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https://blog.empoweringwriters.com/toolbox/teaching-voice-in-writing-barbara-mariconda/

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We've all heard teachers talk about "voice" - how a piece of writing somehow has it or doesn't. It is a frequently misunderstood concept, an illusive quality that often seems difficult, if not impossible to teach. In fact, some people feel that authors are either blessed with the gift of "voice" or not, or they believe that writers can only discover their voice through writing a lot. While it's true that consistent practice in the art and craft of writing is a necessity for improvement, it is also true that an understanding and emergence of voice can be nurtured and honed through awareness, discovery and informed teaching. In other words, teachers can, without a doubt, help in the development of "voice" in their students' writing.

Let's begin with a definition of "voice". Voice can be described as the unique quality, tone, or style that jumps off the page in a given piece of writing - but while voice involves tone and style, style and tone are not synonymous with voice. "Voice" in a piece of writing also takes on different meaning according to the genre and purpose.

1) The Character's Voice

In a piece of narrative writing (defined here as a story written about a character who encounters a problem, adventure, or significant personal experience) the voice which emerges must belong to the MAIN CHARACTER, not the author. What does this mean? Think of a number of unique, memorable, fictional characters from literature:

Barbara Park's comic heroine, Junie B. Jones

Katherine Paterson's tough talking foster child, Gilly Hopkins

Roald Dahl's quirky and kind Big Friendly Giant

Each point of view character is defined; we see their view of the world, their attitudes and feelings about life, through the words they speak as well as the thoughts they ponder. Their inner and outer "voice" is consistent in pattern, word choice, rhythm and attitude. In the Junie B. Jones series, we never get a sense of author Barbara Park's voice; in fact, her unique voice - that of a mature woman - would diminish and undermine our heroine, Junie B. Jones. Everything about each carefully chosen word resonates the:

personality

experience

age

education

values

beliefs

feelings of character

Years ago, in a writing class presented by Newbery Award winner Patricia Reilly Giff, I had my first lesson in "voice". Giff, in discussing her art of writing for children, stated that every sentence, phrase, word or thought from the main character must align perfectly with the age, experience, and personality of that character. Tempting as it may be to use impressive vocabulary within the author's grasp to more easily depict meaning, believable characters are revealed when the voice the author assigns them is completely consistent with who they are - not with who the author is!

And, voice involves not only what the main character says and thinks - the "voice" of this character might better be thought of as a lens through which the reader experiences every aspect of the story. Therefore, when the author wants to describe a story's critical character, setting, or object, she/he must do so only in and through the life experience, strengths and weaknesses, prejudices, beliefs, and vocabulary of the main, point-of-view character. When an author uses sophisticated segments of description inconsistent with the main character's world view, or steps back and draws from their all-knowing author's perspective and experience, this diminishes character and pulls the reader out of the story world.

Let's look at an example of "voice" in a fictional setting. Think about the following scene: a character is considering taking a swim in a watering hole.

Character 1 - a mischievous eight year old boy: It was so way hot and phew! Even my shirt was all stuck to my back and what I really wanted was a blue popsicle or maybe a Gatorade. My mouth got all watery thinking about it which made it worser even. But that wasn't gonna happen - the popsicle that is - no way - me and Jerry, we were way out there in the woods and that's when I 'membered the mudhole behind the trees. Not a mudhole really, it was like a pond, but a small one. Yeah, we could take a dip! That slowpoke Jerry was not even near me, he was walkin' slow way behind. "Hey, slug, (that's what my poppy called me when I was dallying) "last one to the mudhole is a..."Jeez, it was too hot to think... "last one is a...a... big dumbhead!" I got a headstart cause I started runnin' right when I called out "slug". I don't think Jerry even heard, but when I took off, he took off too. I could hear his big feet coming up in back of me.

