# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT 12 CRIME AND ITS EFFECTS UPON SOCIETY

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT 12 CRIME AND ITS EFFECTS UPON SOCIETY

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 02

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 02

# data[].attributes.body
(SEMESTER 02)

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 04 P4

# data[].attributes.headline
GOVERNMENT, POLICIES AND THE PUBLIC SERVICES

# data[].attributes.subject
GOVERNMENT, POLICIES AND THE PUBLIC SERVICES

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENT/TASKS (WORKBOOK - PLEASE DOWNLOAD AND COMPLETE)

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENT/TASKS

# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT 12 - CRIME AND ITS EFFECTS UPON SOCIETY

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT 12 - CRIME AND ITS EFFECTS UPON SOCIETY

# data[].attributes.body
TASKS / ASSIGNMENTS

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENTS / TASKS

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 05 - P6 M4 D3

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 01 UPDATED 30 01 20

# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT 07 - INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS 

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT 07 - INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS 

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 01 (UPDATED 27 01 20)

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 01 (UPDATED 27 01 20)

# data[].attributes.body
SEMESTER 01 (UPDATED 27 01 20)

# data[].attributes.headline
IS THE UNITED NATIONS RELEVANT AND HOW GOOD IS IT FOR WORLD STABILITY........GOOD RESOURCE FOR D1 (11 MINS)

# data[].attributes.subject
IS THE UNITED NATIONS RELEVANT AND HOW GOOD IS IT FOR WORLD STABILITY........GOOD RESOURCE FOR D1 (11 MINS)

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The relevance of the United Nations for stability in the world | Sigrid Kaag | TEDxKMA

# data[].attributes.headline
POSTER / INFO GRAPHIC SHOWING DATA ON HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS WORLDWIDE.........GOOD RESOURCE FOR P3

# data[].attributes.subject
POSTER / INFO GRAPHIC SHOWING DATA ON HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS WORLDWIDE.........GOOD RESOURCE FOR P3

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P3)

# data[].attributes.headline
A QUICK 5 MIN DOCUMENTARY ABOUT WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFGHANISTAN AND HOW THE FIGHT TO GAIN EQUALITY IS STILL A DIFFICULT TASK.......YOU COULD WATCH THIS FOR INSPIRATION FOR D1..........HAS THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY SUCCEEDED IN GAINING EQUALITY FOR WOMEN IN THIS COUNTRY?

# data[].attributes.subject
A QUICK 5 MIN DOCUMENTARY ABOUT WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFGHANISTAN AND HOW THE FIGHT TO GAIN EQUALITY IS STILL A DIFFICULT TASK.......YOU COULD WATCH THIS FOR INSPIRATION FOR D1..........HAS THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY SUCCEEDED IN GAINING EQUALITY FOR WOMEN IN THIS COUNTRY?

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What’s Life Really Like For Women In Afghanistan?

# data[].attributes.headline
THE BRITISH ARMY IN SOUTH SUDAN WORKING WITH THE UN (60 MINS) ALTHOUGH LONG THIS WILL HELP YOU WITH ANSWERING M2 AND D1

# data[].attributes.subject
THE BRITISH ARMY IN SOUTH SUDAN WORKING WITH THE UN (60 MINS) ALTHOUGH LONG THIS WILL HELP YOU WITH ANSWERING M2 AND D1

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Keeping the Peace in South Sudan - British Army: Behind the Frontlines (S1 E3) Forth News

# data[].attributes.headline
SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON YOUR BODY

# data[].attributes.subject
SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON YOUR BODY

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 03 - P3 M2)

# data[].attributes.headline
LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON THE BODY

# data[].attributes.subject
LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON THE BODY

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 03 - P3 M2)

# data[].attributes.headline
WEBLINK TO AN NHS SITE DETAILING ADVICE UPON LIFESTYLE FACTORS - GOOD INFORMATION FOR YOUR TASK

# data[].attributes.subject
WEBLINK TO AN NHS SITE DETAILING ADVICE UPON LIFESTYLE FACTORS - GOOD INFORMATION FOR YOUR TASK

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 - P4 M3 D2 P5 M4)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
NHS advice about healthy living, including eating a balanced diet, healthy weight, exercise, quitting smoking and drinking less alcohol.

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 05 P6)

# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT 05 - PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR THE UPS

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT 05 - PHYSICAL PREPARATION FOR THE UPS

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENTS/TASKS

# data[].attributes.headline
TRACKING SHEETS WILL BE UPLOADED / RENEWED AT LEAST EVERY MONTH 

# data[].attributes.subject
TRACKING SHEETS WILL BE UPLOADED / RENEWED AT LEAST EVERY MONTH 

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENTS/TASKS

# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT 02 - LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK IN THE UPS

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT 02 - LEADERSHIP AND TEAMWORK IN THE UPS

# data[].attributes.body
ASSIGNMENTS/TASKS

# data[].attributes.headline
WEBLINK TO TOPENDSPORTS.COM WHERE YOU WILL FIND AN EXTENSIVE LIST OF FITNESS TESTS

# data[].attributes.subject
WEBLINK TO TOPENDSPORTS.COM WHERE YOU WILL FIND AN EXTENSIVE LIST OF FITNESS TESTS

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01 P1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Here is the complete listing of all fitness tests in the Topend Sports database, listed in alphabetical order with also the top 10 most popular tests for your convenience. There are over 400 individual tests.

You can also browse the alternative listing of tests under categories of fitness which you may find easier to locate specific types of tests, or use the search page to search all of this website.

List of all Tests (alphabetical)

1 Mile Endurance Run / Walk Test - complete one mile in the fastest possible time.

1-RM Tests - measure of the maximal weight a subject can lift with one repetition.

1RM Bench Press - measure of the maximal weight that can be bench pressed with one repetition.

10m Beep Test - 10m multi-stage walking shuttle test for children with cerebral palsy.

10m Shuttle Walk Test - 10m multi-stage walking shuttle test designed for patients with COPD.

2 Hop Jump - perform two consecutive horizontal jumps off both feet

3/4 court sprint - a maximum sprint over 3/4 of a basketball court.

3-Cone Drill (NFL) - an agility test around three cones in an L shape.

3 Hop test - perform three consecutive horizontal jumps off both feet.

5m Multiple Shuttle - 30 seconds of shuttles, increasing by 5m over a 25m course.

15m PACER test - a shorter version of the shuttle run 'beep' test, a maximal aerobic test which involves running back and forth over 15m in time to recorded beeps.

15m Bleep Test - the shorter version of the standard 20m shuttle beep test.

20 meter Shuttle Run Test (beep, bleep) - the standard multi-stage shuttle run 'beep' test, a maximal aerobic test which involves running back and forth over 20m in time to recorded beeps.

20 Yard Agility - run 5 yards to one side, 10 yards back the other way, finishing with 5 yards back to the start line (touching lines with a foot).

20m 5-10-5 Agility Shuttle - run 5 meters to one side, 10 meters back the other way, finishing with 5 meters back to the start line.

30m Flying Sprint - 30m speed test using a running start.

30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test - 30 seconds of running alternated with 15 seconds of walking over a 40m course.

45 Second Run - speed endurance measuring maximum distance covered in 45 seconds.

100 Yard Shuttle - run back and forth over a 10 yard area five times (100 yards total).

300 meter run - time to run 300m on a track testing anaerobic capacity.

400m run test - time to run 400m on a track.

300-yard Shuttle - run 25 yards and back, repeating this for 12 runs of 25 yards (300 yard total).

505 Agility Test - run 5m and back, testing 180 degree turning ability.

800m Run Test - time to run 800m.

1200m Shuttle Test - run to-and-from a start line to 20, 40 and 60-m marks, 5 times without a break.

90/90 (AKE) hamstring test - measures hamstring flexibility when the hip is flexed.

Abalakov Jump (ABK) - Vertical jump with arm swinging allowed

Abdominal Curl - perform as many sit ups as possible, keeping in time to an audio recording which increases in pace.

Abdominal Endurance Tests - a general description of a sit-up test to measure abdominal muscle endurance

Abdominal Strength Test (7 Stage) - perform sit-up actions of increasing difficulty, seven possible levels.

Abdominal Strength Test (4 Level) - perform four levels of sit-up actions of increasing difficulty.

Abdominal test 1 (Kraus-Webber) - perform one sit-up with legs straight and raised off the ground.

Abdominal test 2 (Kraus-Webber) - perform one sit-up with legs raised, knees bent.

Abdominal test 3 (Kraus-Webber) - with straight legs, raise the feet off the ground for 10 seconds.

Ab Strength Test (Straight Leg Lift) - while on your back, slowly lower the straightened legs.

Adiposity Index - a method of measuring the amount of body fat calculated using the size of the hips compared to the person's height.

Aero Test - a variation of the beep test

Agility AAHPERD for seniors - a test of agility and dynamic balance for the elderly

Agility Test for AFL - a slalom-type agility test developed for Australian Football players, involving running around obstacles over about 40m.

Air-Displacement Plethysmography - a method for assessing body fat and lean mass using air displacement technology.

Alternate hand wall toss test - a test of hand-eye coordination in which you throw a ball against a wall and catch it with the opposite hand.

Andersen Test - 20m shuttle test running for 15 seconds, then resting for 15 seconds, and repeating this for 10 minutes.

Apley's Shoulder Scratch Test - shoulder movement measured by reaching behind to touch the opposite scapula.

Arm Crank - maximal arm-cranking for two 15-second intervals against variable resistance.

