# data[].attributes.body
Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These media sources have a slight to moderate liberal bias.  They often publish factual information that utilizes loaded words to favor liberal causes.  These sources are generally trustworthy for information.
Factual Reporting: Very High
Comment: The article provides information on bearing on drug abuse and addiction by using science.

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The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is the lead federal agency supporting scientific research on drug use and addiction. NIDA’s mission is to advance science on drug use and addiction and to apply that knowledge to improve individual and public health.

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Desperately Driven and No Brakes: Developmental Stress Exposure and Subsequent Risk for Substance Abuse.

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Desperately Driven and No Brakes: Developmental Stress Exposure and Subsequent Risk for Substance Abuse.

# data[].attributes.body
Source: PMC
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These media sources have a slight to moderate liberal bias.  They often publish factual information that utilizes loaded words to favor liberal causes.  These sources are generally trustworthy for information but may require further investigation.
Factual Reporting: High
Comment: This gave me some information about the desperately driven and no brakes.

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Developmental Stress Exposure and Subsequent Risk for Substance Abuse

Abstract

ANDERSEN, S.L. and TEICHER, M.H. Desperately driven and no brakes: Developmental stress exposure and subsequent risk for substance abuse. NEUROSCI BIOBEHAV REV XX(X) XXX-XXX, 2008. Adverse life events are associated with a wide range of psychopathology, including an increased risk for substance abuse. In this review, we focus on the inter-relationship between exposure to adversity and brain development, and relate this to enhanced windows of vulnerability. This review encompasses clinical and preclinical data, drawing evidence from epidemiological studies, morphometric and functional imaging studies, and molecular biology and genetics. The interaction of exposure during a sensitive period and maturational events produces a cascade that leads to the initiation of substance use at younger ages, and increases the likelihood of addiction by adolescence or early adulthood. A stress-incubation/corticolimbic dysfunction model is proposed based on the interplay of stress exposure, development stage, and neuromaturational events that may explain the seeking of specific classes of drugs later in life. Three main factors contribute to this age-based progression of increased drug use: 1) a sensitized stress response system; 2) sensitive periods of vulnerability; and 3) maturational processes during adolescence. Together, these factors may explain why exposure to early adversity increases risk to abuse substances during adolescence.

Keywords: abuse, adolescence, alcohol, cocaine, sensitive period, stimulant, stress

Introduction

Childhood adversity, stemming from abuse, parental loss, witnessing of domestic violence or household dysfunction is a major cause of poor mental and physical health ( Chapman et al., 2004; Dube et al., 2003; Felitti, 2002). One major consequence of early adversity is a markedly increased risk for substance use, abuse, and dependence ( Dube et al., 2003). We, and others, have proposed that childhood abuse produces a cascade of physiological and neurohumoral events that alter trajectories of brain development (e.g., ( Andersen, 2003; Teicher et al., 2002)), and that the neurobiological consequences of exposure to childhood abuse parallel the effects of exposure to developmental stress in preclinical studies ( Teicher et al., 2006). The aim of this review is to summarize some of the recently reported effects of early stress on brain development in animals and man, focusing on potential associations that may help to elucidate causal links between early adversity and subsequent abuse of alcohol, nicotine, and illicit drugs. A major emphasis of this review will be on developmental/temporal factors, recognizing that drug abuse is a "developmental disorder" in which there are windows of vulnerability when exposure to drugs of abuse are more likely to lead to abuse and dependence ( Chambers et al., 2003; Wagner and Anthony, 2002). To this framework we add new evidence for the existence of sensitive periods in which discrete brain regions are maximally susceptible to the effects of stress, and emphasize the substantial lag period that may intervene between time of exposure and manifestation of adverse consequences.