Character 2 - an introspective young woman Sophie felt the sweat tickling and trailing down the small of her back and soaking her gauzy white blouse. She ran a hand through her hair, which felt even longer and thicker in the humidity of the afternoon. The sun filtered through the trees and dappled the leaves on the ground. The heat, even in the shade of the woods, was uncomfortable, but Sophie went with it, preferring to allow her movements, her breathing, even her thoughts to slow down accordingly. 'Torpid' was a word that hovered at the edges of her brain, which she acknowledged and dismissed without conscious thought. A hint of green-blue up ahead caught her eye and she felt something inside her stir. She'd almost forgotten the water hole, where she and her cousins had splashed as children. The idea took hold gently, and by the time she stood at the edge of the small murky pool, she had peeled away her damp clothing. Sophie felt the cool, still water lap her ankles as she slipped into the past.

Each character is revealed through both voice and action. Neither could be confused with the other; they are each unique. The action, description, thoughts, words, and feelings depicted are consistent with the way each respective character views and responds to the world.

2) The Author's Voice

In expository or informative writing, there exists a relationship between the author and the reader. Therefore, the reader is exposed to and responds to, literally, the "author's voice".

Contrary to what many people have been taught, expository or informational writing need not be dry, dull, or boring. "Encyclopedia Voice" is a detriment to the delivery of information, as it does nothing to interest the reader - in fact it can bore them to tears.

Another fallacy is the notion that expository writing should never involve first person point of view - that the author should never personally address the reader. William Zinsser, in his marvelous book "On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction", discusses its use:

"What I'm always looking for as an editor is a sentence that says something like 'I'll never forget the day when I...' I think, Aha! A person!

"Writers are obviously at their most natural when they write in the first person. Writing is an intimate transaction between two people, conducted on paper, and it will go well to the extent that it retains its humanity. Therefore I urge people to write in the first person: to use 'I' and 'me' and 'we' and 'us'."

It is, therefore, impossible to have voice in a piece of exposition if the humanity, the first person perspective, is removed. Unlike in narrative writing, in expository writing we welcome the "real" voice of the author. It can be interesting, entertaining, and exciting to feel as though we know the writer, that this person is actually speaking to us.

Often times, in exposition, it is the topic that influences the style and tone of the piece. The topic also determines the extent to which the author's personality dominates. For example, a piece of writing about the possible extinction of the great apes calls for a serious tone. A lighthearted or glib tone would appear at odds with the content of the piece. Does the author need to wear a scholarly or academic hat, a casual, playful hat, a serious or cautionary hat? Depending on the topic and purpose of the piece, the author's voice needs to correspond consistently in word choice, tone, and style.

Another aspect of voice in expository writing mirrors our voice in the real world. We often alter our voices according to the intended audience. We might relay information to our children one way and to our spouse, a friend, our boss, the queen, another way. In writing, authors identify their target audience and consistently address this audience in the tone and style they will likely respond to best.

Let's look at two examples of voice excerpted from a piece about kids learning to play the piano:

Ex. 1 - Audience: Parents Those piano lessons you're pushing on your reluctant ten year old, stressful though they may be, will pay off down the line. No one was worse than me as a kid, giving my mother (bless her soul!) a run for her money every day at practice time. She had to round me up, tear me away from my friends, sit me down on the bench, and then listen to me moan and watch me squirm for the required half an hour. I learned, through her calm persistence, that I might as well apply myself, since I was wasting a half hour anyway. She always smiled and said, "Someday you'll thank me!" She stuck to her guns, and offered HIGH PRAISE when my dirty little fingers produced anything that remotely resembled music. After awhile a surprising thing began to happen - the scales and Hanon exercises started to pay off and my fingers gained some kinesthetic knowledge of their own. I discovered, to my reluctant delight, that I COULD PLAY! The key was consistency, her quiet but unfailing persistence, and her confidence and belief that she was giving me a gift I could not yet recognize.

The author's voice here is conversational, light, and warm. It feels as though this is someone you could chat with at the soccer field or at a dinner party. The voice is unassuming and hints at a good sense of humor. It is the voice of someone who has learned something in spite of himself, and offers encouragement for those guiding their child through this process.