Arm Curl - perform as many arm curls as possible in 30 seconds, while sitting in a chair.

Arm Length - distance from the tip of shoulder to the tip of the little finger.

Arm Span - measurement of the distance between fingertips when the arms are outstretched.

Arrowhead Agility Drill - a test of agility, running around a arrow-shape course.

Assistant Referee Intermittent Endurance Test - an intermittent yo-yo type test involving forwards and sideways running.

Astrand Bicycle Ergometer Test - a sub-maximal cycle ergometer aerobic fitness test, involving pedaling for 6minutes at a moderate workload.

Astrand Treadmill Test - running at 5mph with a 2.5% increase in gradient every two minutes, until exhaustion.

Back Extensions - number of back extensions performed in 20 seconds.

Back Scratch - how close can the hands can be brought together behind the back.

Back Strength (Isometric) - hold a horizontal position while hanging over the edge of a bench for a set time period.

Back strength upper (Kraus-Webber) - lift up the chest for 10 seconds while the feet are held down.

Back strength lower (Kraus-Webber) - lift up the legs for 10 seconds while the upper body is held down.

Balance Bass Test - alternate foot hopping and holding a static position for five seconds at 8 points.

Balance Beam Test - walk along an elevated beam with subjective measures of performance.

Balance Board - stand on a platform and try to keep the platform balanced for a period of 30 seconds.

Balance (Flamingo) - participants to stand on one leg on a beam, with the other leg flexed at the knee and the foot of this leg held close to the buttocks.

Balance One Leg Stand Sobriety Test - stand on one foot for 30 seconds while counting up from 1001.

Balance - Standing - stand on one leg for as long as possible.

Balance Stick Test - stand the ball of both feet on the stick for as long as possible.

Balance - Stork test - stand on one leg, up on the ball of the foot, for as long as possible.

Balke Test (treadmill) - walking on a treadmill to exhaustion, at a constant speed while gradient/slope is increased every one or two minutes.

Balke Test (15 min run) - run the maximum distance possible in 15 minutes.

Balke Step Test - a step test that has a gradual increase in step height and continues until exhaustion.

Ball Throw for Distance - throw a small ball (cricket ball or baseball) for maximum distance

Balsom Run Agility Test - run around a series of cones, making several changes of directions.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) - measure of resting oxygen consumption as a measure of metabolic rate.

Basketball Throw (seated) - two-handed push with the back against a wall.

Basketball Throw (kneeling) - one handed throw from the kneeling position.

Beam Walk test - walk the length of a beam and back within 30 seconds.

Beep Test - a maximal test involving continuous running between two lines 20m apart in time to recorded beeps

Beep Test - a shorter version of the beep test designed for children with cerebral palsy.

Beep Test - a modified version of the beep test for soccer referees, incorporating a portion of the test where the participant must run backwards.

Beep Test for the Blind - 20m shuttle run test with modifications to assist those with vision impairment.

Beep Test on Ice - beep type test with incremental 1-minute shuttles with 30-seconds rest periods.

Bench Press (Maximum) - perform as many bench presses as you can at a particular weight.

Bench Press Beep Test - perform as many repetitions as possible at a set weight and set cadence.

Bench Press (Brockport) - a set-weight maximum bench press test designed primarily for children with disabilities.

Bench Press - %bodyweight - perform the maximum number of bench presses at a set % of body weight.

Bench Press Test (relative, NHL) - perform the maximum number of bench presses at a set % of their body weight.

Bench Press (1RM) - measure of the maximal weight you can bench press with one repetition.

Bench Press Max Power - bench press 50% of body weight as quickly as possible for three reps, with maximum power measured.

Bench Pull - lying supine on a bench, pull a weight up off the ground to the chest.

Bent Arm Hang - hold a chin-up position as long as possible with the chin level with the horizontal bar.

Bicep Curl Max - perform as many bicep curls as possible at a certain weight.

Bioelectric Impedance - a measure the resistance of body tissues to the flow of a small electrical signal, and from that the proportion of body fat is calculated

Birtwell 40m Shuttle - a 40m version of the beep test.

Block Transfer - a coordination test of fine motor abilities involving moving blocks.

Blood Lactate Testing - taking pinprick blood samples to measure blood lactate levels.

Blood test - method of collecting a venous blood sample for analysis.

Bodyfat Visual Method - using images to estimate percent bodyfat.

Body Mass - a measure of a person's weight.

Body Mass Index (BMI) - calculated by taking a person's weight and dividing by their height squared

Body Surface Area (BSA) - a formula for calculating the body's surface area

Box Drill - run around a 10-yard square course, testing agility.

Breath Holding - How long can you hold your breath? An old test for assessing aerobic fitness.

Broca Index (ideal weight) - an estimation of ideal body weight using a height measurement only.

Bruce Protocol Test - treadmill exercise stress test, increasing incline of 2% every 3 minutes until exhaustion.

Burpee Test - participants attempt the maximum number of burpees in a set time period.

Canadian Home Fitness Test - a progressive sub-maximal aerobic step test in which participants step up and down a 16 inch double step following audio signals.

Chair Stand - stand up repeatedly from a chair for 30 seconds.

Chester Step Test - a sub-maximal multistage stepping test with adjustable step heights.

Chester Treadmill Police Walk Test - walking at 6km/hr on a treadmill, increasing gradient by 3% every 2 minutes.

Chester Treadmill Police Run Test - run at 10.4 km/hr on a treadmill, increasing the gradient every 2 minutes.

Chester Treadmill Test - walking at 6.2km/hr on a treadmill, increasing the gradient by 3% every 2 minutes.

Chin-Up Test - grasp an overhead bar and pull up the body so the chin raises above the bar.

Color Blindness Testing (Ishihara Test) - distinguish the number or shape illustrated on colored images.

Computed Tomography (CT Scan) - detailed cross-section images using x-ray.

Conconi Test - measure heart rate at different predefined intensity levels to estimate the anaerobic threshold.

Cone Drill (Agility) - a lateral movement test around cones placed in a diamond shape.

Cooper 12 minute test - cover as much distance as you can in 12 minutes.

Counter Movement Jump (CMJ) - start in an upright standing position and squats down to the 90 degree leg bend position before immediately jumping vertically.

Cricket Sprint Test - running speed test over the length of the cricket pitch.

Critical Swim Speed - calculate the swimming speed that can be maintained continuously without exhaustion from tests over 50m and 400m.

Crunches (PFT) - perform as many sit-ups as you can in two minutes.

Cunningham & Faulkner anaerobic test - run on a treadmill at 8mph and an incline of 20% for as long as possible.

Curl Ups - the maximum number of curl-ups in one minute (President's Challenge)

Curl Ups (partial) - perform as many partial curl-ups (fingertips to the knees) as possible at a rate of 1-in-3 seconds.

Curl-Up Test - as many curl-ups as possible following a cadence of one every three seconds (FitnessGram).

Curl Up Beep - perform as many sit ups as possible following a set cadence.

Curl-Up Test - perform as many sit-ups as they can in two minutes (US Navy).

Cycle 2km - 2 kilometer bicycle time trial.

Cycle 12-minute test - cycle for maximum distance in 12 minutes.

Cycle 40m sprint - fastest time on a bicycle over 40m.

Cycle Ergometer 5km - pedal on a cycle ergometer for 5km, in the shortest possible time.

Cycling Repeat Sprint Test - involving 5 x 6 second efforts performed every 30 seconds.

Cycling VO2max Test - measure VO2max while on a stationary cycle ergometer.

Dal Monte repeat sprint test - 5 x 50 m (men) or 40 m (women), at intervals of 1 minute.

Deadlift Repetition Max - maximum lift for one deadlift repetition.

Devine Formula - calculation for determining ideal body weight.

Dips - as many dips as possible in one minute.

DNA Fitness Test - analysis of a person's genes and relating these to athletic potential.

Drop Jump - a test of leg strength and power which requires the athlete to drop off a box and immediately jump as high as they can

Drop Jump (Bosco) - the athlete jumps after dropping from heights of 20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm and 100 cm.

Drop Jump (Incremental) - the athlete jumps after a drop from a series of heights, starting from a 30cm box and working upwards to a 75cm box.

Drug Testing - anti-doping testing using urine or blood samples.

Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) - two levels of x-rays are used to differentiate body weight into the components of lean soft tissue, fat soft tissue and bone.

Dumbbell Press - press overhead a 15lb (6.8kg) dumbbell as many times as possible while sitting in a chair.

Dynamic Yo-Yo Test - a modified yo-yo test designed specifically for football referees.

Edgren Side-Step Test - sidestepping back and forth to cones 12 feet apart as quick as possible for 10 seconds.

Edgren sidestep test (Modified) - side-stepping between cones 12 feet apart as quick as possible.

Elliptical Trainer Test (PRT) - 12 minutes exercise on an elliptical trainer (Navy).

Endurance Jump (30 Seconds) - jump across a hurdle as many times as possible in 30 seconds.

Extended (Straight) Arm Hang - hanging from an overhead bar with straight arms for as long as possible.

Eye Dominance Test - a simple test of ocular dominance by holding the hands outstretched in front of the face.

FIFA Change of Direction Ability (CODA) - forwards and sideways running over 8-10 meters.

FIFA Interval Test 1 - 6 x 40m sprints with 60 seconds recovery between bouts.

FIFA Interval Test 2 - alternating 75m run and 25m walk, repeating this for 10 laps.

Figure-of-Eight Agility - a simple measure of agility involving running around two cones.

FIT Interval test for soccer - this test was developed initially to mimic the demands of soccer players, involves running 10 and 25 yards circuits in diminishing times, with 30 seconds rest between sets.

