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The Spaniards, of course, were hardly the first to discover this land of wonder and extremes. The earliest Californians were adventurous Asians who made their way across the Bering Straits to Alaska thousands of years ago when a warmer climate and a now-vanished land bridge made such travel easier. These men and women and their descendants settled North and South America, spreading out to form the various nations and tribes whom the first European visitors to this hemisphere dubbed "Indians." The mountain ranges of the Pacific Coast isolated these early settlers from the cultures that developed in neighboring Mexico and the western United States. Thus, the early population of California bore little physical resemblance to the Native Americans of the Great Plains and apparently shared no ties of language or culture with these nations. California's rugged topography, marked by mountain ranges and deserts, made it difficult for her indigenous groups to travel great distances, and the region's native peoples were even isolated from each other, tending to live in large family groups or clans with little political structure, unlike the larger tribes and nations to the east. As European settlement came late to California, her natives were also denied access to the newcomers' horses, whose runaways fathered the wild herds that gave Great Plains tribes new mobility as early as the sixteenth century. Thus divided and isolated, the original Californians were a diverse population, separated by language into as many as 135 distinct dialects. Tribes included the Karok, Maidu, Cahuilleno, Mojave, Yokuts, Pomo, Paiute, and Modoc. On the other hand, the mountains that divided the groups made extensive warfare impractical, and the California tribes and clans enjoyed a comparatively peaceful life.

Illustration IV: Mount Shasta with Indians and TeePees. Steel engraving by E.P. Brandard, after, S.S. Gifford, ca. 1873. Published in William Cullen Bryant, Picturesque America, v.1. LC-USZ62-52626. #605.

The region's lack of rain during the growing season meant that agriculture was not a practical means of livelihood for early Californians, but the gentle climate and rich soil enabled these groups to live by skillfully harvesting and processing wild nuts and berries and by capturing the fish that crowded the streams. The acorn, leached of toxic acids and turned into meal, was a staple of the diet of most California native peoples. Indeed, the first English-speaking Europeans to encounter California Native Americans were so struck by their focus on gathering nuts from the ground and unearthing nutritious roots that they nicknamed them "Diggers," and "Digger Indian" became a vague nickname for many of the groups.

An ample food supply, temperate climate, and absence of wars contributed to a large, healthy population. It has been estimated that when Europeans first came to California, the native population was probably close to 300,000--13 percent of the indigenous peoples in North America.

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The First Peoples of California | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

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The Spaniards, of course, were hardly the first to discover this land of wonder and extremes. The earliest Californians were adventurous Asians who made their way across the Bering Straits to Alaska thousands of years ago when a warmer climate and a now-vanished land bridge made such travel easier.

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Over 5.2 million Native Americans live in the U.S., making up 537 stand-alone tribal nations. The rich history and culture of each tribe create a unique death philosophy.

Jump ahead to these sections:

Before the 1500s, there were thousands of Native American tribes in the United States, each with their own identity and way of life. It's not possible to summarize the death customs of Native American tribes as one. Instead, we've created a brief overview of shared beliefs and differences between the major ones.

Native American Spirituality

Before taking a look at specific funeral and burial practices, its essential to understand all Native Americans aren't the same. There is no defining religion like Christianity or Islam between Native Americans. There were thousands of beliefs about death and grieving before European made contact with native tribes.

Yet, there are some similarities between the tribes. It's agreed that most Native Americans worshiped (and some still worship) an all-powerful Creator or spirit. Also, Native Americans believe in deep bonds between earth and all living creatures. Living creatures aren't limited to those with heartbeats.

In a practice called "animism," tribes believe that the entire universe is alive, including rocks and rivers. Tribes also unite in beliefs over the afterlife and reincarnation. Death is a journey and continuation of life on earth. There's a widespread belief that the deceased will reincarnate into another animal or person based on their deeds in this life.

Native American Funeral and Burial Traditions

Now that you're familiar with basic beliefs, let's take a look at specific funeral traditions and burials. In general, it's the role of friends and family to guide the deceased's spirit into the afterlife. Many tribes are fearful of spirits.

They go to extreme lengths to keep the spirit away from family and friends. Also, the customs can differ depending on if the deceased is an adult or a child.

Traditions by tribe

If you're attending a Native American funeral, it's crucial to know what tribe the deceased belongs to. The tribe will dictate the preparation of the body, rituals, and etiquette.

Navajo funerals

The largest tribe in the United States has over has over 250,000 members nationwide and a deep fear of death. Navajos don't look forward to the afterlife and follow specific practices, so the deceased doesn't haunt the living. Instead, it's a life that's worth living.

