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The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions.

The interactive diagram below may help you understand the scientific method and how it is applied to an experiment. You can click on parts of the diagram to learn more. Use the "return to top" button to return to the diagram for more exploration.

1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be easy to measure.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

The six steps of the scientific method include: 1) asking a question about something you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6) communicating the results to others.

A simple example of the scientific method is:

Ask a Question: Why does Greenland look so large on a map?

Background Research: Learn that Greenland is a quarter the size of the United States in land mass. Also learn that Mercator projection maps are made by transferring the images from a sphere to a sheet of paper wrapped around the sphere in a cylinder.

Hypothesis: If I make a Mercator projection map, then the items in the middle of the map will look their true size and the items at the poles will look larger than they really are.

Experiment: Use a sphere with 1-inch by 1-inch squares at each pole and the equator to make a Mercator projection map. Measure the squares on the Mercator projection map.

Analyze Data and Make Conclusions: The middle-of-the-map squares average 1 inch per side while the squares at the poles average 3 inches per side. In conclusion, the projection process used to make Mercator projection maps creates distortion at the poles, but not at the equator. This is why Greenland, which is close to the North Pole, looks larger than it is.

Communicate: Make a video, write a report, or give a presentation to educate others about the experiment.

Who invented the scientific method?

The scientific method was not invented by any one person, but is the outcome of centuries of debate about how best to find out how the natural world works. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was among the first known people to promote that observation and reasoning must be applied to figure out how nature works. The Arab Muslim mathematician and scientist Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (known in the western world as Alhazen) is often cited as the first person to write about the importance of experimentation. Since then, a large number of scientists have written about how science should ideally be conducted and contributed to our modern understanding of the scientific method. Those scientists include Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, John Hume, and John Stuart Mill. Scientists today continue to evolve and refine the scientific method as they explore new techniques and new areas of science.

Scientists do use the scientific method, but not always exactly as laid out in the organized steps taught in the classroom. Just like a chef might make a few changes to a recipe because of the ingredients at hand, a scientist may modify the scientific method by skipping steps, jumping back and forth between steps, or repeating a subset of the steps because he or she is dealing with imperfect real-world conditions. But scientists always strive to keep to the core principles of the scientific method by using observations, experiments, and data to support or reject explanations of how a phenomenon works. While experimenting is considered the best way to test explanations, there are areas of science, like astronomy, where this is not always possible.

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This project guide provides a detailed introduction to the steps of the scientific method.

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This is the most basic skill in science. Observations are made by using the 5 senses. Good observations are essential in learning the other science process skills.

The learner will be blind folded and make observations using the sense of touch.

The learner will create observations about a coin using the 5 senses.

The learner will mix primary colors to create more colors.

It is important to be able to share our experiences. This can be done with graphs, diagrams, maps, and spoken word.

The learner will create a line graph showing the relationship between speed and the mass of a marble.

The learner will discuss possible errors with other classmates.

After making observations it is important to notice similarities, differences, and group objects according to a purpose. It is important to create order to help comprehend the number of objects, events, and living things in the world.

The learner will use a magnet to classify objects as magnetic or nonmagnetic.

The learner will use a balance and sort objects according to mass.

The learner will combine different liquids with water to determine which is more or less dense.

An inference is an explanation based on an observation. It is a link between what is observed and what is already known.

The learner will write a conclusion at the end of each investigation.

The learner will create inferences about observations they made about a mystery object. I infer it is solid rather than hollow.

Measuring is important in collecting, comparing, and interpretting data. It helps us classify and communicate with others. The metric system should be used to help understand the scientific world.

The learner will find the mass of different liquids that have the same volume.

The learner will use techonology to find the speed of a toy truck.

The learner will measure the distance a marble travels.

What do you think will happen? It is an educated guess based on good observations and inferrences about an observed event or prior knowledge.

The learner will predict what is a box based on observations using the sense of touch.

The learner will write a hypothesis about the effect of increasing the salt on the boyancy of an egg.

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The 6 Science Process Skills - Hands-On Science Investigations

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My mission is to inspire educators and teachers to implement hands-on investigations into their teaching and help students become lifelong learners through a memorable scientific experience. On this web-site you will find sample investigative journals, information about my teaching background, and a survey. Please fill out the survey about your educational needs.