Flamingo Balance Test - participants stand on one leg on a beam, with the other leg flexed at the knee.

Flexed Arm Hang - how long someone can remain with the chin held above a horizontal bar.

Flexed Arm Hang (PFT) - how long someone can remain with the chin held above a horizontal bar.

Flexed Arm Hang (IPFT) - how long someone can remain with the chin held above a horizontal bar.

Flexibility (Calf) - a simple measure of calf muscle flexibility in which you touch the wall with your knee while keeping your heel on the ground.

Flexibility (90/90, AKE) - a flexibility test measuring passive hamstring flexibility while the hip is flexed.

Flexometer - description of how to how to use a flexometer, 360 degree dial with weighted gravity needle, to measure flexibility.

Floor Touch (Kraus-Webber) - can the subject touch their toes for 10 seconds?

Footeval Test - a football (soccer) specific test with one minute intervals incorporating ball dribbling.

Foot Tapping Speed Test - how many quick foot taps can be performed in 30 seconds.

Futsal Intermittent Endurance Test - consists of running 45m (3x15m) shuttles performed at progressive speeds until exhaustion.

Gacon Test - an intermittent test with 45 seconds of running and 15 seconds rest, with the running distance incrementally increasing.

Goniometer - description of how to how to use a goniometer, a protractor type device, to measure flexibility.

Groin Flexibility - participants sit on the floor and try to pull their feet as close as they can to the body.

Groningen Walk Test - a variant of the maximal multistage 20m shuttle-run test, involving walking around a rectangular course, adapted to suit an elderly population.

Handgrip Strength Test - a measure the maximum isometric strength of the hand and forearm muscles.

Hand Span - a measure of the hand width when the fingers are spread out.

Harvard Step Test - participants step at a rate of 30 steps per minute for 5 minutes or until exhaustion

Heart Rate Maximizer - involving repeated jumping jacks over two minutes

Heart Rate Variability - a measure of the variation in time between each heart beat

Height - a measure of standing height, from the feet to the top of the head.

Henman Shuttle Anaerobic Test - shuttle fitness test involving maximal running between two markers 20 meters apart for five one-minute periods, with one-minute rest between bouts.

Hexagon agility test - involves jumping in and out of a hexagon shape as fast as possible.

Hexagonal Obstacle Test - involves jumping over obstacles placed a hexagon shape, as fast as possible.

Horizontal Pull-Up Test - a variation of the hanging pull-up, made easier as the whole body weight does not need to be lifted.

Hurdle Jump Agility - 45 seconds of two-legged jumping over a hurdle.

Hydrostatic Weighing - measure of body density by weighing in a water tank with all body parts are emerged and all the air from the lungs expelled.

Illinois Agility test - agility run involving 180 degree turns and slalom running.

Illinois Agility Test (Modified) - a modification of the standard Illinois test which removes some straight sprinting.

Illinois Agility Test (Short) - a modification of the standard Illinois test which reduces the distance covered.

Ins and Outs - a core strength test involving sitting on the floor and repeatedly bending and straightening the legs out in front of the body.

Interval Shuttle Run Test - an intermittent fitness test where athletes run for 30 seconds periods interspersed with 15 seconds of walking.

Isokinetic Strength Tests - strength tests using apparatus which limit movement to a constant speed.

J.A.M. Intermittent Test - involves a series of walk-jog-run shuttles in time to a audio beep.

Jumps Decathlon - a series of 10 power jump tests.

Knee Height Measure - a measurement of the distance from the base of the foot to the top of the knee.

Lane Agility Drill - a basketball agility test involving running around the basketball key.

Lateral Side-Bending Flexibility - bend laterally as far as possible to each side from the standing position.

Lat Pulldown 1RM Test - one-repetition max test using the lat pulldown exercise.

Length (Recumbent) - height measurement while lying down (for babies, sick or elderly).

Leg Extension (isometric) - participant sits on a table and exterts force to extend the leg.

Leg Raises - complete as many leg raises as possible whilst supporting body weight, all in time to a beep recording.

Leg Tuck - hang from an overhead bar and bring the knees up to touch both elbows.

Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test - intermittent and variable shuttle test designed to replicate the demands of a football match.

Lung Function - measurement of airlfow in and out of the lungs.

Mader Test - determination of aerobic and anaerobic thresholds using blood lactate measures during an incremental exercise test.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) -

Margaria-Kalamen Power Test -

Maximal Anaerobic Running Test -

Maximal Oxygen Consumption (VO2max) -

Medicine Ball Throw - Seated -

Medicine Ball Throw - Standing -

Medicine Ball Throw - Overhead -

Medicine Ball Throw - Underhand -

Mid-Thigh Pull Test (IMTP) - an isometric leg strength test, the participant pulls against a static object

Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test -

Multiple Single-Leg Hop-Stabilization Test (MSLHST) - perform dynamic forward and diagonal one-legged jumps while statically maintaining landing positions.

Multistage Hurdle Jump Test - count the number of jumps over a hurdle in two 20-second periods.

Muscle Fiber RM Test -

Muscle Mass Calculation -

Near Infrared Interactance -

Non-Exercise Fitness Test -

PACER Test - a version of the 20m shuttle run 'beep' test, a maximal aerobic test which involves running back and forth over 20m in time to recorded beeps.

Partial Curl Ups - perform as many sit ups as possible following a rate of one every three seconds (shoulders come off the mat by two inches).

Penta Jump (5-Hop Test) - perform five consecutive horizontal jumps off both feet.

Peterson Equation (ideal weight)

Phosphate Recovery Test (PR)

Pinch Grip Test

Plank Test - hold an elevated plank position for as long as possible.

Plate Tapping Test - move the hand back and forth between discs as quickly as possible.

Polar Fitness Test

Ponderal Index

Posture Test

Power Ball Chest Launch

Power Ball - Rotational Throw

Power ball - Overhead Throw (backwards)

Power ball - Overhead Throw (kneeling)

Power Clean 1RM Max - maximum weight lifted using the power clean exercise.

Pull-Up Test - general description of pull-up tests

Pull-Up (Modified) - with the body horizontal, grasp a bar set just out of reach, and pull up towards the bar

Pull Up (NAPFA) - number in half-a-minute, with an easier horizontal version for females

Pull Up Test (PFT) - the maximum number, up to 20 complete pull-ups

Pull-Up Cadence Test - following a cadence of 15 per minute

Punching Power

Punching Speed

Push-up Tests - general description of push-up tests

Push Up (Maximum) - maximum numbe rof push-ups

Push-Up (Presidents) - a cadence push-up test at 20 per minute.

Push Ups (APFT) - most push-ups in two minutes

Push Up Beep Test (NHL) - cadence test, at 25/min

Push-Up Hold (Isometric) - the 'down' position is held for as long as possible.

Push-Up (Isometric) - the starting 'up' position is held for as long as possible.

Push-Up Trunk Stability Test - push up from the ground while keeping the body straight with no sagging.

Push-up test (PRT) - most push-ups in one minute

Push Up (Chair) - easier option by raising the upper body using a chair

Push-Up (Seated) - extend the arms and raise the body out of a chair, and hold this position for as long as possible (part of the Brockport Protocol).

Push-up test (Modified) - includes a clap behind the back while in the 'down' position and a touch from one hand to the other in the 'up' position.

Push-Up Test (at home) - a simple push-up test that can be done at home.

Push-up (Hand Release) - the hands are lifted off the ground while in the 'down' position.

Quadrant Jump Agility Test - involves two-legged jumping around a cross shape on the floor, as fast as possible.

Quadrathlon

Queens College Step Test

Quick Feet - run along a ladder placing a foot in each space

Quick Strike Boxing Test - punch a boxing bag as fast and as hard as possible for a set time period.

Radar for Speed

RAST Anaerobic sprint test

Reaction - Batak Test

Reaction Light Board

Reaction Stick ruler test

Reaction Time

Reaction Time (AFL)

Reaction Time - Groningen

Repeat Sprint Ability Test - 10 x 20m sprints, starting every 20 seconds.

Repetitive Jump (RJ) - Bosco

RESTQ-76 athlete questionnaire

Rockport Walk Test - walk one mile as fast as you can.

Rowing Beep Test - incremental test performed on a rowing ergometer.

Rowing Ergo (500m) - aim to cover the 500m in the shortest possible time.

Rowing Ergo (2km) - aim to cover the 2km in the shortest possible time.

Rowing Ergo (5km) - aim to cover the 5000m in the shortest possible time.

Ruffier Squat Test - measure heart rate before and after performing 30 squats in 45 seconds

Run-a-Three - a cricket speed and agility test, involving sprinting over a cricket pitch distance three times while carrying a bat.

Run Tests for time or distance - run a set disance as fast as possible, or for as far as possible in a set time.

Run Tests for time: 6 minute, 9-minute

Schober Test - measures the flexibility of the lumbar spine based on the stretching of the skin over the lumbar spine while bending forwards.

SEMO Agility run - run around a rectangular area incorporating forward sprints, diagonal backpedaling, and side shuffling.

Sharkey (Forestry) Step Test

Shot Put Back Throw

Shoulder Circumduction - a sliding handle is held in the hands and passed over the head.

Shoulder Flexibility - lift a stick over the head to behind the back, maintaining the handgrip on the object.

Shoulder Reach Flexibility - can the hands can be brought within 5cm behind the back.

Shoulder Rotation: Acuflex III - lift a bar from behind the back, with the hands as close together as possible. The result is adjusted for biacrominal width.