Ex. 2 - Audience: Piano Teachers The challenge in teaching piano to children is not in acquiring students, rather it is in keeping students motivated and engaged. A "one size fits all" approach will leave you with only a handful of students. The gifted, in-demand pedagogue is the one who sees each student and adapts a balanced combination of technique, repertoire, and theory in a variety of ways based on the ability, attention span, maturity, and personality of the individual student. This involves a good deal of careful observation, time spent researching or creating appropriate music and material, and taking the time and energy to pinpoint the motivational devices that move a student to want to practice. Of course, demonstrating a real passion and zest for your own playing, and sharing that freely is often the most powerful way to intrigue and motivate your young protégés. At a recent conference on piano pedagogy and methodology we explored a variety of specific strategies which I will share.

The author's voice here is more authoritative and serious. There is a no-nonsense tone, and the word choice suggests an author well-versed in her topic. This is an author who would capture the attention of her audience through her clear grasp of the topic at hand and her readers would read on, expecting to receive some practical, seasoned advice.

Downloads

Teacher Background: Voice in Narrative and Expository Writing

Developing Voice in Writing - Lesson

Tone and Mood - Student Pages

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The 2 Voices in Writing and How to Teach Them

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We've all heard teachers talk about "voice" - how a piece of writing somehow has it or doesn't. It is a frequently misunderstood concept, an illusive quality that often seems difficult, if not impossible to teach.

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https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/build-analysis-skills/

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Most students struggle with analysis - observing a set of facts and interpreting what they mean. Given that almost any writing assignment, from a middle school book report to a doctoral dissertation, requires analysis, it's incumbent on teachers to help students improve their analytical skills.

Students often do a fairly decent job of identifying facts to analyze, but they fall short of generating a complete analysis that draws a persuasive conclusion from those facts. The key to closing this gap is to teach the fundamentals of analysis outside a writing assignment. Here's how I recommend doing it:

Teach the skill separately

All too often, teachers assume students can complete a task like "analyze" even though they haven't been taught how to do it.

Pointing out where the skill is missing in a paper is the easy part. What really matters is teaching the skill to students outside of an assignment so that they understand it. Learning the skill in a separate setting helps them see how to apply it, then truly master it.

Practice first

Before assigning an essay that requires analysis, teachers should do an analysis activity in class where they ask students to analyze a general topic where opinions are likely to vary. Visual pieces are quickly consumed and often enable students to generate thoughtful analysis quite easily.

Teachers should first select a piece for analysis and then ask students to interpret the piece in the classroom. Before starting an analysis as a class, ask students to write their interpretations down independently.

Example: analyzing an advertisement

For example, your students could analyze the intent of an advertisement. If students believe the ad argues it will make someone appear more youthful, get them to state that.

Next, ask the students to determine what the ad does to make them think that. For instance, is it the text, the use of color, etc.?

Get them to identify the element that pushes this argument. After they have successfully determined the element, ask them to determine why. If, for instance, they think the ad uses bright colors to make consumers think the product is youthful, get them to say why.

Are bright colors associated with fun or youth? Will it make the viewer think the product is fun and youthful? Why? Get them to push their justification as far as they can - so they can see just how deep analysis can and should go.

Pushing for evidence to support conclusions

Getting students to dig into the reasons why their evidence proves their arguments helps them see the level of analysis they need to fully develop a point. Teachers should explain to students that pointing out their reasons for reaching a conclusion may feel obvious, but it is this step that shows how all the evidence relates - and it varies by person because each of us interprets facts differently.

Reviewing analysis in writing

After students understand what true analysis looks like and they have completed their written assignments, have them bring drafts into class to review with peers. In the workshop, ask students to identify each piece of evidence they see in their partner's writing.

Next, ask them to go through and find the point of analysis for all the evidence that connects it back to their argument. If it doesn't exist, then the analysis isn't present or complete. This process allows them to see where they can expand their analysis to better connect their ideas to the thesis or central point.