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How to set up Microscope

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BIOLOGY 10 - Basic Microscope Setup and Use

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Answer Questions

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Scientific drawings are an important part of the science of biology and all biologists must be able to produce good quality scientific drawings regardless of your artistic ability.

Drawings not only allow you to record an image of the specimen observed but more importantly, they help you to remember the specimen as well as the important features of the specimen. You will be required to look at a large number of specimens during this course and you are much more likely to remember them if you have to draw each one.

Drawing a specimen requires you to pay attention to detail so that you can re-create it on the sheet. While doing this, your brain is recording these same features in such a way that you can recall them if necessary (for example in an exam).

Simply observing pictures of specimens in a book or on a computer screen is less effective when it comes to remembering and understanding what you observed. All drawings done for this course must adhere to standard rules of scientific illustration. The following are some guidelines that you are to use when illustrating specimens:

1) Look at the specimen carefully and examine the significant features that will be included in the drawing.

2) DRAW ONLY WHAT YOU SEE!! Do not include what you think you should see.

3) All drawings must be done in pencil ONLY.

4) Drawings must be large and clear so that features can be easily distinguished.

5) No more than two drawings should be on a single page.

6) Always use distinct, single lines when drawing.

7) To illustrate darker areas on a specimen, use stippling or dots. Do not shade in any area of your drawing.

All drawings must have the following indicated:
- Title (give a full, clear and concise title that explains what is being illustrated)

- Magnification (indicate the magnification at which the specimen was observed)

- Labels (always include labels of the important features of the specimen. Each label line must be straight and should not overlap with other label lines; all labels must be to one. Annotations are used to give information about the specimen that cannot be seen on the diagram (e.g. you may want to record that the nucleus was stained blue or that the two flagella on the organism could not be seen and so are not included on the diagram.

- Scale (always include a scale bar indicating the length or width of the specimen drawn)

9) Be sure to underline scientific names. All scientific names must be written as follows: Genus (beginning with a capital letter) species (beginning with a common letter) e.g. Amoeba proteus.

When doing scientific drawings, use the following checklist to make sure your drawings have all the required components:

Two drawings per page

Drawing title

Magnification

Labels and annotations

Scale bar

No shading, only stippling (dotting)

No sketchy lines, only single lines

All scientific names underlined

All drawing neat and clean

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How to do Scientific Drawings for Biological courses

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Scientific drawings are an important part of the science of biology and all biologists must be able to produce good quality scientific drawings regardless of your artistic ability. Drawings not only allow you to record an image of the specimen observed but more importantly, they help you to remember the specimen as well as the...

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Please draw this picture and share your drawing.

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Many of your Science units will require you to write a formal laboratory report. The purpose is to report on what you did, what you learned from an experiment and why the findings matter.

Disclaimer:

Please note that many units require students to record notes and observations in logbooks in the laboratory. These have their own purpose and conventions and are different from lab reports.

Lab report structure

Lab reports can vary in length and format. These range from a form to fill in and submit before leaving the lab, to a formal written report. However, they all usually follow a similar basic structure.

Title

Your title needs to reflect the purpose of the experiment. Check with your demonstrator or lecturer for specific requirements.

PHS1022 Week 5 Laboratory
The Period of a Simple Pendulum

Abstract

An abstract provides a brief overview of the experiment, including its findings and conclusions. In general the abstract should answer six questions:

Why was the experiment conducted? (big-picture/real-world view).

What specific problem/research question was being addressed?

What methods were used to solve the problem/answer the question?

What results were obtained?

What do these results mean?

How do they answer the overall question or improve our understanding of the problem?

The most important thing to remember when writing the abstract is to be brief and state only what is relevant. No extraneous information should be included. It also must be clear enough so someone who is unfamiliar with your experiment could understand why you did what you did, and the conclusions you reached, without needing to read the rest of the report.

An abstract is usually only one paragraph (200-300 words max).

Introduction

The Introduction should:

provide the context and motivation for the experiment

briefly explain relevant theory in sufficient detail

introduce any relevant laws, equations or theorems

clearly state the aim or research question that the experiment is designed to address.