Shoulder-Neck Mobility

Shoulder Raise - face down with hands above the ehad and together, raise them as high as possible.

Shoulder Stretch - can the hands can be brought together behind the back

Shoulder Width - measure the distance across the shoulders

Shuttle Cross Pick-Up

Shuttle Reactive (NBA)

Shuttle 10m Agility - run 10m x 4, moving blocks from one end to the other.

Shuttle 10 x 5m - agility run back and forth over 5 meters, for a total of 50m.

Shuttle - 20 Yard (NFL) - running 5 yards, back 10 yards, and back again 5 yards, touching the lines with a hand.

Shuttle - 30 Ft (President's) - run 30ft (9.14m) x 4, moving blocks from one end to the other,

40 Yard Shuttle Run - run 30ft (9.14m) x 4, the foot and hand simultaneously touching the floor on or beyond the turn-around line.

Shuttle - 60 Yard (NFL) - run to 5 yards, 10 yards, 15 yards, there and back, for a total of 60 yards

Side Ramp for core stability

Side-Step Test

Sit Ups (APFT)

Sit Ups 30 secs (Eurofit)

Sit and Reach Test

Sit and Reach - backsaver

Sit & Reach - Chair

Sit and Reach (PRT)

Sit and Reach - modified

Sitting Height - a measurement of the distance from the highest point on the head to the base sitting surface

Sitting-Rising Test (SRT)

Skinfold measurement - calipers are used to measure the thickness of the skin at a range of sites around the body.

Soda Pop Coordination Test

Softball Throw Test - throw a softball for maximum distance

Sprint Fatigue Test

Sprint Recovery Test (AFL) - six 30m sprints, with each sprint starting at 20 second intervals.

Sprint from Home to First Base

Squat 1RM - maximum lift for one squat repetition.

Squat Jump (SJ) - Bosco

Squat Jump + extra weight - Bosco

Squat Test (test at home) - maximum number of squats performed with no weight

Squat (Single Leg) - functional leg strength test in which participants squat down to about 60° knee flexion.

Standing balance test

Standing Height - standard height measurement

Standing Long (Broad) Jump Test - jump off two feet into a sand pit

Stand & Reach - stand on a raised surface and bend forwards with straight legs. Measure how far past the toes the fingers can reach.

Standing Reach

Standing Triple Jump - maximum hop, step and jump distance from a standing start.

Star Excursion Balance Test - balance on one leg and reach as far as possible in eight different directions

Step in Place aerobic test

Stick Flip Coordination Test

Stork Balance Stand Test

Straight Leg Raise flexibility test.

Strength Push and Pull Tests (NHL)

Sweat Collection for Analysis - collecting sweat using patches to measure electrolyte composition.

Sweat Collection (Whole Body-Washdown) - method for whole body sweat collection.

Sweat Loss Measurement - whole body fluid loss measurement using body weight changes.

Sweat Monitoring - skin monitors to measure sweat rate and composition.

Sweat Rate using Patches - measurement of site-specific sweating rate.

Swimming Beep Test

Swimming Beep Test #2 (Williams)

Swimming Shuttle Test

Swimming Step Test - 7 x 200m swim step test used to monitor training and improvements in aerobic conditioning.

Swim Test (100m) - swim 100m as fast as you can

Swim Test (450m/500yd) (PRT) - swim 500 yards as fast as you can

Swimming 1 km time trial - swim 1km as fast as you can.

Swim 12-minute test - swim for maximum distance in 12 minutes.

Swimming VO2max Test - VO2max test conducted in water.

Swolf - a measure of swimming efficiency

Thomas Test - modified

Toe Touch - measure distance from fingertips to ground.

Total Body Electrical Conductivity (TOBEC)

Total Body Potassium (TBK)

Total Body Protein (TBP)

Track Test - University of Montreal Test

Tri-level Anaerobic Tests - 10 & 30-second maximum power tests on a cycle ergometer.

Tri-level Aerobic Test - cycle in one minute increments of 25 Watts until the heart rate reaches 75% of max.

Trunk Lift - lift the upper body off the floor and hold that position while the height is measured.

Trunk Rotation simple flexibility test

Trunk Rotation: Acuflex II

T-Test for agility - running a T shape course involving forward, lateral, and backwards running.

Up and Go 8-foot for agility

Urine color testing - assessing body hydration by looking at the color of urine.

Urine specific gravity - using a refractometer to measure the density of urine.

VAMEVAL Test

V-Sit Reach Flexibility

Vertical Jump - jump as high as you can.

Vision Testing

VO2max Test (Treadmill)

Waist to Height Ratio (WHtR)

Waist to Hip Ratio (WHR)

Walk and Turn Field Sobriety Test - involves walking nine steps, touching heel-to-toe, along a straight line

6-Minute Walk - a fitness test for seniors, walk for 6 minutes for maximum distance.

Wall Catch - throw a ball against a wall from one hand in an underarm action, and attempt to catch it with the opposite hand.

Water Polo Intermittent Shuttle Test

Weight - measuring body mass

Wheelchair Aerobic Test - participants wheel around a track for 12 minutes, and the total distance covered is recorded

Wheelchair Multistage Field Test (MFT)

Wheelchair Shuttle Ride Test (SRT)

Wingate Cycle Test - maximum cycle test of anaerobic leg power, conducted over 30 seconds.

Wingate Arm Crank

Y Balance Test - maintain single-leg balance on one leg while reaching as far as possible with the contralateral leg in three different directions

YMCA Cycle ergometer submax test

Yo-Yo Endurance Test

Yo-Yo Intermittent Tests - aerobic shuttle test, with a short active break (5 and 10 seconds ) after every 2 x 20m shuttle.

Zig-Zag Agility Test

Related Pages

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Over 300 fitness tests listed in alphabetical order

# data[].attributes.headline
WORKBOOK FOR RECORDING SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON THE BODY SYSTEMS. ALSO GIVES ROOM FOR M2 TO BE COMPLETED AS WELL (SHORT AND LONG TERM AFFECTS)

# data[].attributes.subject
WORKBOOK FOR RECORDING SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE UPON THE BODY SYSTEMS. ALSO GIVES ROOM FOR M2 TO BE COMPLETED AS WELL (SHORT AND LONG TERM AFFECTS)

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 03 P3 M2)

# data[].attributes.headline
A WEBLINK TO A VERY GOOD SITE THAT CONTAINS INFORMATION REGARDING THE CV, RESPIRATORY, MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS 

# data[].attributes.subject
A WEBLINK TO A VERY GOOD SITE THAT CONTAINS INFORMATION REGARDING THE CV, RESPIRATORY, MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS 

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02 (P2)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The body - GCSE Physical Education Revision - BBC Bitesize

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
GCSE Physical Education The body learning resources for adults, children, parents and teachers.

# data[].attributes.headline
BRITISH ARMY INVOLVEMENT IN AFGHANISTAN WORKING FOR NATO

# data[].attributes.subject
BRITISH ARMY INVOLVEMENT IN AFGHANISTAN WORKING FOR NATO

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
On the frontline with British troops in Afghanistan | Guardian Investigations

# data[].attributes.headline
WEB LINK TO AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE

# data[].attributes.subject
WEB LINK TO AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We are Amnesty International UK. We are ordinary people from across the world standing up for humanity and human rights.

# data[].attributes.headline
A GOOD DOCUMENTARY ABOUT BRITISH INVOLVEMENT IN EASTERN EUROPE IN THE NATO MISSION AGAINST RUSSIA

# data[].attributes.subject
A GOOD DOCUMENTARY ABOUT BRITISH INVOLVEMENT IN EASTERN EUROPE IN THE NATO MISSION AGAINST RUSSIA

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The New Cold War - British Army: Behind the Frontlines (Season1 Episode 2) Forth News

# data[].attributes.headline
BRITISH MILITARY WORKING FOR NATO IN ESTONIA TO COUNTER THE THREAT FROM RUSSIA

# data[].attributes.subject
BRITISH MILITARY WORKING FOR NATO IN ESTONIA TO COUNTER THE THREAT FROM RUSSIA

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
British Personnel On The Russian Frontline In Estonia • EXERCISE SPRING STORM | Forces TV

# data[].attributes.headline
THE IMPACT OF TERRORISM ACROSS EUROPE AND THE WAY IT IS MAKING EUROPEAN POLICE FORCES WORK TOGETHER 

# data[].attributes.subject
THE IMPACT OF TERRORISM ACROSS EUROPE AND THE WAY IT IS MAKING EUROPEAN POLICE FORCES WORK TOGETHER 

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Counter-terrorism: what role for Europol?

# data[].attributes.headline
EU - HOW THE IMPACT OF TERRORISM IS AFFECTING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THE UK

# data[].attributes.subject
EU - HOW THE IMPACT OF TERRORISM IS AFFECTING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THE UK

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
EU countries join forces to counter terrorism

# data[].attributes.headline
HOW THE POLICE MAY BE AFFECTED BY THE UK LEAVING THE EU

# data[].attributes.subject
HOW THE POLICE MAY BE AFFECTED BY THE UK LEAVING THE EU

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What will policing look like when we leave the EU?

# data[].attributes.headline
TRAINING METHODS - HOW TO TRAIN FOR STRENGTH, SPEED, FAT LOSS AND ENDURANCE

# data[].attributes.subject
TRAINING METHODS - HOW TO TRAIN FOR STRENGTH, SPEED, FAT LOSS AND ENDURANCE

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P4 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
HOW TO TRAIN FOR STRENGTH, SPEED, FAT LOSS & ENDURANCE - THE WORLD'S FITTEST BOOK - London Real

# data[].attributes.headline
TRAINING METHODS - ALL IN ONE UPPER BODY STRENGTH

# data[].attributes.subject
TRAINING METHODS - ALL IN ONE UPPER BODY STRENGTH

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P4 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.headline
TRAINING METHODS - LOWER BODY.......LEG DAY!!!