Every Navajo Indian hopes to live in or a state of order with the universe and beauty of all living things. Navajos follow rituals and bury the deceased in unique ways to keep order. Here are some examples:

Navajos choose family members to mourn. The mourners bathe and dress the body in special clothes.

The mourners bury the deceased far away from the living area along with the possessions and the tools used to bury the body.

If the deceased died in their home of tree and bark - family members burn it along with any remaining possessions.

A traditional Navajo funeral is a simple, no-frills affair. Contact with the deceased's corpse can lead to sickness, misfortune, or even death, so very few family members as possible participate in the funeral.

Since the 20th century, many Navajos turned to Christianity, so you might see modern Christian practices at funerals, too. Family members bury the deceased in a church and read eulogies.

Natural Sioux burials

In the past, the Sioux were the largest Native American tribe. They were a nomadic group of people in the Great Plains. Modern Sioux follow both traditional and Christian rituals. The Sioux don't fear the soul of the deceased like the Navajo. Instead, they reach out to spirits in a time of need and communicate with them.

Sioux Native Americans may choose an earth burial . They view the earth as our Mother, and when a family member dies, a dirt burial is the best way to reconnect with the planet and free the soul.

Prehistoric mound builders

The mysterious mound builders were a group of Native Americans that built mounds as high as 70 feet. They frequently engaged in war with other tribes until they dissolved shortly before the first settlers came to America.

The mound builders offer some clues as to how Native Americans started performing their death rituals. Inside the mounds, gifts and possessions of the deceased were found, to aid the soul in their journey to the afterlife.

Shared or common traditions among tribes

Now that you've learned about funeral traditions from modern and primitive tribes, let's take a look at shared traditions between tribes. Whether they fear or accept it, Native Americans view death as a natural part of life. Across most tribes, death preparations prepare the soul for the spiritual journey.

Creation stories

Life is a spiritual journey for Native Americans. There isn't a specific religion followed. Instead, tribes pass down rich creation stories throughout history. Most of these stories allude to a "Creator" or "Creating power."

Many tribes believe in other worlds before this one. The Sioux creation story mentions a world before this world and tribes believe the deceased has a life after death.

Reincarnation

Beliefs about rebirth and reincarnation are widespread between modern and traditional tribes. The deceased can return as an animal, person, or ghost.

The Hopi tribe of northeastern Arizona believes the deceased return as ghosts or . The are messengers that bring prosperity and necessities like rain to the tribe.

Burial customs

The deceased's corpse is considered sacred, so burial customs are specific and universal across tribes. Practices are different based on location too. Here are some ones you may see:

Cremation : Burning the deceased helps the enter the afterlife. The smoke sends the body upward in their journey.

Tree burial: The Sioux, Ute, and Navajo tribes used platforms like a scaffold or tree to bring the deceased closer to the sky. Animals consume the body bringing the life cycle full circle--similar to a Tibetan Sky burial .

Funeral flowers

Personal items next to the casket or burial area are common in traditional practices. Things like toys were left with children and weapons or clothes with adults.

In modern times, funeral flowers are welcome, especially in tribes that combine Christianity with traditional practices.

Funeral prayers

Chanting prayers and prayer items are common across tribes. The Navajo sit for four days chanting prayers for the soul to cross into the afterlife.

Prayer feathers are common in the Navajo and other tribes, too. The feathers are carefully selected, washed, and steamed. Then they are attached to the deceased's body.

Social support is critical in mourning. Each tribe has different mourning practices, but showing extreme emotion is common like singing, wailing, and weeping. Some family members inflict pain on themselves, like cutting their fingers to show their grief.

Ceremonies for the deceased show social support and are to mourn. You can read more about everyday rituals below.

Native American Rituals for the Sick and Dying

Native American rituals are usually multi-day elaborate ceremonies performed by a shaman. It's believed that those that live harmoniously with other people, beings, and the earth don't become ill. It's only through an imbalance that illness can happen. Healing ceremonies using objects and prayers help to restore the balance.

Ceremonies are complicated and take years of study to learn. In fact, hundreds of modern medical drugs have their origins from Native American herbs. The healing ceremonies are especially lively. Drums, along with singing and dancing, are a cornerstone of the tradition.

Today, Native American tribes use a combination of traditional rituals and "white" medicine to cure or treat the sick and dying.