Tip

Always write the introduction in your own words; don't just copy from the lab notes.

Some brief lab reports do not require an introduction and will just begin with an aim/statement.

Always check with your lecturer/demonstrator if you're not sure what is expected.

Method

The method section is where you describe what you actually did. It includes the procedure that was followed. This should be a report of what you actually did, not just what was planned. A typical procedure usually includes:

1. How apparatus and equipment were set up (e.g. experimental set-up), usually including a diagram,

2. A list of materials used,

3. Steps used to collect the data,

4. Any experimental difficulties encountered and how they were resolved or worked around.

If any aspects of the experimental procedure were likely to contribute systematic error to the data and results, point this out in sufficient detail in this section.

Experimental set-up and materials

Your description of the experimental set-up should be sufficient to allow someone else to replicate the experiment themselves. You will usually begin with a description of the materials used and/or the apparatus set-up accompanied by:

an image showing the relevant features of any object or material under investigation

a diagram of the experimental setup, with each component clearly labelled

Procedure

When you carry out an experiment, you usually follow a set of instructions such as these, which may include extra information to guide you through the steps.

Lab handout example
Week 5 Laboratory instructions Procedure

1. Use a clean pipette to measure 25ml of HCl(aq) into the conical flask.

2. Rinse a burette with standardised NaOH(aq).

3. Fill the burette to the 0.0ml marking with standardised NaOH(aq). Remember to take the reading from the centre of the meniscus, and from eye level. Record the actual reading in Table 1.

4. Place a sheet of white paper under the burette. This is to make it easier to observe the colour change during the reaction.

5. Place the conical flask onto the white paper...

Lab report example
Procedure
The equipment was arranged as shown in Fig. 2.

25.0ml HCl(aq) was pipetted into a 100ml conical flask. A burette was clamped to a retort stand and filled with standardised NaOH(aq) and the initial measurement was recorded. The conical flask was placed below the burette, on top of a piece of white paper. Five drops of universal indicator solution were added to the flask...

Figure 2. Experimental set-up for titration (taken from Carroll 2017)

Tip

In the Procedure section you should use:

the past tense when you are reporting on something you did.

While most science units require that you report in the, some require the passive voice active voice . In the example below, the first person is used e.g. "we initiated". This is accepted in some disciplines, but not others. Check your unit information or talk to your unit coordinator.

Instruction

Your report

Initiate the bicarbonate feed pump.

We initiated the bicarbonate feed pump. (active voice)

The bicarbonate feed pump was initiated. (passive voice)

Activity

Lecturers have different preferences for using active/passive voice and you will likely have to write in both voices. Read samples of student reports below and identify which examples are written in passive voice, and which use active voice.

Results and analysis

In this section, you present the main data collected during your experiment. Each key measurement needs to be reported appropriately. Data are often presented in graphs, figures or tables.

This section often also includes analysis of the raw data, such as calculations. In some disciplines the analysis is presented under its own heading, in others it is included in the results section. An analysis of the errors or uncertainties in the experiment is also usually included in this section.

Tables, graphs and figures

Most numerical data are presented using tables or graphs. These need to be labelled appropriately to clearly indicate what is shown.

Titles and captions

Tables should be labelled numerically as Table 1, Table 2, etc.

Everything else (graphs, images, diagrams etc.) is labelled numerically as Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. (References to figures in the main body of the text are usually written in abbreviated form, e.g. 'see Fig. 1').

Table captions appear above the table. Figure captions appear below the figure.

Note that in Fig. 3, above, the student has omitted error bars on the data points. For most experiments an error analysis is important, and errors should be included in tables and on graphs.

Also, it is always best to draw figures yourself if you can. If you do use figures from another source, indicate in the citation whether you have modified it in any way.

Data can be presented in other formats, such as images:
Calculations
When showing calculations, it is usual to show the general equation, and one worked example. Where a calculation is repeated many times, the additional detail is usually included in an appendix. Check the requirements given in your unit information or lab manual, or ask your tutor if you are unsure where to place calculations.

In some disciplines, if formulae are used, it is common to number them as equations:

Results
A chromatogram was produced for the unknown compound U, and each of the known compounds, A-E. Rf values for each substance are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Rf values for known compounds (A-E).