Developmental Stress and Substance Abuse Epidemiology

The impact of childhood adversity is shown most clearly in the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study based on retrospective surveys of 17,337 members of the Kaiser-Permanente HMO in San Diego ( Chapman et al., 2004; Dube et al., 2003; Felitti, 2002). The number of different ACEs 'dose-dependently' increases symptoms or disease prevalence. Population attributable risk associated with early adversity was 50% for drug abuse, 54% for current depression, 65% for alcoholism, 67% for suicide attempts, and 78% for intravenous drug use ( Chapman et al., 2004; Dube et al., 2003). Other studies have explored the relationship between substance abuse and childhood adversity. The severity of exposure to childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and risk of alcohol and drug abuse was evaluated based on the division of CSA into three categories ( Fergusson et al., 1996). Adjusting for psychosocial factors, non-contact CSA was not associated with a significant increase in risk of alcohol or other substance abuse/dependence. Contact CSA without intercourse increased risk for alcohol abuse/dependence, but not for abuse of other substances. However, CSA involving attempted/completed intercourse increased risk of alcohol abuse/dependence 2.7-fold and increased risk of substance abuse/dependence 6.6-fold. Kendler and colleagues ( Kendler et al., 2000) also showed that severity of CSA mattered, but in this study even low levels were associated with increased risk. Briefly, they found that non-genital CSA was associated with a 2.9-fold increase in risk for drug-dependence, whereas CSA involving intercourse was associated with a 5.7-fold increase ( Kendler et al., 2000).

The association between early maltreatment and alcohol or drug use manifests at an alarmingly young age. As part of a large-scale public school survey of adolescent health risk behaviors, students in grades 8, 10, and 12 (N=4790) were asked about past and current substance use and were asked (yes/no) about past physical and sexual abuse ( Bensley et al., 1999). Abuse was associated with more than a 3-fold increase in the odds that alcohol/cigarette experimentation had occurred, and more than a 12-fold increase in the odds that marijuana use or regular drinking occurred by 10 years of age. For eighth graders, combined sexual and physical abuse was associated with a 2-fold greater risk of light to moderate drinking and an almost 8-fold increase in risk of heavy drinking. For 10th graders, maltreatment was associated with a 2-fold increase in risk of light to moderate drinking and a more than 3-fold increase in risk of heavy drinking. However, by 12th grade, the drinking level of non-abused adolescents was essentially equal to those who reported abuse. Exposure to each category of childhood adversity is associated with a 2- to 4-fold increase in the likelihood of illicit drug use by age 14 ( Dube et al., 2003). Furthermore, CSA doubled the risk of lifetime parenteral drug use, and increased by more than 12-fold the risk that parenteral drug use would begin at an early age ( Holmes, 1997). Together, these studies suggest that exposure to early stress enhances psychopathology in general, and shifts initiation of drug use to younger ages. The magnitude of the effect is dependent on the degree of exposure to different forms of maltreatment or on the severity of the primary form. As a result, a substantial percentage of abuse victims become exposed during a development window of vulnerability when use is more likely to lead to future abuse and dependence ( King and Chassin, 2007; Orlando et al., 2004).

In the remaining sections of this review, we describe a model that incorporates how the timing of stress exposure interacts with normal maturational processes to enhance vulnerability to abuse substances. We have recently proposed a stress-incubation/corticolimbic development cascade that suggests early adversity may be associated with an earlier manifestation of depressive symptoms in comparison to a normal population ( Andersen et al., 2008; Teicher et al., in press). Here, we apply the same model to explain how stress exposure early in life may also predispose an individual to use and abuse substances at a younger age than typically observed in the normal population.

The Neurobiology of Substance Abuse - a Very Basic Framework

Drugs that are considered rewarding produce a number of changes that are involved in the addiction process as mediated primarily by a few key brain regions ( Hyman et al., 2006). First, the hedonic, pleasurable feeling that links all drugs of abuse is associated with increased dopamine in the nucleus accumbens ( Dayan and Balleine, 2002; Koob and Swerdlow, 1988; Weiss, 2005). Second, the hippocampus consolidates the process of learning about this liking, and maintains the memory of the associations of the experience ( Grace et al., 2007). The hippocampus can then modulate or "gate" responses of the nucleus accumbens to reflect these prior experiences. Third, the environmental cues that are linked with the drug-taking experience are assigned a value that becomes motivationally salient through conditioning processes ( Berridge, 2007). The resulting motivational salience is mediated primarily by excitatory prefrontal cortex input into the accumbens ( Kalivas et al., 1998; 2005; Pickens et al., 2003; Robinson and Berridge, 1993), with the drug-cue associations formed in the amygdala ( See et al., 2003). Drug dependence results from a specific series of neuroadaptations that occur following repeated use ( Hyman et al., 2006). These adaptations can occur at any and all of these main levels following repeated exposure to drugs. Together, the premise of "desperately drive with no brakes" incorporates three main ideas of how early adversity can differentially modulate the brain regions that underlie these addictive processes and the circuit itself (see ).