Modern Native American Funeral Etiquette

If you're wondering whether you will see traditional rituals at the funeral you attend the answer is: maybe. Many of today's tribes are Christian. For some Native Americans, Christianity is less expensive and scary than traditional beliefs. But, most people still follow some form of indigenous practice. You might hear Christian eulogies alongside tribal creation stories. Sometimes tribal prayers can even blend with Christian ones.

You'll know more of what to expect when you attend a funeral after reading the rules of etiquette below.

What to wear to a Native American funeral

It's best practice to first find out the family's tribe. Attire is based upon the wishes of the family and religious preferences.

Traditional attire won't be necessary at a formal ceremony in a church. Take a look at our guide on funeral attire if you're still wondering what to wear.

At traditional funerals, you'll notice the fear of death in some tribes like the Navajo and Apache. Both tribes felt it's possible to die of fright, so young children and women left the home. Other tribes like the Hopi were more accepting. They remained in the house, and family members prepared the body.

If you're visiting ill family members or friends in the hospital, you'll notice many family members in the room. During the funeral, shows of emotion like crying are commonplace. If the family is Christian, they are less likely to have fear of the deceased.

Offering condolences and gifts

You can check in with the family to find out their religious preferences before choosing gifts. If the funeral is a traditional tribal ceremony, gifts like knives or clothing for the spirit are usual.

A card, flowers, or donations to help with funeral expenses are a good idea for Christian funerals. Many tribal ceremonies are expensive - a "curing" ceremony for the sick costs upward of $700. Our guide on condolences is a good place to start your search as well.

Lost Traditions

Native Americans pass down traditions orally using stories, so many funeral customs have become lost. As the younger generation moves away from Native American reservations (protected land), it becomes harder for people to keep connected to their roots.

Yet, many Native Americans respect the old faith even if they don't follow it. Spiritual beliefs are central to Native American life and identity. Each tribal member connects to another through shared traditions and rituals. Their positivity towards living things sets an excellent example for all cultures to follow.
Sources

1. Bryant, Clifton D. Handbook of Death and Dying . Sage, 2008.

2. "Native American Creation Stories." George Mason University, www. chnm.gmu.edu/exploring/pre_18thcentury/creationstories/pop_sioux.html

3. Betty Reid. "A Navajo daughter remembers a parent's journey back to earth." Native American Press, www.thenativepress.com/life/fathers_day.php

4. "Tribal Nations and the United States." National Congress of American Indians, www.ncai.org/tribalnations/introduction/Tribal_Nations_and_the_United_States_An_Introduction-web-.pdf

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Native American Death Rituals, Funerals & Burial Customs | Cake Blog

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Over 5.2 million Native Americans live in the U.S., making up 537 stand-alone tribal nations. The rich history and culture of each tribe create a unique death philosophy. Jump ahead to these sections: Before the 1500s, there were thousands of Native American tribes in the United States, each with their own identity and way of life.

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Thank you, Giver of Life, for all the life that was brought here before we arrived in this world. I thank Grandfather Sun for giving us our shadows because our shadows are direct representations of our ancestors who have gone before us. And, they follow us everywhere we go. They protect us. They guide us. So we thank Grandfather Sun in our hearts, in our shadows. And, then I look down to Mother Earth. And thank Mother Earth for providing us with all necessities of life, from the plants, the birds, the fish, and the animals. ...that we obtain our food, our medicine, our clothing, our shelter, our tools of survival. ...and how we travel about on the snow, on the ice, on the water, and on the earth. We are grateful being able to negotiate our survival on Mother Earth. So we are grateful for Mother Earth. I ask the spirits from those entities-the Giver of Life, Grandfather Sun and Mother Earth-to come here, to help us, to guide us in what we are doing.

Stephen Augustine, Dean of Cape Breton University's Unama'ki College

Chanting ritual prayers during Native American ceremonies is a common aspect of their healing traditions. Traditionally, as Dean Augustine demonstrates in his 2016 speech in his ancestral tongue, these ceremonies are conducted by a tribal elder and opens, speaking on behalf of the collective. Native American healing ceremonies, along with tools and plant-based medicines (i.e., herbalism), are incorporated into the Native Americans' whole being health and wellness system. There is much we can learn from this combined system of mind, body, emotion and spirit in the modern healthcare system.