# data[].attributes.subject
TRAINING METHODS - LOWER BODY.......LEG DAY!!!

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P4 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Get Bigger Quads (Full Leg Workout) | Week in the Swole Program Pt. 2

# data[].attributes.headline
TRAINING METHODS - HILL SPRINTS FOR IMPROVING CV FITNESS

# data[].attributes.subject
TRAINING METHODS - HILL SPRINTS FOR IMPROVING CV FITNESS

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02 P4 M2 D1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Blues pre-season training: sprints up One Tree Hill

# data[].attributes.headline
ROSS EDGELEY - TRAINING METHODS FOR SWIMMING

# data[].attributes.subject
ROSS EDGELEY - TRAINING METHODS FOR SWIMMING

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02 P4 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
We’ve got a lot to learn | Strongman Swimming E2

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02

# data[].attributes.headline
POWER-POINT GIVING EXAMPLES OF BODY LANGUAGE 

# data[].attributes.subject
POWER-POINT GIVING EXAMPLES OF BODY LANGUAGE 

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 02

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 - P4 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.headline
LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE FOR THE BRIEF/DE-BRIEF

# data[].attributes.subject
LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE FOR THE BRIEF/DE-BRIEF

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P3 M2)

# data[].attributes.headline
HOW THE EU CAN AFFECT THE BRITISH MILITARY

# data[].attributes.subject
HOW THE EU CAN AFFECT THE BRITISH MILITARY

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why Is The European Union Creating Its Own Military?

# data[].attributes.headline
HOW THE BRITISH MILITARY ARE AFFECTED BY WORKING WITH THE UN

# data[].attributes.subject
HOW THE BRITISH MILITARY ARE AFFECTED BY WORKING WITH THE UN

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 1 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.headline
HOW BRITISH TROOPS ARE IMPACTED BY WORKING FOR THE UN

# data[].attributes.subject
HOW BRITISH TROOPS ARE IMPACTED BY WORKING FOR THE UN

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The British Troops Peacekeeping In Cyprus | Forces TV

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 1 P1 M1)

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01 - P1 P2 M1 D1

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01 - P1 P2 M1 D1

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01 - P1 P2 M1 D1

# data[].attributes.body
M1 + D1

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01 - P1 P2 M1 D1

# data[].attributes.body
TASK 01- P1 P2 M1 D1

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01)

# data[].attributes.headline
THE EFFECTS OF CRIME UPON SOCIETY BY SHEFFIELD UNIVERSITY

# data[].attributes.subject
THE EFFECTS OF CRIME UPON SOCIETY BY SHEFFIELD UNIVERSITY

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 03 P4 M2)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
To understand the reactions of victims to criminal justice, and to be able best to support victims, we need to know the effects of crime on victims.

A victim of a crime may possibly experience many different kinds of effects:

Direct costs and inconvenience due to theft of or damage to property (including time off work).

The physical effects of injury through violent crime.

Guilt at having become the victim of crime and feelings one could have prevented it (whether or not this was at all possible).

Psychological effects such as anger, depression or fear, which, in serious cases, can cause sleeplessness, flashbacks to the offence or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

Feelings of anxiety through shock that such a thing has happened and worries about revictimisation, sometimes leading to feelings of loss of trust in one's community and in society.

Limiting one's social life or work life, or changing one's lifestyle, by not going to places like where the crime occurred or being afraid to go out altogether, because of unease or fears of revictimisation.

Taking extra crime preventive measures.

Dealing with insurance claims and, for those for whom the crime is reported to the police, the police and other parts of the criminal justice system.

It is almost impossible to predict exactly what effects an individual victim will suffer. People react very differently to similar offences and where one person may be seriously affected, another might experience only minor or short-term effects. Those who are more vulnerable (such as people who are poor, live in deprived areas or have other life stressors) and those who have been previously victimised are more likely to find a greater impact on them.

The effects of a crime can be felt not only by the individual who the criminal justice system treats as the direct victim, but also by their family and those close to them. Crime against businesses is also not an effect-free area as both managers and staff are likely to be affected. The knowledge of victimisation and its shock can spread out through a neighbourhood creating a 'ripple effect'.

Some effects may only be short-term. Victims tend to cope with financial loss (though not time off work) quite quickly, by using their own resources, or with the help of friends and family. However, psychological and social effects can be very long-lasting, over months or even years. A small proportion of the most seriously affected (who tend to be victims of serious physical assaults, robberies and particularly rape, as well as the relatives of victims of homicide) may develop PTSD, which will need professional psychiatric or psychological help.

Crime surveys such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales administered in 2013/14 (previously known as the British Crime Survey) and the International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS) which was last carried out in 2004/05, provide interesting insights into the effects of victimisation.

One striking and consistent observation is that the emotional effects of victimisation do not differ much when we compare victims of different types of crime, including nonviolent and violent crime, though more serious crime tends to produce more adverse effects.

Of course, some effects are crime-specific. For example, victims of non-violent offences will not suffer any direct physical harm and financial loss is more directly associated with property crime.

However, the similarity of the emotional impact of different types of crime is striking. For instance, based on the findings of the British Crime Surveys carried out between 1996 and 2002/2003, Shapland and Hall (2007) conclude that among victims of burglary, vehicle-related theft and any type of violent offence, there is little variation in adverse emotional reactions to the victimisation. The most common response among the victims in these three categories is anger and shock.

Table: Emotional impact of burglary, vehicle-related theft and violence on victims: Average percentage of responses from 1996-2002/3 British Crime Survey
Source: Adapted from Shapland, J. and Hall, M. (2007), What do we know about the effects of crime on victims?, International Review of Victimology, vol. 14, p.182 (Table 1).

Also, when asked to rate how strong these emotional reactions are, among victims of different categories of offences, victims of burglary and victims of violent crime seem to have similarly strong reactions.

Table: Percentage of victims aged 16-59 who said that they were emotionally affected or very much affected by victimisation, 2013/2014 Crime Survey for England and Wales
Adapted from: Office of National Statistics (2015), Crime Statistics - Focus on Public Perceptions of Crime and the Police, and the Personal Well-being of Victims, 2013 to 2014, Table 3.07. Data from the Office for National Statistics licenced under theOpen Government Licence v.3.0.

Given that across different types of victimisation, emotional reactions are quite similar and can be strong, victims may not be able to cope by themselves, or with just the support from family and friends. Victim support can be needed. The International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS), then, sheds a light on the proportion of victims, worldwide, that need and receive victim support.

The last ICVS, reported on by van Dijk, van Kesteren and Smit (2007), demonstrates that victims of sexual violence are the most likely to receive victim support. Victims of burglary were the least likely to receive such support.

It also highlights that many more victims would have appreciated help but did not receive it. Van Dijk, van Kesteren and Smit (2007) calculated that only about 1 out of every 5 victims of violent or property crime in the participating countries who expressed a need for victim support also received such service.

Table: Percentage of victims that received victim support of those that indicated that they needed it, 1996-2005 International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) and 2005 European Crime and Safety Survey (EU ICS)
Adapted from van Dijk, J.J.M., van Kesteren, J.N, & Smit, P. (2007), Criminal Victimisation in International Perspective: Key Findings from the 2004-2005 ICVS and EU ICS, The Hague, The Netherlands: Boom Legal Publishers, p.125 (table 25).

Overall, in many countries the supply of victim support fails to meet demand.

Of the participating countries, New Zealand does best at meeting the demand for victim support. Yet, even here only half of the victims who would have liked victim support actually receive it.

Collectively, as many as 4 out of 5 victims in participating countries do not receive the support they feel they need.

Further reading
Shapland, J. and Hall, M. (2007) 'What do we know about the effects of crime on victims?', International Review of Victimology, vol. 14, pp. 175-217. Available online.

References
Office for National Statistics (2015) Chapter 3: Personal well-being and crime in Crime Statistics, Focus on Public Perceptions of Crime and the Police, and the Personal Well-being of Victims, 2013 to 2014. Available online. Van Dijk, J.J.M., Van Kesteren, J.N, & Smit, P. (2007) Criminal Victimisation in International Perspective: Key Findings from the 2004-2005 ICVS and EU ICS. The Hague, The Netherlands: Boom Legal Publishers. Available online.
© The University of Sheffield

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What are the effects of crime on victims and those close to them?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To understand the reactions of victims to criminal justice, and to be able best to support victims, we need to know the effects of crime on victims. A victim of a crime may possibly experience many different kinds of effects: Direct costs and inconvenience due to theft of or damage to property (including time off work).

# data[].attributes.headline
A PAPER DETAILING BIOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR

# data[].attributes.subject
A PAPER DETAILING BIOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P3)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sociological Theories of Deviance

Sociological theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance.

Learning Objectives

Describe four different sociological approaches to deviance

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Social strain typology, developed by Robert K. Merton, is based upon two criteria: (1) a person's motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person's belief in how to attain her goals.

According to Merton, there are five types of deviance based upon these criteria: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion.

Structural functionalism argues that deviant behavior plays an active, constructive role in society by ultimately helping cohere different populations within a society.

Conflict theory suggests that deviant behaviors result from social, political, or material inequalities in a social group.

Labeling theory argues that people become deviant as a result of people forcing that identity upon them and then adopting the identity.