A stress-incubation/corticolimbic development cascade hypothesis of drug abuse vulnerability

Based on the literature reviewed herein, the high rates of drug addiction following childhood maltreatment may be explained partly by the stress-incubation/corticolimbic developmental cascade hypothesis ( Andersen and Teicher, 2008) as applied to drugs of abuse. This hypothesis proposes that exposure to early life stress predisposes individuals to abuse drugs at an earlier age via the three following tenets:

1. Compulsive drug use increases due to a highly reactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) ( Hyman et al., 2006).

2. Exposure to stress is associated with sensitive periods of vulnerability ( Andersen and Teicher, 2008; Andersen and Teicher, 2004) that will uniquely contribute to drug abuse vulnerability. Early life stress may be more selective for the hippocampus and enhance contextual responding to drug-related cues. Early adversity may also increase dopamine activity within the nucleus accumbens, resulting in a baseline state of anhedonia that predisposes individuals to drug-seek ( Matthews and Robbins, 2003). Later life stress may be more selective for the prefrontal cortex ( Leussis and Andersen, 2008), and increases vulnerability to drug-associated cues ( Ernst et al., 2006; Brenhouse et al., 2008a).

3. Brain regions and circuits need to mature to a certain degree for the effects of early stress exposure to manifest.

Together, these processes increase vulnerability to use drugs and shift the age of initial use earlier than typically observed in non-abused populations. We will review evidence that supports these claims and encompasses all three factors.

1. Exposure to stress programs HPA reactivity

Exposure to stress early in life activates stress response systems, and fundamentally alters their molecular organization to modify their sensitivity and response bias ( Caldji et al., 1998; Liu et al., 1997; Meaney and Szyf, 2005; Seckl, 1998; Weaver et al., 2004; Welberg and Seckl, 2001; Young, 2002). Molecular modifications identified to date include: (1) alterations in the subunit structure of the GABA-benzodiazepine supramolecular complex, resulting in the attenuated development of central benzodiazepine and high affinity GABA-A receptors in the hippocampus, amygdala and locus coeruleus ( Caldji et al., 2000a; Caldji et al., 2000b; Caldji et al., 1998; Hsu et al., 2003); (2) elevations in corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA levels in amygdala and hypothalamus and diminished CRH mRNA in hippocampus ( Caldji et al., 1998; Liu et al., 1997); (3) diminished ∝2 noradrenergic receptor density in the locus coeruleus ( Caldji et al., 1998); and (4) epigenetic alteration in the DNA methylation pattern of the hippocampal exon 17 glucocorticoid receptor (GR) promoter gene ( Weaver et al., 2004; Weaver et al., 2006). In short, through these, or other molecular events awaiting discovery, early stress programs and primes the mammalian brain to be prone to experience enhanced stress responses, which interacts with other factors to increase drug use and dependence.

2. Exposure to stress is associated with sensitive periods of vulnerability that will uniquely contribute to drug abuse vulnerability

The timing of the insult may also play an under-appreciated role in substance use vulnerability. Individual neurotransmitter systems or brain regions are most vulnerable to outside influences during specific windows known as sensitive periods. Sensitive periods are associated with the maturational events of neurogenesis, differentiation, and survival ( Andersen, 2003; Bottjer and Arnold, 1997; Harper et al., 2004; Heim and Nemeroff, 2001; Koehl et al., 2002; Nowakowski and Hayes, 1999; Sanchez et al., 2001). While the processes that actually define a sensitive period are unknown, plausible mechanisms of change include, but are not limited to, the modification of brain repair mechanisms, altered expression of neurotrophic factors, and the development of signaling mechanisms. Alterations in any of these factors during a sensitive period produce an enduring effect on structure and function ( Adler et al., 2006; Andersen, 2003). As reviewed below, early life stress impacts a multitude of processes that shape the brain.