Analysis goes back to the fundamentals

Ultimately, analysis is a difficult concept for students to master because they often think that identifying evidence is analysis. However, once students have been shown an easy way to dissect evidence and connect it back to a central point, they can apply this skill in more complicated arguments and texts. This process will help make their writing more complete and interesting, and it will develop a fundamental skill they will need throughout their academic careers.
Caitrin Blake has a BA. in English and Sociology from the University of Vermont and a master's degree in English literature from the University of Colorado Denver. She teaches composition at Arapahoe Community College.

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How Teachers Can Strengthen Students' Analysis Skills | Resilient Educator

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Most students struggle with analysis - observing a set of facts and interpreting what they mean. Given that almost any writing assignment, from a middle school book report to a doctoral dissertation, requires analysis, it's incumbent on teachers to help students improve their analytical skills.

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http://www.williamcronon.net/researching/questions.htm

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Asking Good Questions - Learning Historical Research

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Learning how to do historical research. The official website of William Cronon.

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https://www.edutopia.org/blog/reaching-literary-analysis-rusul-alrubail

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1HrtQJqUMVxDwQfxK5xcf32MvSeLAtqobASvGwkyP7xg/copy

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 Ethical Dimension &NHD Research: Guide 

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https://www.nhdca.org/

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Incorporate NHD Inquiry-based learning into your teaching.

Start your History Day project.

Use your National History Day research to help meet some of the requirements for the California State Seal of Civic Engagement. The Civic Summit at History Day California provides students, grades 9-12, an opportunity to engage in civil discourse with other students on their topic.

Sacramento County Office of Education

NHD-CA
P.O. Box 269003
Sacramento, CA 95826

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1z9lF_Ft4vPaw_JFCx4XQmgm0ZCuckkBETbfKeluxMOc/copy

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Douglass Progress & Struggle Quote (Say, Mean, Matter)

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https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Vb6cKRA-3P-79EcZ3dS3H84gcIKQPcNm/view

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http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson1155/scaffold.pdf

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https://www.smekenseducation.com/clarify-summary-versus-synthesis/

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Synthesizing is often loosely defined as thinking beyond the text or having an aha. Although these are accurate explanations, many question how a synthesis differs from a summary or inference.

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Clarify Summary Versus Synthesis

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https://www.classroomnook.com/blog/synthesizing-a-text

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Synthesizing is one of the most challenging reading strategies for students to master, simply because it requires students to use multiple skills and strategies together.

In fact, the prefix "syn" means together. S ynthesizing a text is the process of pulling together background knowledge, newly learned ideas, connections, inferences and summaries into a complete and original understanding of the text. When students synthesize, they are made aware of how their thinking changes and evolves as they read a text.

It's important that we teach our students to synthesize. We want them to do more than just provide a retelling of a text that they read. Instead, we want them to internalize it and grow and change as thinkers because of the texts that they read. To do this, students need to stop often to evaluate and reflect on what they are reading. Through synthesizing, readers form new ideas and opinions.

Pssst... Want a super engaging and interactive way to have students practice synthesizing?

LINKtivity® Interactive Guides are EXACTLY what you need to make learning fun & accessible for all!

Get access to the Synthesizing LINKtivity® (+a growing library of LINKtivities!) inside of LINKtivity® Learning - an all-access pass to our entire vault of LINKtivities!

Below are the different categories within this post to help you jump to exactly what you need! Click on each category title to navigate there directly:

Before we spend time discussing in more detail what a synthesis is, let's talk about what it's NOT:

A synthesis is NOT the same as a summary. A synthesis can INCLUDE parts of a summary, or a retelling from the text, but it goes far beyond that summary or retelling. A summary may lead to a synthesis, but it's not where it stops. Synthesizing requires the reader to take that summary or partial retelling and add in their own thoughts, experiences, opinions, interpretations and connections to generate a new, and bigger idea -- it's going beyond the text. Even more, a true synthesis can blend and integrate ideas from across multiple texts to form new big ideas.

Synthesizing is an on-going process that builds and grows as a reader gets deeper into the text. Debbie Miller, author of Reading with Meaning (affiliate link) compares synthesizing to dropping a pebble into an area of calm water. First there is a small ripple where the pebble enters the water. This represents our initial thinking as we begin reading. It's small because we only have a small amount of information. However, as we read, our thinking grows and expands, just the like ripples grow bigger. We collect new information, form new thoughts and ideas, and evolve our thinking. Each new thought expands from the previous thought. When we reach the end of a book, we are left with our final thought. This final thought has been informed and influenced by all that we have read and have previously read in other texts.