Key Terms

conformity: the ideology of adhering to one standard or social uniformity

typology: The systematic classification of the types of something according to their common characteristics.

Retrospective labeling: Occurs when a deviant recognizes her acts as deviant prior to the primary deviance, while prospective labeling is when the deviant recognizes future acts as deviant.

The study of social deviance is the study of the violation of cultural norms in either formal or informal contexts. Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies with norms. Sociological theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance.

Social Strain Typology

Four main sociological theories of deviance exist. The first is the social strain typology developed by American sociologist Robert K. Merton. Merton proposed a typology of deviant behavior, a classification scheme designed to facilitate understanding. Merton typology of deviance was based on two criteria: (1) a person's motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person's belief in how to attain her goals. According to Merton, there are five types of deviance based upon these criteria: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion. Merton's typology is fascinating because it suggests that people can turn to deviance in the pursuit of widely accepted social values and goals. For instance, individuals in the U.S. who sell illegal drugs have rejected the culturally acceptable means of making money, but they still share the widely accepted cultural value of making money. Thus, deviance can be the result of accepting one norm, but breaking another in order to pursue the first.

Structural Functionalism

The second main sociological explanation of deviance comes from structural functionalism. This approach argues that deviant behavior plays an active, constructive role in society by ultimately helping to cohere different populations within a particular society. Deviance helps to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. It draws lines and demarcates boundaries. This is an important function that affirms the cultural values and norms of a society for the members of that society. In addition to clarifying the moral boundaries of society, deviant behavior can also promote social unity by creating an "us-versus-them" mentality in relation to deviant individuals. Finally, deviance is actually seen as one means for society to change over time. Deviant behavior can imbalance the social equilibrium but-in the process of restoring balance-society will adjust norms. With changing norms in response to deviance, the deviant behavior can contribute to long-term social stability.

Conflict Theory

The third main sociological theory of deviance is conflict theory. Conflict theory suggests that deviant behaviors result from social, political, or material inequalities of a social group. In response to these inequalities, certain groups will act deviantly in order to change their circumstances, change the social structure that engendered their circumstances, or just to "act out" against their oppressors. An example of conflict theory would be the Occupy Wall Street movement that began in the fall of 2011. Angered at the extreme inequalities in wealth distribution in the United States, protesters began to organize more communal ways of living in Zucotti Park-near Wall Street in New York City-in order to protest the lavish means of life of those at the top of the socioeconomic ladder. The protesters were deviating from social norms of coherence in order to articulate grievances against the extremely wealthy. Their actions and perspectives demonstrate the use of conflict theory to explain social deviance.

Labeling Theory

The fourth main sociological theory of deviance is labeling theory. Labeling theory refers to the idea that individuals become deviant when a deviant label is applied to them; they adopt the label by exhibiting the behaviors, actions, and attitudes associated with the label. Labeling theory argues that people become deviant as a result of others forcing that identity upon them. This process works because of stigma; in applying a deviant label, one attaches a stigmatized identity to the labeled individual.

Labeling theory allows us to understand how past behaviors of a deviant-labeled individual are reinterpreted in accordance with their label. This process of recasting past actions in light of a current deviant identity is referred to as "retrospective labeling. " A clear example of retrospective labeling is seen in how the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre were recast after the incident took place. Much of their behavior leading up to the school shootings has been reinterpreted in light of the deviant identity with which they were labeled as a result of the shootings.

Biological Theories of Deviance

A biological theory of deviance proposes that an individual deviates from social norms largely because of their biological makeup.

Learning Objectives

Outline the main assumptions of three biological theories of deviance

Key Takeaways

Key Points

A biological interpretation of formal deviance was first advanced by the Italian School of Criminology, a school of thought originating from Italy during the mid-nineteenth century.

The school was headed by medical criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. The term Lombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism.

The idea of atavism drew a connection between an individual's appearance and their biological propensity to deviate from social norms.

Enrico Ferri took this idea farther, arguing that anyone convicted of a crime should be detained for as long as possible. According to Ferri's line of thought, if individuals committed crimes because of their biological constitution, what was the point of deterrence or rehabilitation?

Garofalo is perhaps best known for his efforts to formulate a "natural" definition of crime. According to his view, those who violate human universal laws are themselves "unnatural".

Key Terms

penology: The processes devised and adopted for the punishment and prevention of crime.

atavism: The reappearance of an ancestral characteristic in an organism after several generations of absence.

Italian School of Criminology: The Italian school of criminology was founded at the end of the 19th century by Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) and two of his Italian disciples, Enrico Ferri (1856-1929) and Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934).

A biological theory of deviance proposes that an individual deviates from social norms largely because of their biological makeup. The theory primarily pertains to formal deviance, using biological reasons to explain criminality, though it can certainly extend to informal deviance.

Cesare Lombroso

A biological interpretation of formal deviance was first advanced by the Italian School of Criminology, a school of thought originating from Italy during the mid-nineteenth century. The school was headed by medical criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. Enrico Ferri and Raffaelo Garofalo continued the Italian School as Lombroso's predecessors. The Italian School was interested in why some individuals engaged in criminal behavior and others did not. Their explanation was that some individuals had a biological propensity for crime.

The term Lombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism. He belived that atavism was a sign of inherent criminalities, and thus he viewed born criminals as a form of human sub-species. Lombroso believed that atavism could be identified by a number of measurable physical stigmata-a protruding jaw, drooping eyes, large ears, twisted and flattish nose, long arms relative to the lower limbs, sloping shoulders, and a coccyx that resembled "the stump of a tail. " The concept of atavism was glaringly wrong, but like so many others of his time, Lombroso sought to understand behavioral phenomena with reference to the principles of evolution as they were understood at the time.

Enrico Ferri

Lombroso's work was continued by Erico Ferri's study of penology, the section of criminology that is concerned with the philosophy and practice of various societies in their attempt to repress criminal activities. Ferri's work on penology was instrumental in developing the "social defense" justification for the detention of individuals convicted of crimes. Ferri argued that anyone convicted of a crime should be detained for as long as possible. According to Ferri's line of thought, if individuals committed crimes because of their biological constitution, what was the point of deterrence or rehabilitation? For Ferri, none of these therapeutic interventions could change the offender's biology, making them pointless. After an individual had been convicted of a crime, the state 's responsibility was to protect the community and prevent the criminal from doing more harm-as his biology determined he would do.

Raffaelo Garofalo

Garofalo is perhaps best known for his efforts to formulate a "natural" definition of crime. Classical thinkers accepted the legal definition of crime uncritically; crime is what the law says it is. This appeared to be rather arbitrary and "unscientific" to Garofalo, who wanted to anchor the definition of crime in something natural. Most significant was Garofalo's reformulation of classical notions of crime and his redefinition of crime as a violation of natural law, or a human universal.

A human universal is a trait, characteristic, or behavior that exists across cultures, regardless of the nuances of a given context. A famous example of a universal is the incest taboo. Exempting a very small number of small communities, all human cultures have a taboo against incest in some form. Garofalo's presentaion of crime as a violation of a human universal allows for one to characterize criminals as unnatural. As soon as criminals are marked as inhuman or unnatural, the public has license to think of an individual convicted of a crime as completely unlike the rest of society; a whole new range of punishments are authorized, including serious social stigmatization.

Biological Theories Today

Italian School biological explanations have not resonated in criminal justice systems in America. However, some traces still exist. Now, the conversation about crime and biological explanations focuses more on the relationship between genetics and crime than the relationship between phenotypic features and crime. Because the modern emphasis is on actual genetics rather than phenotypic expressions of genes, stereotyping of individuals with "criminal" traits or propensities is more difficult. For example, when walking down the street, you can tell who has a protruding jaw, but you can't tell who has the genetic combination that increases one's propensity for aggression. Though the debate has mutated, a biological explanation for deviance and crime is still commonplace.

Psychological Theories of Deviance

Psychological theories of deviance use a deviant's psychology to explain his motivation or compulsion to violate social norms.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the problematic aspects of psychological theories of deviance

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Conduct disorder is a psychological disorder diagnosed in childhood that presents itself through a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others of major age-appropriate norms are violated.

Deviant behavior can also be explained by psychological trauma in one's past.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychological condition in which a traumatic incident in one's past compels an individual to have abnormal reactions to stimuli.

Though psychological theories are frequently employed to explain deviant behavior, one should bear in mind that the stability of psychological categories is constantly in flux.

Key Terms

conduct disorder: Conduct disorder is a psychological disorder diagnosed in childhood that presents itself through a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate norms are violated.

Psychological theory of deviance: In many ways, psychological theories of deviance mirror biological explanations (see section: Biological Theories of Deviance), only with an emphasis on the brain.

post-traumatic stress disorder: Any condition that develops following some stressful situation or event, such as sleep disturbance, recurrent dreams, withdrawal or lack of concentration.

Psychological theories of deviance use a deviant's psychology to explain his motivation and compulsion to violate social norms. In many ways, psychological theories of deviance mirror biological explanations, only with an added emphasis on brain function. Whereas historical biological explanations, such as those provided by the Italian School, used biological traits from the whole body (e.g., protruding jaws, large ears) as signifiers of a biological propensity for criminal behavior, today's psychological theories of deviance use the biology of the brain (in terms of the structure of the brain, levels of neurotransmitters, and psychiatric diagnoses) to explain deviance.