3. A certain level of maturation of the brain needs to occur for the effects of previous stress exposure to manifest

Adolescence represents a critical window of vulnerability for addiction to drugs, although substantial variability exists in age of onset within each drug class (see ). As shows, drug use is not initiated in 50% of the population until adolescence (tenet #3). This seems to hold true across all drug classes. Statistics show that earlier initiation of drug use substantially increases the relative risk for dependence and lifelong addiction ( Hill et al., 2000; SAMHSA, 1999). For example, increased risk for alcoholism increases 40% for those who start drinking before 15 years ( SAMHSA, 1999). Similarly, the relative risk for cocaine dependence after initial exposure is four-fold the risk if use is initiated before 12 years of age, and declines dramatically with each additional year of abstinence ( O'Brien and Anthony, 2005). Enduring risk of marijuana, tobacco, and inhalants abuse also is increased if exposure occurs during adolescence ( Waylen and Wolke, 2004; Westermeyer, 1999). Here, we raise the hypothesis that exposure to stress during sensitive periods of development (tenet #2) also has implications by producing a left-shift in the age of initiation curve of drug experimentation.

Tenet #3 proposes that the full effects of early stress on vulnerability to use substances lie relatively dormant until adolescence, as hypothesized for schizophrenia ( Weinberger, 1987), depression ( Andersen and Teicher, 2008; Teicher et al in press), and early drug exposure ( Andersen, 2005). Early life events program a trajectory of development that continues through adolescence and young adulthood. Some effects of stress are readily observable in the short-term, including dendritic rearrangements ( Leussis and Andersen, 2008; Radley et al., 2005). Others, such as an attenuation in hippocampal synaptic density, may only emerge later in life ( Andersen et al., 1999; Andersen and Teicher, 2004). We propose that maturational changes in the prefrontal cortex, which plays a critical role in drug-seeking and relapse, may be key to understanding the adolescent onset of drug abuse.

The process of addiction includes a strong, motivational component that is re-activated by cues associated with drug taking and is considered a key factor in relapse ( Kalivas et al., 2005; Volkow, 2005; Robinson and Berridge, 1993; Vezina and Stewart, 1984)). Data from human imaging studies show that cues associated with drug use and craving (i.e., environmental context, paraphenalia) in humans activate motivational circuits in the frontal cortex involved in processing reward ( Goldstein and Volkow, 2002; Grant et al., 1996; Maas et al., 1998; Tzschentke, 2000). This information is used to estimate the motivational value of cues based on potential reward ( Elliott et al., 2003; London et al., 2000) and produces a conditioned incentive (drug craving) ( Childress et al., 1999). During non-addictive conditions, GABA activity enhances behavioral flexibility by allowing multiple sources of information to modulate glutamate output ( Seamans and Yang, 2004). However, under conditions that promote addiction and relapse, D1 receptors are selectively over-expressed on glutamatergic neurons that project to the accumbens. As a result, cued-induced increases in dopamine activity are more likely to stimulate this pathway and enhance drug-seeking behaviors at the expense of other behaviors (i.e., reduced behavioral flexibility; ; ( Kalivas et al., 2005)).

Conclusions

Exposure to early adversity will shift drug-seeking to an earlier age within this window, but whether these shifts are due to changes in gating of the hippocampus (early stress), elevated dopamine in the accumbens (early stress), or synaptic changes in the prefrontal cortex (adolescent stress) remains to be determined. A desperately driven model of drug use without brakes is shown in . Together, the data reviewed in this study suggest that the reward system is revved up. A dysregulated HPA axis may predispose an individual to compulsive use, whereas increased anhedonia further enhances risk of use and dependence. The normal brakes that reduce substance use, found in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, are dysfunctional and may actually drive the system to drug seek even more than expected. This review provides evidence that exposure to adverse events during the course of development predispose an individual to abuse substances earlier than non-abused individuals. Understanding the role that development plays in the expression of these risk factors is often overlooked, but needs more attention to fully understand the full impact of early life stress (CSA, maternal separation) on substance abuse. Indeed, effects of early adversity may be delayed in their expression, but manifest suddenly during early adolescence. This initial delay may provide a false sense of safety that early adversity did little to no long-term harm to the individual. However, this delay may provide a window of opportunity where early interventions may preempt the influence of developmental adversity.