When thinking about synthesizing, experts have come to agree that there are 3 types of syntheses that students can make. A synthesis can form:

1. a new understanding, something a reader has not considered before until reading the text

2. a deeper understanding, becoming more aware or appreciative of an idea after reading a text

3. a changed understanding, thinking differently as a result of the text

In all three types, the result of synthesizing is an increase in knowledge for the reader. You can learn more about the 3 types of synthesizing HERE.

In fictional texts, readers synthesize to form a new, deepened or changed understanding about the character and events in the book. In nonfiction, a reader's synthesis is often the understanding that we develop when we study a topic through multiple books, articles, and multi-media resources. We put together everything that we've learned about that topic into a complete synthesis. For example, when we ask students to complete a research project we are asking them to synthesize the information that they have learned from multiple sources.

In any genres, syntheses are strongest when they are supported with textual evidence. We want students to be able to point out the details from the text that helped them form that new, deepened, or changed understanding.

As you introduce the concept of synthesizing to your students, consider some concrete examples that you can provide to your students. Like mentioned previously, comparing a synthesis to the ripples formed by a pebble is a solid example. This analogy helps students to understand that a synthesis is about how our thinking grows and changes over time. The ripple image is a visual reminder for students that our thinking starts small and grows over the course of a text.

As you begin your discussion on synthesizing with your students, have them imagine what it looks like to see a pebble dropped into the water. If possible, draw an illustration of this on chart paper, like shown on right.

Explain that at first when the pebble drops in the water, there is just a small ripple. Then, that ripple creates a new, larger ripple. That larger ripple continues to create an even larger ripple, and so on. Each ripple grows from the previous ripple, increasing in size, but they all stem from the original drop of the pebble. Help students understand that just like the growing ripples, our thinking grows as we read. When we first begin reading, we have an initial thought about what the book will be about, or establish first impressions about the characters (similar to the initial drop of the pebble). However, as we continue reading, our thinking evolves, changes, and grows as we learn new information. Like the ripples, our understanding becomes greater.

To model this strategy, begin by choosing texts that will lend itself to synthesizing. Fables are great when you are just starting since they are short and have a lesson to be learned that isn't revealed until the end. As students read, they begin to uncover the moral of the story and their thinking changes, develops, and evolves.

Create an anchor chart using the ripple visual. Use phrases such as "At first I was thinking...Now I'm thinking... Oh, now I'm getting it... So this is really about... After reading, I think..." Writing these phrases on the ripples helps to illustrate how our thinking and understanding grows as we read. Here's how you might use the fable The Lion and the Mouse from Aesop's Fables(affiliate link) to show synthesizing.

Click HERE to view digital versions of Aesop's Fables to display for your students.
After you model using the strategy with a fable, you may want to assign small groups of students another fable from Aesop's Fables to work on together using a ripple graphic organizer that mimics your anchor chart. Have students record their syntheses and then share them with the rest of the class.

After a few more times of practice, you can have students try out the strategy with longer texts. For longer texts, you may need more than 3 "ripples" for students to complete their syntheses. Be sure to plan out ahead of time points in the text where you will be stopping to reflect and model how your thinking is changing as you read. You may want to add Post-it notes within the book as reminders to stop and talk.

As you spend more time on synthesizing, you may also want to provide additional analogies of what it means to synthesize. Different examples will "click" for different students. Here are a few other examples:

Compare synthesizing to Russian nesting dolls. If you have a set, bring it in to show your class. Explain how each doll fits inside another, growing bigger as you go. That's how our thinking is when we synthesize; we build on our thoughts as we read.

Use the illustration of a caterpillar morphing into a butterfly. Simply stated, we go into a text as a caterpillar and come out of it as a butterfly. In other words, our thinking goes through many changes, just like the caterpillar, and we come out of a text with a new understanding, just as the butterfly is new.