Conduct Disorder

One case study of a psychological theory of deviance is the case of conduct disorder. Conduct disorder is a psychological disorder diagnosed in childhood that presents itself through a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others and major age-appropriate norms are violated. This childhood disorder is often seen as the precursor to antisocial personality disorder. According the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV (the professional manual listing all medically recognized mental disorders and their symptoms), conduct disorder presents as aggressive and disrespectful behavior. Compared to normal controls, youth with early and adolescent onset of conduct disorder displayed reduced responses in the brain regions associated with antisocial behavior. In addition, youth with conduct disorder demonstrated less responsiveness in the orbitofrontal regions of the brain during a stimulus-reinforcement and reward task. These psychological symptoms of conduct disorder, both in terms of neuroanatomy and neurotransmitter regulation, help to explain the explanatory link between psychology and crime. Moreover, they demonstrate the increasingly fluid boundary between psychological and biological theories of deviance.

Psychological Trauma

Psychological theories of deviance do not necessarily have a biological element. Deviant behavior can also be explained by psychological trauma in one's past. Take, for example, the case of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This is a psychological condition in which a traumatic incident in one's past causes an individual to have abnormal reactions to stimuli. PTSD is frequently invoked in cases of child abuse, in which the psychological trauma of having been abused as a child can contribute to deviant behavior in the future. PTSD is also discussed in cases of deviant, violent behavior on the part of individuals who have experienced trauma while in the military. Consider the case of Sergeant Robert Bales. Sgt. Bales is an American soldier who has served four tours in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past decade. Sgt. Bales is accused of getting drunk and going into a town nearby his post in Afghanistan and murdering 16 Afghanis without provocation. Experts are already speculating that the psychological trauma of multiple redeployments contributed to Sgt. Bales's alleged deviance.

While psychiatric diagnoses are commonly used to explain deviance, one must remember that what counts as a legitimate diagnosis is always in contention. The DSM, the manual for what the psychological community recognizes as a legitimate psychiatric diagnosis, is a revised manual. One example of the importance of these revisions: homosexuality used to be included in the DSM as a psychiatric condition. Thus, until it was removed in 1986, homosexuality (the psychological condition) could have been a psychological explanation for deviant sexuality. However, since being removed from the DSM, homosexuality is no longer recognized as a legitimate psychiatric condition and, therefore, the now debunked homosexuality-as-psychiatric-condition does not serve an explanatory role in regards to deviant sexuality. This goes to demonstrate the fluctuating nature of psychological theories of deviance.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sociological theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance. Describe four different sociological approaches to deviance Key Points Social strain typology, developed by Robert K. Merton, is based upon two criteria: (1) a person's motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person's belief in how to attain her goals.

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 P3)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
[PDF] Biological Theories of Crime Psychology Factsheet Worksheet : Biological Theories of Crime | Semantic Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Crime and criminal behaviour are as old as human society itself. However, it wasn't until the late 19th century that psychologists attempted to systematically explain the causes of criminal behaviour. Early theories of crime saw criminals as biologically different to non criminals.

# data[].attributes.headline
WORLD REPORT UPON HUMAN RIGHTS 2019......VERY GOOD RESOURCE FOR TASK 02 - USE THE DROP DOWN MENU TO CHOOSE THE COUNTRY FOR HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

# data[].attributes.subject
WORLD REPORT UPON HUMAN RIGHTS 2019......VERY GOOD RESOURCE FOR TASK 02 - USE THE DROP DOWN MENU TO CHOOSE THE COUNTRY FOR HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02 - P3 M2 D1)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Our annual review of human rights around the globe

World Report 2019 is Human Rights Watch's 29th annual review of human rights practices around the globe. It summarizes key human rights issues in more than 100 countries and territories worldwide, drawing on events from late 2017 through November 2018.

In his keynote essay, "World's Autocrats Face Rising Resistance," Human Rights Watch Executive Director Kenneth Roth argues that while autocrats and rights abusers often captured headlines in 2018, rights defenders pushed back and gained strength in unexpected ways.

The 674-page book reflects extensive investigative work that Human Rights Watch staff undertook in 2018, usually in close partnership with human rights activists and groups in the country in question. It also reflects the work of our advocacy team, which monitors policy developments and strives to persuade governments and international institutions to curb abuses and promote human rights.

Download the easy-to-read version of the keynote essay

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
World Report 2019 is Human Rights Watch's 29th annual review of human rights practices around the globe. It summarizes key human rights issues in more than 100 countries and territories worldwide, drawing on events from late 2017 through November 2018.

# data[].attributes.headline
TWO PART DOCUMENTARY ON CUSTODIAL CARE - DOES IT WORK?

# data[].attributes.subject
TWO PART DOCUMENTARY ON CUSTODIAL CARE - DOES IT WORK?

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The UK's Most Dangerous Prison - New Prison Documentary

# data[].attributes.headline
MEDIA FOOTAGE OF AN ACTUAL LIFE SENTENCE BEING GIVEN. MAY CONTAIN UPSETTING SCENES. EXPLAINS THE WAY JUDGES PASS SENTENCE.

# data[].attributes.subject
MEDIA FOOTAGE OF AN ACTUAL LIFE SENTENCE BEING GIVEN. MAY CONTAIN UPSETTING SCENES. EXPLAINS THE WAY JUDGES PASS SENTENCE.

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Aaron Campbell gets life in prison for raping and killing Alesha MacPhail, 6

# data[].attributes.headline
ANOTHER GOOD WEBSITE LOOKING AT SENTENCING 

# data[].attributes.subject
ANOTHER GOOD WEBSITE LOOKING AT SENTENCING 

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Nick Titchener, director and solicitor advocate at , discusses:

Criminal sentencing

How a court decides on a sentence

The types of criminal sentences in UK law

If a defendant pleads guilty to an offence or is found guilty after a trial, it follows that there must be a sentence imposed by the court - whether the magistrates' court or the Crown Court .

Sentencing in the UK - how the court decides

When imposing a sentence in the UK, the court must take into account:

1. The type of crime

2. The law and sentencing guidelines

3. Credit for an early guilty plea

4. The offender's criminal history

5. The offender's personal and financial circumstances

Advising a client on the potential sentence they face for a specific offence is a vital part of providing a professional legal service. It allows the individual to make an informed decision on their plea and understand the potential outcome of their case.

It is vitally important that you are properly represented for any sentencing hearing. A solicitor will mitigate fully on your behalf to obtain you the best possible sentence. Quality advocacy is often the key to obtaining a 'good' result in your case.

Available sentences differ for adults and young people - classified as those aged 10-17.

Types of criminal sentence under UK law

There are five main types of sentence that the court can pass:

When the court decides someone is guilty of an offence, but decides not to hand down a criminal conviction at this time, they will be given a 'discharge'.

Discharges are primarily given for minor offences.

There are two types of discharge:

An 'absolute discharge' means that no more action will be taken

A 'conditional discharge' means that the offender won't be punished unless they commit another offence within a set period of time determined by the court (up to a period of 3 years). If the offender breaches the conditional discharge by committing a further offence within the specified discharge period they can be re-sentenced for the original offence and sentenced additionally for the new offence.

A fine and compensation

Fines are the most common criminal sentence. They're usually given for less serious crimes that don't merit a community or prison sentence, or in some circumstances fines are imposed as an alternative to a community sentence.

How much someone is fined depends on the severity of the crime and the offender's ability to pay.

If the offence causes harm to a victim, the offender can also be required to pay compensation. A compensation order can be imposed as a sentence without any other penalty

Disqualification from driving and penalty points

Any court may disqualify an offender from driving on conviction for any offence, either in addition to or instead of any other sentence. It is not a requirement of disqualification that the offence is connected with the use of a motor vehicle.

Penalty points can be added to the offender's driver's licence upon conviction for many motoring offences. Depending on they type of licence held and the number of points imposed, this can lead to an offender being disqualified from driving for a period of time.

Community sentences are imposed for offences which are too serious for a discharge or a fine to be imposed but not so serious that a custodial sentence must be imposed.

Community sentences place requirements on offenders that they must comply with.

The court will decide which combination of these requirements will most effectively punish the offender for their crime, while also reducing the risk of them offending again.

An offender who receives a community sentence can be ordered to undertake one or more of the following requirements:

Undertake between 40 and 300 hours of unpaid work

Comply with an electronically monitored curfew during hours imposed by the court for a specified period

Have regular supervision meetings with a probation officer

Complete an accredited programme for issues such as domestic abuse or sexual offending

Complete a course of treatment for drug or alcohol addiction

Complete a specified activity requirement

Comply with a residency requirement

Comply with an exclusion requirement

Comply with a prohibited activity requirement

Comply with a mental health treatment requirement

Go to an attendance centre for a specified number of hours. This is only available for offenders aged under 25

If an offender doesn't adhere to the terms of their community sentence, they can be sent back to court and given an additional requirement or extended requirement or a fine as a punishment. In some circumstances the community sentence can be revoked and the defendant will be re-sentenced.

Prison sentences are handed down by a court when an offence is so serious that it is deemed to be the only suitable punishment.

A prison sentence will also be given when the court believes the public must be protected from the offender.

There are three different types of prison sentence:

Suspended sentence

Determinate sentence

Indeterminate sentence (including life sentences)

What is a suspended sentence in the UK?

A court may give an adult offender a suspended prison sentence if the time they would otherwise spend in prison is under 12 months. Suspended prison sentences can be suspended for up to two years.

With a suspended sentence, the offender is given a prison sentence but does not go directly to prison. Instead the offender must not commit a further offence during the suspension period and must comply with any community sentence requirement imposed by the court.