Acknowledgements

Supported, in part, by awards from NARSAD (2001, 2002, 2005), NIDA RO1DA-016934, RO1DA-017846), NIMH (RO1MH-66222) and the Simches and Rosenberg Families. MHT was a John W. Alden Trust Investigator.

Footnotes

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References

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SAMHSA . Summary of findings from the 1998 national household survey on drug abuse. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Rockville, MD: 1999. p. 128. [Google Scholar]

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Desperately Driven and No Brakes: Developmental Stress Exposure and Subsequent Risk for Substance Abuse

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Developmental Stress Exposure and Subsequent Risk for Substance Abuse ANDERSEN, S.L. and TEICHER, M.H. Desperately driven and no brakes: Developmental stress exposure and subsequent risk for substance abuse. NEUROSCI BIOBEHAV REV XX(X) XXX-XXX, 2008. Adverse life events are associated with a wide range of psychopathology, including an increased risk for substance abuse.

# data[].attributes.headline
Preventing Drug Use among Children and Adolescents.

# data[].attributes.subject
Preventing Drug Use among Children and Adolescents.

# data[].attributes.body
Source: Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews.
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These sources consist of legitimate science or are evidence based on the use of credible scientific sourcing.  Legitimate science follows the scientific method, is unbiased and does not use emotional words.  These sources also respect the consensus of experts in the given scientific field and strive to publish peer-reviewed science. Some sources in this category may have a slight political bias but adhere to scientific principles.
Factual Reporting: High
Comment: The article mainly posted pictures about drug information with scientific researches done by experts. Therefore, it is very reliable.

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Changing the Focus: The Case for Recognizing and Treating Cannabis Use Disorders.

# data[].attributes.subject
Changing the Focus: The Case for Recognizing and Treating Cannabis Use Disorders.

# data[].attributes.body
Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These sources consist of legitimate science or are evidence based on the use of credible scientific sourcing.  Legitimate science follows the scientific method, is unbiased and does not use emotional words. These sources also respect the consensus of experts in the given scientific field and strive to publish peer-reviewed science. Some sources in this category may have a slight political bias but adhere to scientific principles.
Factual Reporting: Very High
Comment: The information provided in this article has come from interviewing people who are in the process of treating cannabis use disorder.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Changing the focus: the case for recognizing and treating cannabis use disorders.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Addiction. 2002 Dec;97 Suppl 1:4-15. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.; Review

# data[].attributes.body
Source: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These sources consist of legitimate science or are evidence based on the use of credible scientific sourcing.  Legitimate science follows the scientific method, is unbiased and does not use emotional words.  These sources also respect the consensus of experts in the given scientific field and strive to publish peer-reviewed science. Some sources in this category may have a slight political bias but adhere to scientific principles.
Factual Reporting: Very High
Comment: The data is in the form of a report that shows the real statistic. Therefore, the source is very trustable.

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United Kingdom, Country Drug Report 2019

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This report presents the top-level overview of the drug situation in the United Kingdom, covering drug supply, use and public health problems as well as drug policy and responses. The statistical data reported relate to 2017 (or most recent year) and are provided to the EMCDDA by the national focal point, unless stated otherwise.

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Thailand's Drug Smuggling Crisis 'Worst Ever'.

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Thailand's Drug Smuggling Crisis 'Worst Ever'.

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Source: Bangkok Post Public Company Limited
Credibility Evaluation: Group 6 (News and Topical Stories from Quality Sources)
Source Bias: These media sources are slight to moderately conservative in bias. They often publish factual information that utilizes loaded words to favor conservative causes. These sources are generally trustworthy for information but may require further investigation.
Factual Reporting: Mostly factual
Comment: The information is in the form of news which means it is factual. Therefore, the information in here is reliable.

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Thailand's drug smuggling crisis 'worst ever'

The Narcotics Control Board revealed most recent seizures of ecstasy pills from last October originated from major drug syndicates in the Netherlands, indicating attempts to broaden markets in more provinces across Thailand. (Bangkok Post file photo)

Thailand last year experienced the worst ever situation of ecstasy smuggling, mainly from Germany, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Slovenia.