Native American Healing Ceremonies

As researchers, Tarrell A. A. Portman and Michael T. Garrett, note in their paper entitled, "Native American Healing Traditions," published in the International Journal of Disability, Development and Education (December 2006),

Indigenous healing practices among Native Americans have been documented in the United States since colonisation. Cultural encapsulation has deterred the acknowledgement of Native American medicinal practices as a precursor to folk medicine and many herbal remedies, which have greatly influenced modern medicine. Understanding Native American healing practices requires helping professionals to have knowledge of Native American cultural belief systems about health and wellness, with the many influences that create change in the mind, body, spirit, and natural environment. Native Americans believe their healing practices and traditions operate in the context of relationship to four constructs-namely, spirituality (Creator, Mother Earth, Great Father); community (family, clan, tribe/nation); environment (daily life, nature, balance); and self (inner passions and peace, thoughts, and values).

It is with this in mind, that it's important for today's integrative, complementary medicine practices to become the norm as opposed to the exception.

Chief among the ceremonies of Native Americans is the smudging ceremony. Smudging uses the smoking of a variety of herbs and foliage, namely and wheatgrass , to be wafted onto the person, belongings, sacred and non-sacred spaces alike. Native Americans differ in their frequency of smudging, but some perform it daily to stay healthy while others only at major life events and when feeling unwell.

While Native American healers' reasonings can vary for why they smudge, from reading many accounts, one of the common reasons is to help others find respect for one another, their environment, and to spend moments in quiet, positive contemplation while practicing this ancient ceremony. In psychology, some of the same tenets of reappraisal and introspection recommended by mental healthcare professionals for greater emotional regulation are given. Here, Native Americans have connected this to their cultural heritage in a way that speaks very meaningfully to the participants.

Other ceremonies include death ceremonies to help one's spirit pass on to the Spirit World, peyote worship and peace pipe smoking ceremonies, group healing ceremonies, and sweat lodge ceremonies (which is very similar to the Mexican temazcales written about before , and likely culturally associated). I touch on some of these ceremonies below, as I delve into the tools of the Native American healing ceremonies and practices further.

Tools Used in Native American Healing Ceremonies

Well you are likely to see a modern doctor with a stethoscope hanging on her neck today, the healing implements of the Native American persuasion are equally distinct. Native American healers can be seen with ceremonial headdresses on and necklaces of their own making. For healing ceremonies such as those described above, you will find in use a variety of tools from animal totems to peace pipes, prayer ties and more.

Animal Totems

Since Native American cultures are strongly animistic in nature, animals hold special places in the Native American healing ceremonies and traditions. You can see small animal totems given and used throughout these healing practices, especially during group healing ceremonies, for guidance from their animal spirits.

Dreamcatchers

One of the most iconic Native American healing tools is the dreamcatcher. Representing the Medicine Wheel, or Sacred Hoop , these woven healing instruments are used to help children sleep better, protecting warriors and others traveling away from the tribe, and warding off illness by restoring balance of mind, emotion, body and spirit to the person afflicted.

Feather Fetishes

Not what it sounds like, feather fetishes are fans made out of bird feathers, bones, leathered skins of various animals, even seashells, that are used in rituals for prayer and healing. In smudging ceremonies, feather fetishes are used to fan the smoke onto the person being blessed or healed.

Peace Pipes

Peace pipes are a ceremonial tool used usually by elders of a village for major events, but they are also used to smoke a variety of different plants. These peace pipes are long-stemmed and typically made of wood or bone, and can be smoked throughout the evening until dawn in healing rituals.

Prayer Ties

Next, prayer ties-small, bound cloth flags-are used as offerings to the Spirit World entities. These colorful little items are laid out to pay homage and thanks to the spirits needed to heal a person.

Smudge Sticks

Finally, but most often used in Native American healing ceremonies, smudge sticks are ribbon-bound herbs used to handily carry and purpose in the smudging ceremonies wherever one might be. Smudge sticks are disassembled to take what herbs are needed for a specific healing ceremony, then the remaining is rebound for later use. Herbs used vary based on the available plant life indigenous to the various Native American nations' regions.

Herbalism in Native American Healing Ceremonies

In addition to the tools mentioned above healers of every Native American tribe extend their toolkit to the knowledge of plant-based medicine. Herbalists didn't simply use smudge sticks to heal afflicted individuals. They had an arsenal of remedies cultivated over generations to handle a variety of ailments that became the source of many modern medicines.

If you would like to gain greater insights into Native American herbalism, in Sacred Plant Medicine: The Wisdom in Native American Herbalism by Stephen Harrod Buhner, he reveals that the Native American cultures not only had spiritual and religious beliefs connected to their herbalism, but an in-depth method for planting, gathering and harvesting, storing, converting plants to medicine, and uses.