Compare synthesizing to baking a cake. You begin with the cake mix ( AKA: the text), and you add in ingredients like eggs, oil, and water ( AKA: thoughts, opinions, experiences, previous knowledge...etc) to form something new: a cake ( AKA: a synthesis)

CREATE SIMPLE VISUALS TO REMIND STUDENTS TO MAKE CONNECTIONS:
As you teach students to practice synthesizing a text, providing simple reminders will help keep this reading strategy top of mind. When teaching any new skill in reading, I love to give my students a kid-friendly bookmark with some helpful tips for using a new skill or strategy. I created this reading strategy bookmark that you can provide your students with as they learn to use this new comprehension strategy

8 FREE Reading Strategy BOOKMARKs

Grab these FREE student bookmarks to help your students use reading comprehension strategies while reading.

There are a total of 8 bookmarks that explain reading strategy in kid-friendly language and is the perfect reference for students to use during independent or small-group reading time.

HELP STUDENTS SEE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUMMARIZING AND SYTHESIZING
As it was mentioned earlier, syntheses and summaries are related but NOT the same. You may find that as you begin using this strategy, students will likely confuse the two. In addition to spending time discussing and modeling what a synthesis is and how to form them, you may also want to spend significant time helping students to see the difference between a summary and a synthesis. Create a T-chart as shown below to helps students identify the differences between a summary and a synthesis. As you read multiple texts, model both summaries AND syntheses of the same book to help students see the different.

USE DIGITAL LINKtivity® INTERACTIVE LEARNING GUIDES
New to LINKtivities? >> CLICK HERE

With such a tricky concept for most kids, having tailor-made resources specifically for synthesizing is extra helpful because it gives students guided practice.

I've created a LINKtivity interactive learning guide for such an occasion (duh!)
Here's a sneak-peek at my Synthesizing LINKtivity®

Here's how it works:

In the Synthesizing LINKtivity, students first watch a short animated video clip that quickly catches their attention with fun doodles and images. The clip introduces what the strategy is and how readers use it.

From there they read alongside their "virtual reading buddy" to see the strategy applied to a text. While clicking through the digital book, each time the student comes across a thought bubble, they click on it and are brought to a new slide in the LINKtivity guide to see what their reading buddy is thinking!

Then, to take their learning to the next level, students read 3 additional high-interest reading passages to practice the strategy on their own. In a similar fashion as they did with their reading buddy, students click through the digital storybook and stop to determine importance along the way. The students can record their thinking on a recording sheet that goes along with the LINKtivity.

Want to get your hands on the Synthesizing LINKtivity®?
Join the LINKtivity® Learning Membership and start using this ready-to-go resource for helping students form a synthesis that includes:

Get access to the Synthesizing LINKtivity® PLUS all the other reading comprehension strategies inside of LINKtivity® Learning - an ALL-ACCESS pass to every single LINKtivity® created (INCLUDING all 7 reading strategy LINKtivities!)

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Reading Comprehension Strategy Series: How to Teach Students to Synthesize While Reading - THE CLASSROOM NOOK

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Love podcasts? Check out this post in the form of a podcast episode on The Classroom Commute Podcast !

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https://www.simplypsychology.org/synthesising.html

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When you write a literature review or essay, you have to go beyond just summarizing the articles you've read - you need to synthesize the literature to show how it all fits together (and how your own research fits in).

Synthesizing simply means combining. Instead of summarizing the main points of each source in turn, you put together the ideas and findings of multiple sources in order to make an overall point.

At the most basic level, this involves looking for similarities and differences between your sources. Your synthesis should show the reader where the sources overlap and where they diverge.

Step 1: Organize your sources

After collecting the relevant literature, you've got a lot of information to work through, and no clear idea of how it all fits together.

Before you can start writing, you need to organize your notes in a way that allows you to see the relationships between sources.

One way to begin synthesizing the literature is to put your notes into a table. Depending on your topic and the type of literature you're dealing with, there are a couple of different ways you can organize this.