If the offender breaches a community sentence requirement attached to the suspended sentence or commits another offence during the suspension period, the court can activate the suspended prison sentence, sending the offender to prison for all or part of the original prison term imposed. Alternatively they can increase the term of the suspended sentence but allow it to continue.

What is a determinate sentence?

If a court fixes the length of a prison sentence, it's called a determinate sentence. For example, a court may say an offender is sentenced to six years.

When an offender is given a determinate sentence, half of the sentence is served in custody and half of the sentence in the community.

Offenders sentenced to 12 months or longer in prison will be put on licence when they are serving the second part of their sentence. This licence is supervised by the probation service and includes conditions that offenders must meet.

If the offender doesn't meet the terms of their licence or commits a further offence they can be recalled to prison for part or all of their sentence.

Offenders sentenced to less than two years are released on post-sentence supervision for a period of 12 months, with regular meetings with a probation officer and specified requirements. For example, an offender sentenced to 2 months will serve 1 month in prison, 1 month on licence and 11 months on post sentence supervision. If the offender breaches the supervision they can be punished further.

What is an indeterminate sentence?

A court can give a sentence setting the minimum time the offender must spend in prison. This is called an indeterminate sentence.

For example, a court may say an offender must go to prison 'for a minimum of ten years'. This minimum period set by the judge is called a tariff.

These sentences are usually given for serious violent offences or sexual offences and where the court considers the offender is a risk to the public.

If an offender is given an indeterminate sentence, they have no automatic right to be released. They will always serve the 'minimum' sentence set by the court.

When the minimum time in prison is over the parole board will decide if it is appropriate to release an offender under licence.

What is a life sentence?

A life sentence means the offender will be subject to specific conditions for the rest of their life, but only one of these conditions may be a period of time in prison.

For most life sentences, the judge sets a minimum time the offender will spend in prison before being considered for release on licence by the independent parole board, who assess whether it's safe and suitable for the offender to be released.

If an offender is released on licence, they'll be under the supervision of the probation service and will have to follow specific rules.

Offenders given a life sentence stay under licence for the rest of their life. If they break the terms of their licence at any time, they will be called back to prison.

Life sentences must be given to offenders who are found guilty of murder. A judge may also choose to give a life sentence for serious offences, where the law allows.

What is a whole life term?

In some extremely serious cases, a judge may give an offender a 'whole life term'. This means that there is no minimum term set by the judge and the offender will never be released from prison.

Types of sentences for young people under UK law

Courts have a range of different sentences they can give offenders aged 10-17. These include:

A discharge - whether absolute or conditional, these are the same as those for adult offenders

A fine - as with adults, the fine should reflect the offence committed and the offender's ability to pay. For offenders under 16, paying the fine is the responsibility of a parent or guardian and it will be their ability to pay that is taken into account when setting the level of the fine

A referral order - this requires the offender to attend a youth offender panel (made up of two members of the local community and an advisor from a youth offending team) and agree a contract containing certain commitments which will last between three months and a year. The aim is for the offender to make up for the harm caused and address their offending behaviour. An order must be imposed for a first time young offender who has pleaded guilty - unless the court decides that another sentence is justified - and may be imposed in other circumstances

A youth rehabilitation order - this is a community sentence which can include one or more requirements that the offender must comply with for up to three years. Some examples of the requirements that can be imposed are a curfew, supervision, unpaid work, drug treatment, mental health treatment and education requirements

A custodial sentence - young offenders can receive a custodial sentence called a Detention and Training Order (DTO). These orders will only be imposed in the most serious cases. When they are given, they aim to provide training and education and rehabilitate the offender so they don't re-offend. Sentences can be spent in secure children's homes, secure training centres and young offenders' institutions.

If a young person aged between 12 and 17 years old is sentenced in the youth court, a DTO can last between four months and two years.

In the crown court, a DTO can also be given to a young person aged between 10 and 17 and for a longer period than two years if necessary.

or further advice and assistance on criminal sentencing, or if you require specialist legal representation.

About the author

Nick Titchener oversees the overall management of Lawtons Solicitors. He is a diligent criminal solicitor with many years of experience including violence and assault and sexual offences. Nick succeeds on even the most complicated cases with a meticulous and systematic approach.

Lawtons is a specialist firm of criminal law defence solicitors with branches across London, Essex, Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire.

Does a life sentence last for life?

Yes, the life sentence lasts for the rest of the offender's life. They will serve a term of the sentence in prison and then will be released on license. This means that the offender will be subject to various conditions for the rest of their life. If they break these conditions they will be sent back to prison. The most serious crimes will result in the offender serving the rest of their life in prison.

How long is a life sentence served in prison in the UK?

The average life sentence served is around 15 years before being paroled. Those prisoners who are convicted of exceptionally serious crimes serve a considerably longer amount of time in prison.

Why do you get time off a criminal sentence for admitting guilt?

You can get up to a third off your criminal sentence for admitting your guilt. This is because it saves time and cost to all those involved in the criminal justice system including the Crown Prosecution Service, the courts and the police so their resources are saved for the most serious cases. The amount of time off given to the offender is decided by magistrates and judges and depends on when you have given the guilty plea. The earlier you have given the guilty plea, the greater the reduction in criminal sentence.

Why does the UK media say 'walked free from court, after being sentenced'?

The UK media gets this wrong. They are saying the offender is free because they have not been sent to jail. However, all non-custodial sentences impose restrictions on the offender. Restrictions include punishments such as curfews and many hours of community service. Failure to comply with these restrictions will result in the offender being sent back to court and could then result in a prison sentence.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Types of criminal sentences | Lawtons Solicitors UK

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nick Titchener, director and solicitor advocate at , discusses: Criminal sentencing How a court decides on a sentence The types of criminal sentences in UK law If a defendant pleads guilty to an offence or is found guilty after a trial, it follows that there must be a sentence imposed by the court - whether the magistrates' court or the Crown Court .

# data[].attributes.headline
A VERY GOOD WEBSITE DETAILING SENTENCING GUIDELINES - INCLUDES LOTS OF LINKS TO INFORMATIVE STATISTICS

# data[].attributes.subject
A VERY GOOD WEBSITE DETAILING SENTENCING GUIDELINES - INCLUDES LOTS OF LINKS TO INFORMATIVE STATISTICS

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 02)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In this section you can find information explaining sentencing, like what sentences are for and how sentences are worked out. If you'd like a five minute overview take a look at this short video which gives the basics on what kinds of sentence there are and how judges and magistrates decide what sentence to give (if you cannot view the video you can read the transcript here):

If you'd like to hear about sentencing from the point of view of a magistrates, watch this short film (if you cannot view the video you can read the transcript here):

If you're interested to hear about sentencing from the point of view of a Crown Court judge, watch this short film (if you cannot view the video you can read the transcript here):

You can also download this pdf showing the Criminal Justice System in numbers. You can also find information about sentencing on GOV.UK.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this section you can find information explaining sentencing, like what sentences are for and how sentences are worked out.

# data[].attributes.body
(ALL TASKS)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
London’s Knife Crime Emergency: ON A KNIFE EDGE

# data[].attributes.body
(ALL TASKS)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Growing Up White & Working Class | Britain’s Forgotten Men

# data[].attributes.headline
CRIME AND POVERTY IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND

# data[].attributes.subject
CRIME AND POVERTY IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND

# data[].attributes.body
(ALL TASKS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Crime & Poverty In Manchester: Britain's Forgotten Men

# data[].attributes.headline
UNIT INTRODUCTION POWERPOINT - INFORMATION UPON CRIME LEGISLATION AND TALKING POINTS

# data[].attributes.subject
UNIT INTRODUCTION POWERPOINT - INFORMATION UPON CRIME LEGISLATION AND TALKING POINTS

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 01)

# data[].attributes.body
(SEMESTER 02)

# data[].attributes.headline
SOUTH YORKSHIRE POLICE HOMEPAGE / INFO UPON THE DIFFERENT TEAMS OPERATING IN THE ORGANISATION...........USE THIS SITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS PARTICULAR UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLETS

# data[].attributes.subject
SOUTH YORKSHIRE POLICE HOMEPAGE / INFO UPON THE DIFFERENT TEAMS OPERATING IN THE ORGANISATION...........USE THIS SITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS PARTICULAR UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLETS

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5

# data[].attributes.headline
ROYAL AIR FORCE HOME PAGE / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THIS UPS...........USE THIS WEBSITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS PARTICULAR UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLET. 

# data[].attributes.subject
ROYAL AIR FORCE HOME PAGE / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THIS UPS...........USE THIS WEBSITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS PARTICULAR UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLET. 

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The RAF provides air and space power to protect the UK and our allies in an uncertain world.

# data[].attributes.headline
BRITISH ARMY HOMEPAGE  / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THAT UPS.........USE THIS SITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLET

# data[].attributes.subject
BRITISH ARMY HOMEPAGE  / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THAT UPS.........USE THIS SITE IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS UPS FOR YOUR LEAFLET

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5)

# data[].attributes.headline
ROYAL NAVY WEBSITE / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THAT UPS......USE THIS SITE FOR YOUR LEAFLET IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THE ROYAL NAVY. 

# data[].attributes.subject
ROYAL NAVY WEBSITE / INFO ON TEAMS WITHIN THAT UPS......USE THIS SITE FOR YOUR LEAFLET IF YOU HAVE CHOSEN THE ROYAL NAVY. 

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5)

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 04 P5)

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 06)

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 06

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 06)

# data[].attributes.headline
Assignment 3 Current Affairs, Media and the PS

# data[].attributes.subject
Assignment 3 Current Affairs, Media and the PS

# data[].attributes.body
(TASK 2)