You can find many herbs, such as , , wild ginger , and in various forms in your local natural foods stores in the supplements section. And, you can thank Native Americans mostly for that!

These herbs are used in many rituals and ceremonies as teas and other concoctions that not only the afflicted person would drink, but many times the family and other members of the tribe, as a means to bond the healing process to the community. Healing is culturally a communal practice and use of herbs together reinforces that premise.

Native American healing ceremonies are part of the larger patchwork quilt of human experiences. In Native American tradition, one's life experiences are , as Portman and Garrett (2016) described. Your memories, as well as the herbs and teas and poultices used in healing rituals, are medicine. Even trees and plants and animals and people hold their own kind of medicines. It's with this whole being perspective that our modern medical world can most benefit from a truly integrative, complementary medical culture that heals more with greater positive health outcomes.

Mara Benner helps individuals tap into their innate abilities to heal. She guides them to connect intuitively with body, mind, emotions and spirit - it's all interconnected! Through the use of ancient healing approaches such as Reiki, reflexology, meditation, mindfulness, guided imagery, chakra healing, health coaching, intuitive spiritual coaching, energy healing and more, Mara partners with her clients for overall health and wellbeing. She does this through Four Directions Wellness, affiliated with the GW Center for Integrative Medicine, and located in Alexandria, Virginia. Begin your journey today.

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Thank you, Giver of Life, for all the life that was brought here before we arrived in this world. I thank Grandfather Sun for giving us our shadows because our shadows are direct representations of our ancestors who have gone before us. And, they follow us everywhere we go.

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Native American traditions are diverse, but many share strong emphases on oral discourse, orientation toward the land, and the existence of a spirit world. Additionally, all Native traditions have had to respond to colonization, dispossession, and assimilation. Still, the traditions that developed prior to and in response to European colonization are markedly distinct.

Each Native American nation has its own distinctive life-ways, but they do share some characteristics. For example, most Native life-ways are primarily oral traditions, relying on the spoken transmission of story and the enactment of ritual knowledge. Precisely because they are not fixed in writing, Indigenous beliefs and practices are fluid. While written traditions promote remarkable fidelity to memory and "getting it right," oral traditions can encompass a variety of interpretations and can change, developing fresh interpretations in changing circumstances. The fluidity of oral tradition explains, in part, why it can be so difficult to identify a single normative or authoritative belief system for any given Native tradition. Perhaps the same qualities that make it difficult to pin down a precise definition of Native traditions enable those traditions to survive dispossession and rapid social change.

Native religious traditions are on the whole land-based. They are oriented in profound ways toward living well and making a living on particular landscapes. To illustrate, consider how Native religious symbolism draws on the contours of the immediate natural world and how ethical values are derived from making a respectful, productive, and sustainable livelihood from that landscape. For the Tlingit people of the Northwest Coast, the salmon figures prominently in religious symbolism and provides one of the staple foods of existence. The ethical and ceremonial respect Tlingit people give the annual run of spawning salmon in the coastal rivers exemplifies the connection made between livelihood, food, spirit and land. For the Muscogee, or Creek, people of the Southeast and Oklahoma, much of ceremonial life is oriented around corn, its respectful cultivation, and gratitude for its bountiful harvest.

There are several other generalizations one could make that might hold true for a majority of Native peoples. Most Native American traditions share a vital interest in dream experience. They affirm the existence of a spirit world in a multitude of ways. They draw on the transformative power of music, dance, and symbol in their ritual and ceremonial life.

As tempting as it is to speak about a singular "Native American religion" on the basis of these common features, however, to do so would fail to do adequate justice to the fundamental distinctiveness, and sophistication, of each tradition. A more compelling way to think about the similarities of Native peoples is to consider the place they have come to share within the political, economic, and cultural boundaries that constitute the United States. While each tradition is profoundly rooted in its emergence from the very landscape which became America, all have shared the common challenges of life under colonization, especially dispossession and assimilation. So while traditional ways of life vary greatly, all Native communities have shared the common challenge of balancing those traditional ways of life with the changes necessary to survive in a new world on their own terms.

If one were to profile perhaps thirty or forty Native communities, one would begin to get a fuller view of the wide diversity of Native religious traditions. Despite the many similarities that occur across traditions, it is perhaps best to evoke their fundamental diversity and richness by focusing on snapshots of the traditions of four peoples-the Ojibwe, the Mescalero Apache, the Lakota Sioux, and the Haudenosaunee Iroquois. In the experience of Native peoples today, there are also several intertribal phenomena that are widely shared across cultural boundaries, such as the Native American Church, the sweat lodge, and the powwow.

