a large part of West African trade routes. Mali rulers began this massive change by converting to Islam in order to get access to the Arab controlled trade routes. A main draw of the Muslim religion was the scholars and new cultural and technological advancements that came with the religion, especially in the intellectual field. Islam was spread to the sahel region and would follow through Mali's successor- the Songhai- and onward. Traditional African religions stayed present but Islam gained a lot of power and influence on Africa- stemming from West Africa. The final exhange that took prominance in the Trans Saharan Trade routes was slave trade. Enslaved people were passed and traded through these Arab controlled routes. Enslaved people were heavily relied on to do heavy work and were extremely important in the development of the West African economy. The Songhai who came after Mali had their rulers convert to Islam which pursuaded the civilians to do the same, carrying on the religion. Arab officials incorperated Muslim teachings into governments and the law in the Songhai empire. They made most of their profit from taxing African trade, along the same Trans-Saharan route.

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Justinian Mosaic, San Vitale

In this mosaic, Justinian is posed frontally in the center, with members of the clergy on the near left, members of the imperial administration on his right and in the far left soldiers This mosaic shows the position of the emperor between the power of imperial administration and military and the power of the church. THis symbolizes Justinian's religious, administrative and military authority.

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Fragment of a Floor Mosaic with a Personification of Ktisis. Mosaic shows Ktisis,a  figure personifying the act of generous donation or foundation as well as a man holding a cornucopia with the inscription “good” (in greek) by his head, the other half of the text most likely said “good wishes''. This is a typical mosaic, similar to the ones that are created throughout the Byzantine empire.

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Jaharis Byzantine Lectionary

This manuscript was made for the great church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. This lectionary shows how the Gospels were central to the liturgy of the Orthodox church. In this lectionary, there is the  liturgical calendar and the lives of saints who were celebrated daily were included in the text.

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Mansa Musa- Mansa Musa was a devout Muslim who played in integral role in the spread of Islam in Africa. He achieved this by gathering Muslim scholars and artists from the middle east in Africa to accompany the building of Muslim mosques, libraries and universities. He also contributed to society by building up Timbuctu- an important Mulsim trade city that flourished. In addition he embodied the idea of interconnectedness of societies by expanding the gold salt trade and other trade networks and routes originally brought about by Ghana.

Sonni ʿAlī- ʿAlī was a Songhai leader that was able to capture the Timbuctu territory from the Songhai people. While this event solidified his place in history, he also greatly expanded the Songhai military and incorporated military into administration. Unlike some other rulers from the Songhai, ʿAlī  angered the Muslim population by using military in the government. This was most liekly because they felt underepresented without Islamic views steering the government.

Muḥammad I Askia- Similar to ʿAlī, Askia held the throne of the Songhai empire, but his hold on the territory mostly came from his Muslim expansion and initiatives. As ʿAlī's successor he was able to overthrow native religions to expand Islam and make it dominant in the Songhai empire with a structure relying on the Quran and the offical language being Arabic. This played in an important role in the interconnectedness of societies because he was continuing the Islamic faith introduced by earlier West African kingdoms.

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This is a map of Western and Northern Africa showing the movement of the Gold Salt Trade. It shows the major kingdoms in West Africa exporting gold, including Ghana, Mali and Songhai. It also shows the main Kingdom that exports salt which is Berbers.

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Bakari, Al. "Kingdom of Ghana- Primary Source Documents." Boston University Pardee School of Global Studies African Studies Center, Back2BU, www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/teachingresources/history/k_o_ghana/ . Accessed 15 June 2021.

"Byzantine Empire Trade and Trade Routes." Byzantine Empires, byzantineempires.org/byzantine-empire-trade-and-trade-routes.html.

Cartwright, Mark. "Roman Roads." World History Encyclopedia, 17 Sept. 2014, www.worldhistory.org/article/758/roman-roads/.

Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in the Byzantine Empire." World History Encyclopedia, 18 Jan. 2018, www.worldhistory.org/article/1179/trade-in-the-byzantine-empire/.
Cartwright, Mark. "Songhai Empire of West Africa." Addis Herald, 2 Sept. 2020,
www.addisherald.com/songhai-empire/. Accessed 17 June 2021.

Editors. "Sonni ʿAlī." Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/Sonni-Ali. Accessed 15 June 2021.

"How did the Byzantine Empire influence Russia?" Daily History, www.dailyhistory.org/How_did_the_Byzantine_Empire_influence_Russia%3F.

"Islamic Manuscripts from Mali." The Library of Congress, memory.loc.gov/intldl/malihtml//malihome.html. Accessed 16 June 2021.

Kehinde, Michael. "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade- Encyclopedia of Migration." Edited by Reed Ueda. SpringerLink, link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-94-007-6179-7_30-1. Accessed 15 June 2021.
MEO. "A trade that has roots." The Middle East Observer, 16 Oct. 2015,

www.meobserver.org/?p=2719. Accessed 17 June 2021.

Rouch, Jean Pierre. "Muḥammad I Askia." Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-I-Askia. Accessed 15 June 2021.

Teall, John L. "Byzantine Empire." Britannica, www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire.

"The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade (7th–14th Century)." The Met, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gold/hd_gold.htm.

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Justinian the Great- He was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, he brought back the empire’s glory and re-conquered the western half of the Roman Empire from barbarians and invaders.He also created laws to protect prostitutes from ill treatments and gave harsh punishments to the rapists.

Laonikos Chalkokondyles- He is known for writing “Proofs of Histories”, a work of history that covers the last 150 years of the Byzantine Empire. The text shows the fall of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottomans.

Flavius Belisarius- He was a military commander for the Byzantine Empire who was critical in the reconquest of much of the Mediterranean territory belonging to the former Western Roman Empire, which had been lost 100 years before.
Justinian the Great- He was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, he brought back the empire’s glory and re-conquered the western half of the Roman Empire from barbarians and invaders.He also created laws to protect prostitutes from ill treatments and gave harsh punishments to the rapists.

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This is a map of the Byzantine Empire’s territory in 555 AD. It shows how it had almost all the land surrounding the medeterranian and a ton of land around the black sea. The Byzantine empire's great location allows them to control trade between Africa and Europe.

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This picture depicts the Byzatnine empire reading for a battle. People are seen holding spears, shields, firearms and riding on horses. This picture shows the Empire’s weapons used in battle and military strategy.

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This picture shows taxation, trade and organisms in the Byzantine empire. On the bottom, it shows people working in the field and on the top, it shows these same workers getting paid.

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This is an image of a mosque in the Songhai Empire of West Africa. It depicts civilians with a religous leader leading the group in worship. Behind them shows the mosque, which in this time were usually very grand and intruicate, showing the dedication to the religion.