Summary table

A summary table collates the key points of each source under consistent headings. This is a good approach if your sources tend to have a similar structure - for instance, if they're all empirical papers.

Each row in the table lists one source, and each column identifies a specific part of the source. You can decide which headings to include based on what's most relevant to the literature you're dealing with.

For example, you might include columns for things like aims, methods, variables, population, sample size, and conclusion.

For each study, you briefly summarize each of these aspects.
You can also include columns for your own evaluation and analysis.

The summary table gives you a quick overview of the key points of each source. This allows you to group sources by relevant similarities, as well as noticing important differences or contradictions in their findings.

Synthesis matrix

A synthesis matrix is useful when your sources are more varied in their purpose and structure - for example, when you're dealing with books and essays making various different arguments about a topic.

Each column in the table lists one source. Each row is labeled with a specific concept, topic or theme that recurs across all or most of the sources.

Then, for each source, you summarize the main points or arguments related to the theme.

The purposes of the table is to identify the common points that connect the sources, as well as identifying points where they diverge or disagree.

Step 2: Outline your structure

Now you should have a clear overview of the main connections and differences between the sources you've read. Next, you need to decide how you'll group them together and the order in which you'll discuss them.

For shorter papers, your outline can just identify the focus of each paragraph; for longer papers, you might want to divide it into sections with headings.

There are a few different approaches you can take to help you structure your synthesis.

If your sources cover a broad time period, and you found patterns in how researchers approached the topic over time, you can organize your discussion chronologically.

That doesn't mean you just summarize each paper in chronological order; instead, you should group articles into time periods and identify what they have in common, as well as signalling important turning points or developments in the literature.

If the literature covers various different topics, you can organize it thematically.

That means that each paragraph or section focuses on a specific theme and explains how that theme is approached in the literature.
Source Used with Permission: The Chicago School
If you're drawing on literature from various different fields or they use a wide variety of research methods, you can organize your sources methodologically.

That means grouping together studies based on the type of research they did and discussing the findings that emerged from each method.

If your topic involves a debate between different schools of thought, you can organize it theoretically.

That means comparing the different theories that have been developed and grouping together papers based on the position or perspective they take on the topic, as well as evaluating which arguments are most convincing.

Step 3: Write paragraphs with topic sentences

What sets a synthesis apart from a summary is that it combines various sources. The easiest way to think about this is that each paragraph should discuss a few different sources, and you should be able to condense the overall point of the paragraph into one sentence.

This is called a topic sentence, and it usually appears at the start of the paragraph. The topic sentence signals what the whole paragraph is about; every sentence in the paragraph should be clearly related to it.

A topic sentence can be a simple summary of the paragraph's content:

"Early research on [x] focused heavily on [y]."

For an effective synthesis, you can use topic sentences to link back to the previous paragraph, highlighting a point of debate or critique:

"Several scholars have pointed out the flaws in this approach."

"While recent research has attempted to address the problem, many of these studies have methodological flaws that limit their validity."

By using topic sentences, you can ensure that your paragraphs are coherent and clearly show the connections between the articles you are discussing.

As you write your paragraphs, avoid quoting directly from sources: use your own words to explain the commonalities and differences that you found in the literature.

Don't try to cover every single point from every single source - the key to synthesizing is to extract the most important and relevant information and combine it to give your reader an overall picture of the state of knowledge on your topic.

Step 4: Revise, edit and proofread

Like any other piece of academic writing, synthesizing literature doesn't happen all in one go - it involves redrafting, revising, editing and proofreading your work.

Checklist for Synthesis

Do I introduce the paragraph with a clear, focused topic sentence?

Do I discuss more than one source in the paragraph?

Do I mention only the most relevant findings, rather than describing every part of the studies?

Do I discuss the similarities or differences between the sources, rather than summarizing each source in turn?

Do I put the findings or arguments of the sources in my own words?

Is the paragraph organized around a single idea?

Is the paragraph directly relevant to my research question or topic?

Is there a logical transition from this paragraph to the next one?