Note: U is the unknown compound.
Error analysis
As well as presenting the main findings of your experiment, it is important that you indicate how accurate your results are. This is usually done through determining the level of uncertainty. The sources of error that you need to consider will vary between experiments, but you will usually need to factor in both random and systematic errors. Your error analysis should identify the main causes of uncertainty in your measurements, note any assumptions, and show how you have calculated any error bars. Check with your demonstrator, tutor or lecturer if you are unsure about how to determine uncertainties or whether error bars are required for your experiment.

Discussion

The discussion section is where you:

comment on the results you obtained

interpret what the results mean

explain any results which are unexpected.

Your discussion section should demonstrate how well you understand what happened in the experiment. You should:

identify and comment on any trends you have observed

compare the experimental results with any predictions

identify how any sources of error might impact on the interpretation of your results

suggest explanations for unexpected results, and

where appropriate, suggest how the experiment could have been improved.

The discussion example below is from a first-year Biology unit. The aim of this experiment was to identify decomposition rates of leaf breakdown to establish rates of energy transfer.

Discussion
It was expected that the leaves would show a far higher rate of decomposition in the shore zone, where there are more chances for sediments to rub against them. However the two zones show no significant difference in leaf breakdown, although these results are non-conclusive due to the limitations of this experiment. The two zones of leaf decomposition were physically too close, and over the incubation period reeds were observed growing close to the limnetic zone. This may have negatively affected the accuracy of the results by reducing the differences in habitat at these sites, as seen in other experiments (Jones et al. 2017). The results also had large standard deviations, possibly due to these physical constraints or human error in weighing leaves. Further studies with more diverse zones and precise procedures should be undertaken in order to explore leaf decomposition and rates of energy transfer more effectively.

Activity

Drag each description of each component of the Discussion section to its example. Notice the order in which the components make up a coherent Discussion section.

Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a take-home message summing up what has been learned from the experiment:

Briefly restate the purpose of the experiment (the question it was seeking to answer)

Identify the main findings (answer to the research question)

Note the main limitations that are relevant to the interpretation of the results

Summarise what the experiment has contributed to your understanding of the problem.

Click the icons next to each paragraph to show the lecturer's comments. Click again to hide the comment.

Legend:

Good Problem Suggestion Question

Conclusion

References

It is quite possible that you may have in-text citations in your lab reports. Typically these will be included in the introduction to establish evidence of background for current theories or topics. Your discussion section will often include in-text citations, to show how your findings relate to those in the published literature, or to provide evidence-based suggestions or explanations for what you observed.

When in-text citations are incorporated into your lab report, you must always have the full citations included in a separate reference list. The reference list is a separate section that comes after your conclusion (and before any appendices).

Check your lab manual or unit information to determine which referencing style is preferred. Carefully follow that referencing style for your in-text references and reference list. You can find examples and information about common referencing styles in the Citing and referencing Library guide.

The following is an example of a reference list based on the in-text citations used in the Introduction and Conclusion sections in this tutorial. It has been formatted in accordance with the CSIRO referencing style.

References

Jones T, Smith K, Nguyen P, di Alberto P (2017) Effects of habitat overlap on population sampling. Environmental Ecology Journal 75, 23-29. doi: 10.5432/1111.23

Tian M, Castillo TL (2016) Solar heating uptake in Australia: rates, causes and effects. Energy Efficiency Reports. Report no. 10, The Department of Sustainability and Environment, Canberra.

Appendices

An appendix (plural = appendices) contains material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such as tables of raw data or detailed calculations.

Each appendix must be:

given a number (or letter) and title

referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text.

Example text
The calculated values are shown in Table 3 below. For detailed calculations, see Appendix 1.

In summary

Many of your Science units will require you to write formal laboratory reports. The purpose is to report on what you did, what you learned from an experiment and why the findings matter.

Activity

Review the components of the Science laboratory report. Select the report section that relates to the statement.

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Many of your Science units will require you to write a formal laboratory report. The purpose is to report on what you did, what you learned from an experiment and why the findings matter. Disclaimer: Please note that many units require students to record notes and observations in logbooks in the laboratory.