The Narcotics Control Board (ONCB) revealed most recent seizures of ecstasy pills from last October originated from major drug syndicates in the Netherlands, indicating attempts to broaden markets in more provinces across Thailand.

ONCB secretary-general Niyom Termsrisuk said that since October, the Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) has seized a total of 105,382 ecstasy pills, delivered from European countries, in 15 cases, and has 20 suspects -- 15 Thais and five foreigners.

A total of 15 seizures in the past six months concerned drugs sent from Germany, three from Portugal, two from France, and three from the Netherlands, Belgium and Slovenia, he said.

In the latest seizures on March 9 and 10, the AITF found 4,835 pills sent from Germany and implicated 11 Thais and foreigners in the Central Plains area, the North and the South. Most of the drugs originated from major drug syndicates in the Netherlands, with the drugs sent in parcels to the country.

Last year authorities seized 230,544 ecstasy pills, known as "ya E", which was the largest number in the past five years.

In contrast, authorities closed only 145 cases involving 173 suspects, which was the lowest number of the past five years, he said.

Despite the authorities confiscating more items, the number of arrests and cases is lower.

This is because many drug smugglers have changed their methods to deliver narcotic drugs via international courier services, he said.

"High demand for ecstasy among clubbers in large cities is a key factor in the large volume of the drug being smuggled into the country from Europe," Narcotics Suppression Bureau (NSB) chief Chinnaphat Sarasin said.

Another important factor was a strong growth in the postal service sector that was being abused by drug smugglers to distribute their illicit products, he said.

"The motive behind this exponential rise in ecstasy smuggling activities is a huge margin in the trade of this drug, which is several times higher than that of methamphetamine," he said.

Aside from ecstasy use at night clubs, small ecstasy "raves" in apartments, especially rental ones, were also found to be popular among rich teenagers, he said.

The drug gang attempted to distribute the drugs to more provinces, to broaden its market in the major tourism provinces such as Phuket, Surat Thani, Bangkok, Pattaya City and Chon Buri, he said.

Jeremy Douglas, regional representative of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), said: "The amount of ecstasy seized in Southeast Asia in 2018 was only 2.8 million tablets, and while 2019 figures are still settling we can confirm the number will be similar -- not much change year-to-year.

"Frankly, the number of ecstasy tablets seized in Thailand and the region is much much smaller than ya ba (methamphetamine), simply because it is expensive and used by a exclusive niche of society.

"Ecstasy remains a drug of the elite, the night club scene. We've seen it in the Thai and Southeast Asia market for years, but at modest levels because it is expensive for users."

Pol Lt Gen Chinnaphat agreed, although he still sees the growing number as a problem.

"Because of the higher prices, ecstasy remains popular mainly with well-to-do clubgoers, which explains why ecstasy is commonly found in crackdowns at nightclubs involving suspects who are foreigners," Pol Lt Gen Chinnaphat said.

The illegal recreational drug was commonly used together with alcoholic beverages, especially beer, he said.

"Part of the problem is that what is sold as ecstasy on the streets or in clubs in Thailand and Southeast Asia is sometimes different -- sometimes meth mixed with ketamine, or meth and other drugs in dangerous combinations," UNODC representative, Mr Douglas, told the Bangkok Post.

According to Mr Niyom, narcotic drugs on the global market can come in different forms, with different kinds of synthetic drugs used in combinations to produce pills.

These formulas will affect the user's awareness of surrounding objects and conditions in different ways, and makes it popular among night clubgoers.

Moreover, the cost of ecstasy pills is falling, as the maximum price has dropped from 1,500 baht to 800 baht, he said.

Classified as a Type 1 narcotic under Thai law, Pol Lt Gen Chinnaphat said ecstasy has a strong negative impact on health including severe dehydration, sudden kidney failure, an unusually high heart rate, high blood pressure, spasms and sleep disorders.

And because ecstasy also boosts libido, sexually transmitted diseases were found to be associated with unprotected sex among users of the drug, he said.

Long-term use of ecstasy was also found to be linked with psychosis, as was other stimulants, he said, adding that these drugs can cause hallucinations and heart failure in overdose cases.