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Native American traditions are diverse, but many share strong emphases on oral discourse, orientation toward the land, and the existence of a spirit world. Additionally, all Native traditions have had to respond to colonization, dispossession, and assimilation. Still, the traditions that developed prior to and in response to European colonization are markedly distinct.

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Native Americans have lived in North America for over 13,000 years. The continued presence and rich diversity of contemporary Native communities in the United States discredits the pervasive myth that there are no more Native Americans.

At the core of America's frontier myth is the image of "the Vanishing Indian." Noble, brave, and yet destined to sacrifice both freedom and land for the making of America, the image of the Indian that has captured America's imagination for centuries is that of "The Last of the Mohicans." Such myths course so deeply in the American imagination that many believe there are no more Native Americans, or at least no more "real Indians." But the vocal and visible presence of Native Americans today disprove this myth. Indigenous men and women say plainly that American expansion and American history rests on stolen land.

Today hundreds of thousands of Native people from more than 500 distinct tribal communities testify to the fact that Native Americans are still very much present in America. They speak English, Spanish, Navajo, Ojibwe, and more than 100 other languages. They live on reservations and on farms, in towns and in cities. They perform ceremonies, they run businesses, and they go to medical school. They tell myths and they write novels. Many Native people link their survival to their religion, to the pervasive spiritual dimension of their way of life. The vitality of their religious life-ways lies at the heart of Native identity and experience.

For Native American people, these spiritual roots run deep in the history of the continent. Though archaeologists disagree over the precise dating of the initial settling of North America, and while many Native traditions maintain that Native communities have always been here, archaeologists agree that the earliest solidly datable evidence-the site of a nomadic camp in what is today Colorado-is 13,000 years old. The Adena and Hopewell cultures of the Ohio River Valley, with their mounds and earthworks, provide evidence of cultures that arose in the first millennium BCE and continued until perhaps 700 CE.

Today's Native peoples link themselves to a long, rich heritage on this land through ceremonies performed and stories recounted, through herbal healing and sacred foods, and through particular sacred places, such as Eagle Butte in South Dakota or the ceremonial kiva buildings on the plazas of New Mexico's Pueblo villages.

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Native Americans have lived in North America for over 13,000 years. The continued presence and rich diversity of contemporary Native communities in the United States discredits the pervasive myth that there are no more Native Americans. At the core of America's frontier myth is the image of "the Vanishing Indian."

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The Pluralism Project's introduction to Native American Traditions. Read introductory essays on on Native Peoples' Experiences and Issues for Native Americans. Explore our curated selection of news, publications, and links.

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Treaties rest at the heart of both Native history and contemporary tribal life and identity. Approximately 368 treaties were negotiated and signed by U.S. commissioners and tribal leaders (and subsequently approved by the U.S. Senate) from 1777 to 1868. They enshrine promises our government made to Indian Nations. They recognize Indian tribes as nations - a fact that distinguishes tribal citizens from other Americans and supports contemporary Native assertions of tribal sovereignty and self-determination.

Far from being dusty documents of dubious relevance, treaties are legally binding and still in effect. Although repeatedly recognized by the courts as sources of rights for Indian people and their Native Nations, treaties also carry the weight of a troubled history of broken promises and test the strength of our nation's commitment to honesty, good faith and the rule of law.

Treaties made by the United States with Indian Nations inscribe solemn vows that cannot lightly be broken or ignored, a verity that Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black recognized in 1960 when he declared, "Great nations, like great men, should keep their word."

Despite the moral, legal, historical and contemporary significance of Indian treaties, most Americans know little about them. That fact unsettled the late senator Daniel K. Inouye (D. - Hawaii), the longtime chairman, vice-chairman and member of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, who lamented: "I would venture to guess that to the extent they have ever had occasion to think about them, most Americans think of treaties as ancient relics of the past that have long since been forgotten and which certainly have no relevance to modern society."

Said Inouye: "Too few Americans know that the Indian nations ceded millions of acres of lands to the United States, or that...the promises and commitments made by the United States were typically made in perpetuity. History has recorded, however, that our great nation did not keep its word to the Indian nations, and our preeminent challenge today...is to assure the integrity of our treaty commitments and to bring an end to the era of broken promises."