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How To Write Synthesis In Research: Example Steps

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When you write a literature review or essay, you have to go beyond just summarizing the articles you've read - you need to synthesize the literature to show

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When you're writing a paper or have an assignment requiring outside sources, you will incorporate the sources in the following ways:

Copying the source exactly word for word (verbatim)

Use quotation marks

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

Putting the information from a source into your own words

Is near or longer than the original passage

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

Condensing the main ideas into your own words

Is shorter than the original passage

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

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The ISTE Student Standards guide educators toward student-driven learning practices that prepare students to thrive in an evolving technological landscape.

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2016 Tuning Core Document

The Tuning Project's History Discipline Core is a statement of the central habits of mind, skills, and understanding that students achieve when they major in history. The document reflects the iterative nature of the tuning process. The most recent version was published in November 2016.

2016 History Discipline Core

Teaching Resources

The American Historical Association has a long-standing commitment to teaching and history education at all levels, and supports teaching in a wide variety of ways. The AHA has developed resources for classroom teaching through the years, and the AHA Teaching Division is actively working on advancing conversations about teaching history. Find resources for use in your own teaching in our new Teaching Resources section, recently redesigned for greater easy of use.

The Decision to Secede and Establish the Confederacy: A Selection of Primary Sources

The American Historical Association encourages continued public debate about monuments to Confederate leaders and about the public spaces and buildings named after those individuals, as well as the role of Confederate flags in public culture. Historians' recent experiences in media interviews have suggested that too few participants in these conversations have read the essential primary sources that clearly articulate the reasons for secession and the establishment of a new nation. This page links to a limited set of documents with a singular focus: why did state governments decide to secede and form a new nation?

Future of the African American Past

On May 19-21, 2016, the AHA and the National Museum of African American History and Culture co-hosted The Future of the African American Past. The conference was held at the National Museum of the American Indian and the National Museum of American History. More than 60 scholars gathered together to celebrate the upcoming opening of the NMAAHC and consider the future of the study of African American history. All sessions were recorded, and noted historians blogged on the sessions in the following days. Participants tweeted to #FutureAAPast.

Learn more, watch sessions, and read the blog!

The AHA has compiled a list of resources for faculty interested in the History Gateways initiative, including recommended readings on teaching introductory history courses, audiovisual resources, and webinar recordings available to AHA members.

History Gateways Resources

Teaching is an essential skill for any historian, and the AHA works hard to produce resources for those teaching at all career stages and at all levels of history. Our Teaching and Learning video library includes workshops on K-12 and undergraduate teaching, reflections from historians on globalizing their US survey courses, and sessions on issues of vital importance to history education such as learning outcomes, dual enrollment, and the transition from high school to college.

In collaboration with over 20 states and 15 social studies content organizations, including the AHA, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) has released a guide to help states strengthen their social studies standards. The "College Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies" encourages states to upgrade their social studies standards by offering robust guidelines to promote inquiry-based learning in civics, economics, geography, and history. AHA members and staff, joined by representatives of the Teaching Division, worked closely with the NCSS, state representatives, educators, and scholars to ensure that the standards demonstrate best practices in the discipline of history.

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The Tuning Project's History Discipline Core is a statement of the central habits of mind, skills, and understanding that students achieve when they major in history. The document reflects the iterative nature of the tuning process. The most recent version was published in November 2016.

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Skip to Main Content

It looks like you're using Internet Explorer 11 or older. This website works best with modern browsers such as the latest versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge. If you continue with this browser, you may see unexpected results.

Broward College, Central Campus Library

Building 17
Davie, FL 33314

South Regional Library

Broward College, South Campus

North Regional Library

Broward College, North Campus

When you're writing a paper or have an assignment requiring outside sources, you will incorporate the sources in the following ways:

Copying the source exactly word for word (verbatim)

Use quotation marks

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

Putting the information from a source into your own words

Is near or longer than the original passage

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

Condensing the main ideas into your own words

Is shorter than the original passage

Always cite it both in-text and in the References page (APA) or Works Cited page (MLA)

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Research Guides: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing: Home

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