Trafficking of ecstasy is considered a crime under Sections 65, 66 and 67 of the 1979 Narcotics Act, which carries a maximum penalty of the death sentence, he said.

The ONCB chief cited research of narcotic drugs in the market which showed that ecstasy pills are popular among Caucasians. Ecstasy originated in European countries, while crystal meth and methamphetamine are produced in the Golden Triangle.

Mr Niyom said major drug syndicates from European countries intended to expand their markets to Asian zones, which means drug dealers have to change smuggling methods more often.

This resulted in a rapid spread of ecstasy pills nationwide. Drug gangs mostly smuggle drugs via delivery in parcels from international shipping operations.

In a bid to curb ecstasy smuggling, the AITF was formed from the cooperation of the ONCB and the NSB, the Customs Department, and the Armed Force Security Centre, he said.

With information sharing with international narcotics suppression agencies including those of Germany and the Netherlands, the AITF had previously cracked down on a large number of ecstasy traffickers, Thai nationals and foreigners in Bangkok and all other regions of Thailand, he said.

Along with cracking down on ecstasy smuggling, seizing assets owned by the busted traffickers and their accomplices was a key measure adopted to enhance the performance of ecstasy suppression by the NSB and its partners, he said.

Cooperation with international anti-narcotics agencies was also a key to success in the NSB's ecstasy suppression operations, which were focussed on not only the distribution of the drug via the postal service but also smuggling of the drug along the border line, he said.

Also, 1,482 police stations nationwide were coordinating in setting up drug checkpoints in various places at different times to catch up with drug traffickers who were attempting to avoid security checks while transporting the drugs from border areas into Bangkok and other large cities, he said.

Other than the conventional security checkpoints, new technology including an electronic system capable of detecting car licence plate numbers and analysing travelling routes of the same vehicle has also been adopted to improve efficiency of drug suppression, he said.

An X-ray machine capable of scanning large trucks is also used to stop drug traffickers, he said.

Regional cooperation also has a key role in Thailand's suppression of ecstasy and other drugs, he said.

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Thailand's drug smuggling crisis 'worst ever'

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Thailand's drug smuggling crisis 'worst ever' The Narcotics Control Board revealed most recent seizures of ecstasy pills from last October originated from major drug syndicates in the Netherlands, indicating attempts to broaden markets in more provinces across Thailand.

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Organized the Internship Program on Airport Interdiction Task Force at Suvarnabhumi Airport for Brunei Officers.

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Organized the Internship Program on Airport Interdiction Task Force at Suvarnabhumi Airport for Brunei Officers.

# data[].attributes.body
Source: ASEAN-NARCO
Credibility Evaluation: Group 1 (Scholarly Books and Journal Article)
Source Bias: These media sources have a slight to moderate liberal bias.  They often publish factual information that utilizes loaded words to favor liberal causes.  These sources are generally trustworthy for information but may require further investigation.
Factual Reporting: Mixed
Comment: The article is written in the form of an interview. It explores the lives of kids who are drug addiction and are receiving the curing through an internship program.

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ASEAN Airport Interdiction Task Force - AAITF

ONCB organized the Internship program on Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) at Suvarnabhumi Airport for Brunei Officers
Date 24/1/2017

On 19-23 January 2017, ONCB organized the Internship Program on Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) at Suvarnabhumi Airport to 2 officers from Narcotics Control Bureau (BKN) of Brunei Darussalam to improve knowledge and experience for law enforcement officers.

The internship program include review of drug situation and background of AITF, study visit at Suvarnabhumi Airport, technics of target finding and investigation and practice. Also, cooperation with Royal Thai Customs, Suvarnabhumi Airport organize the study visit and lecture regarding performing an effective search at airport, X-ray image interpretation and control delivery from airport.

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ONCB organized the Internship program on Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) at Suvarnabhumi Airport for Brunei Officers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ASEAN Airport Interdiction Task Force - AAITF ONCB organized the Internship program on Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) at Suvarnabhumi Airport for Brunei Officers Date 24/1/2017 On 19-23 January 2017, ONCB organized the Internship Program on Airport Interdiction Task Force (AITF) at Suvarnabhumi Airport to 2 officers from Narcotics Control Bureau (BKN) of Brunei Darussalam to improve knowledge and experience for law enforcement officers.