The National Museum of the American Indian was established by Congress to rectify our nation's historical amnesia about the role of Native Nations in the making of modern America. Treaties are at the core of the relationship between Indian Peoples and the United States. I have heard many times, from Natives and non-Natives alike, that the Museum must tell the "real story" of the history between the U.S. and the Indian tribes. Telling that story is undoubtedly a part of our responsibility as an educational institution dedicated to increasing and diffusing knowledge about Native history and culture. As we celebrate the 25th anniversary of the founding of our Museum and the 10th anniversary of the opening of our
flagship Museum on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., it is most fitting that we present Nation to Nation, an exhibition telling the story of treaties between the United States and American Indian Nations.

The exhibit will be marked by a companion book, Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations. The contributors, a distinguished group of Native and non-Native historians, legal scholars and tribal activists, have tapped a vast array of sources, including tribal oral traditions, interviews, historical documents, illustrations, newspaper articles and Native material culture, to recount the evolution of U.S.-Indian treaty making from the 17th century to the present. Their work focused on many different aspects of the treaty story, yet the book is unified by a consistent effort to interpret the history of U.S.-Indian treaty making from the perspective of Native people. This approach, which animates recent scholarship in American Indian history, is consistent with one of the principal canons of American law concerning treaties - that treaties must be interpreted as the Native signers understood them.

From a Native perspective, the story began with American acceptance of tribal self-government and nation-to-nation diplomacy through treaty making. That promising start quickly morphed into disaster through broken and coercive treaties that promoted Indian removal and tribal land loss, as well as government policies that dismantled tribes as political institutions, obliterated tribal land ownership and fostered the forced assimilation of Native people into white culture.

Happily, the story does not end there. For Native people never gave up on their treaties or the tribal sovereignty that treaties recognized. Beginning in the 1960s, Native activists invoked America's growing commitment to social justice to restore broken treaties, to demand congressional legislation - or modern treaty amendments - that repaired the damages that had been inflicted on tribal communities by U.S. Indian policies, and to rejuvenate tribal governments long subjugated by heavy-handed federal agents. Today, the reassertion of treaty rights and tribal self-determination is evident in renewed tribal political, economic and cultural strength, as well as in reinvigorated nation-to-nation relations with the United States.

The fundamental tenets of early treaty making - the recognition of tribal governments and Indian consent - are alive and well...at least for the moment. The future is untold, and ultimately the gains of Native Nations in modern times are set in fragile beads rather than carved in stone. Yet there is optimism in Indian Country that Americans will better understand their shared history with Indian Nations and that, as a result, they will join Native people in celebrating and upholding the rights enshrined in treaties.

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Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations | NMAI Magazine

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Treaties matter, not only to American Indians, but to everyone who lives in the United States. The United States acquired much of its land through treaties with Indian tribes. These negotiated, bilateral agreements are, therefore, fundamental to understanding how the United States was created, and how its citizens obtained the land and natural resources they enjoy today.

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Sketches depict Odawa warriors going to war and returning home with the American flag, victorious
Weltmuseum, Vienna

A mere 15 years after the War of 1812 concluded, President Andrew Jackson introduced the Indian Removal Act of 1830. When the law passed, it gave the United States the green light to formally and legally remove tribal communities under "western law." Before this, no such sweeping law sanctioned by the federal government existed, with compromise and treaties the only available solutions. Losing Indian lands resulted in a loss of cultural identity, as tribes relied on their homelands as the place of ancestral burial locations and sacred sites where religious ceremonies were performed. Without their lands, nations lost their identities, and their purpose.

This loss of identity corresponded with the rise of American hegemony, felt in every facet of tribal communities following the War of 1812. Native languages slowly gave way to English. Mandatory American boarding schools forbade native languages to be spoken. Children, alienated from their families, began to lose their languages and their cultures during their stay at these institutions. Unable to perform ceremonies and traditions in native tongues, a slow loss of tradition and identity became inevitable.

In the Odawa community at Little Traverse, the famed missionary Frederic Baraga carried out his work preaching and baptizing community members, and building Catholic churches from 1831 to 1833. Immediately upon his arrival, Baraga built a large fire in the center of Little Traverse. He demanded that those who were serious about converting to the Catholic faith burn their sacred bundles. Some Odawa did, other protested against changing their faith system. But this erosion of religious freedoms was common: it wasn't until 1978, under the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, that tribal people could freely practice their traditional beliefs.

To avoid removal, "uncivilized" tribal communities showed "progress" by becoming Christian: changing their appearance, attending western schools, and abandoning traditional hunting practices in favor of farming. Odawa men were pressured to cut their hair and discontinue the practice of tattooing, while social pressures influenced Odawa women to wear American clothes and not traditional dress.

Before the War of 1812, tribes had the freedom to dress as they chose, speak their language, practice their religion, and access sacred sites and cultural resources related to the geographic landscapes of their ancestors. After the War of 1812, the changes were swift and drastic. But the love of home prompted many tribes to change only their outward identity to conform with American pressures for assimilation, while in secret continuing traditional beliefs and practices. A testament to this tenacity to tradition, despite pressures to abandon it, is seen in the contemporary community's retention of traditional values and beliefs. Ancestors' willingness to risk their lives and their freedom to practice traditional beliefs allows contemporary communities to hold on to and celebrate those practices.

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Native nations face the loss of land and traditions (U.S. National Park Service)

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A mere 15 years after the War of 1812 concluded, President Andrew Jackson introduced the Indian Removal Act of 1830. When the law passed, it gave the United States the green light to formally and legally remove tribal communities under "western law."

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Native Americans, or the indigenous peoples of the Americas, are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America and their descendants. Those who live within the boundaries of the present-day United States are composed of numerous distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as intact, sovereign nations.

Most authorities agree that the first evidence of people inhabiting North America indicates that they migrated here from Eurasia over 13,000 years ago, most likely crossing along the Bering Land Bridge, which existed during the Ice Age. However, some historians believe people migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.

Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who thought he had arrived in the East Indies in his search for Asia. However, considerable evidence supports successful explorations that led to the Norse settlement of Greenland, the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement in Newfoundland, and potentially others some 500 years before Columbus landed in the Bahamas. From the Native American aspect, many tribes' oral histories indicate they have lived here since their genesis, as described by many creation myths.

By the time European adventurers arrived in the 15th century, scholars estimate that more than 50 million people were already living in the Americas. Of these, some 10 million lived in the region that would later become the United States. As time passed, these migrants and their descendants pushed south and east, adapting. These new arrivals brought centuries of conflict and adjustment between Old and New World societies. Today, Native Americans account for about 1.5 percent of the United States population, many of whom continue to take pride in their ancestral traditions - still practicing the music, art, and ceremonies that took place many years ago.

Cherokee Prayer Blessing

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Native Americans - The First Owners of America

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Our Nations true Fore Fathers, their heros, myths, legends, tribes and more. Native American's - the first owners of America.

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Native American and Alaska Native Heritage Month has evolved from its beginnings as a week-long celebration in 1986, when President Reagan proclaimed the week of November 23-30, 1986 as "American Indian Week." Every President since 1995 has issued annual proclamations designating the month of November as the time to celebrate the cultures, accomplishments, and contributions of Native Americans and Alaska Natives.

Through dance, family traditions, art, and music, these stories show both the contemporary diversity and long history of Indigenous people across the land we now call the United States. Celebrate the history, culture, and traditions of American Indians and Alaska Natives in a special collection of films and programs.

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Native American and Alaska Native Heritage Month has evolved from its beginnings as a week-long celebration in 1986, when President Reagan proclaimed the week of November 23-30, 1986 as "American Indian Week." Every President since 1995 has issued annual proclamations designating the month of November as the time to celebrate the cultures, accomplishments, and contributions of Native Americans and Alaska Natives.

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Native American Rituals and Ceremonies – Legends of America

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Ceremony and rituals have long played a vital and essential role in Native American culture. Spirituality is an integral part of their very being.

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The struggle Native Americans have gone through. 

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The struggle Native Americans have gone through. 

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https://indianyouth.org/mission-history/traditions-culture/

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Native American traditions, foods, beliefs and dances 

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Native American traditions, foods, beliefs and dances 

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Native American Heritage Month

November is Native American Heritage Month, which is also referred to as American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month. There are more than 570 federally recognized tribes in the United States. The National Geographic Encyclopedia of American Indian History and Culture gives an inside glimpse into the past and present of North American Indigenous tribes and the practices they hold dear. While all of them have different rituals, there are several traditions that cross boundaries and have meaning to members of multiple nations. Here are a few examples of the traditions that are treasured by some in the Native American community. Chances are, you didn't learn these 15 other facts about America in school.

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Native Americans Share the Meaning Behind Their Most Important Traditions and Beliefs

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November is Native American Heritage Month, which is also referred to as American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month. There are more than 570 federally recognized tribes in the United States. The National Geographic Encyclopedia of American Indian History and Culture gives an inside glimpse into the past and present of North American Indigenous tribes and the practices they hold dear.

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Native American Heritage Month history. 

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Native American Heritage Month history. 

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Paying tribute to the rich ancestry and traditions of Native Americans.