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Dyslexia explained in less than 5 minutes...

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What is dyslexia? - Kelli Sandman-Hurley

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It's not unusual for young kids to reverse letters when they read and write. But when they still frequently write backwards or upside down beyond age 7, it could signal trouble with reading or language.

People often think writing letters backwards is a sign of dyslexia, but that's often not the case. Learn more about letter reversals and what they can mean.

What is letter reversal?

Reversing letters means your child writes certain letters (or numbers) backwards or upside down. This is sometimes referred to as mirror writing. It's different from transposing letters, which means switching the order of letters.

The most common letter reversal is b and d, when the child writes a b for a d or vice versa. Another common reversal is p and q. An example of an upside-down reversal is m for w.

Is reversing letters a sign of dyslexia?

Reversing letters or mirror writing isn't necessarily a sign of dyslexia. Some kids with dyslexia have trouble with it, but many don't. In fact, most kids who reverse letters before age 7 end up not having dyslexia.

For older kids who continue to reverse letters, there are a few other potential causes. A child might reverse letters because of a poor memory for how to form letters. Another possible cause is visual processing issues. In this case, a child might have trouble identifying how images are different (visual discrimination) or which direction they face (visual directionality).

Do kids outgrow the habit of reversing letters?

The majority of kids outgrow reversing as they get stronger at reading and writing. Reversing letters is typical and fairly common up until second grade.

That's because the letters b, d, p, and q are really all the same letter. They're just flipped and turned. As adults and experienced readers, we've learned that their position makes a big difference.

Young kids and beginning readers don't always make that distinction right away, though. That discovery is part of the learning process. It comes as kids build their phonics skills and become more experienced readers and writers.

If your child is still reversing letters a lot by the end of second grade, though, you may want to reach out to your child's teacher. Get the teacher's take on what's going on, and talk about next steps.

If my child is reversing letters, should I take a wait-and-see approach?

There's no downside to helping kids learn to write their letters correctly, at any age. Even if your child doesn't have dyslexia or other difficulty, there's no harm.

If it turns out your child does have some type of language or visual processing difficulty, the sooner you address letter reversals, the less ingrained the habit will be. Your child will be better off by breaking the habit early.

How can I help my child at home with letter reversals?

Work on one letter at a time. For example, if your child is reversing b and d, start with b. Don't introduce d until your child is having much less difficulty with b. After that, you can work on other significant reversals, such as p or q.

Do the same with numbers. Work on only one at a time. When your child is having much less trouble with that number, you can move on to the next.

When focusing on a letter, try to engage more than one of your child's senses. This is known as a multisensory approach.

For instance, your child could trace the letter b in sand or "skywrite" it while saying aloud the sound for b. As your child is practicing, offer a strategy for remembering how to write b, such as "the bat comes before the ball." (Meaning that the vertical line of the b, or the bat, comes before the round part, or the ball.)

What should I do if my child doesn't outgrow reversing letters?

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FAQs About Reversing Letters, Writing Letters Backwards, and Dyslexia

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It's not unusual for young kids to reverse letters when they read and write. But when they still frequently write backwards or upside down beyond age 7, it could signal trouble with reading or language. People often think writing letters backwards is a sign of dyslexia, but that's often not the case.

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Dyslexia for a Day - Round Robin Reading

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Dyslexia for a Day- Writing SimulationH.264 800Kbps.mov

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What is Dyslexia? (Comprehensive for Parents)

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What is Dyslexia? (Comprehensive for Parents)

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This webpage has many links to help parents navigate the overwhelming amount of information.

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This article covers all areas of possible weaknesses for students with dyslexia and great ways to help them succeed!

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Decades of research and national test scores confirm that reading problems commonly occur and affect as many as one in five bright and motivated students who have average or above average intelligence. Adult literacy problems are also common, affecting one in four who are intelligent but have not been able to attain a functional literacy level. Research demonstrates that additional direct instruction provided appropriately, beginning in kindergarten through third grade, can help all but the most severely impaired students catch up to grade-level literacy skills and close the gap for most poor readers. Assessment is the first step in identifying these students early to make sure they receive the effective instruction they need to succeed.

Identifying Dyslexia

The key symptoms of dyslexia are problems with decoding or single word reading and/or poor reading fluency and poor spelling. Phonological weaknesses or disorders, specific language-based difficulties, are usually the underlying cause of the literacy problems associated with dyslexia. Comprehension may be impaired and writing skills will suffer if spelling is not mastered. Language and vocabulary problems can cause comprehension difficulties that can become more severe over time as academic demands increase. Poor readers may have weak vocabulary and background knowledge caused by reading less than average readers.

The problems associated with dyslexia are language-based, not visual and not related to cognitive skills or intelligence. Phonological processing problems are the principal cause of dyslexia. Phonological processing refers to the ability to analyze speech or spoken language, from identifying individual words, to word parts or syllables, and then into the smallest parts called phonemes or speech sounds. Because speech is produced rapidly, and sounds within spoken words are pronounced so quickly, phonemes overlap. Some individuals may experience difficulty with Rapid Automatic Naming that can compound the challenge of learning to read. Phonemes or speech sounds may vary by geographic region, or individual, and are often quite hard to distinguish. Assessment by a skilled professional can determine if the student struggles with phonological processing.

When students continue to struggle with literacy skills despite the provision of additional high-quality, expert instruction using Response to Intervention (RTI)/Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS), a formal clinical evaluation is needed to determine if they have dyslexia. Assessment of dyslexia involves individual testing, most often provided by a team of qualified professionals who have had extensive clinical training in assessment as part of a graduate degree program. Professional clinicians who assess Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) and dyslexia may have M.A., M.S., M.ED., Ed.D., or Ph.D. degrees in Education, Reading, Speech Language Pathology, School Psychology, Psychology, or Neuropsychology. Evaluation by a medical doctor is not required for assessment or identification of SLD or dyslexia.

Educational testing can verify the presence of SLD or dyslexia and can provide the needed diagnostic documentation that is required for eligibility for specially designed instruction and accommodations throughout the educational career from elementary school through college and graduate school. Clinical assessment can document student progress; progress is demonstrated by an increase in standard scores or percentile ranks, not by an increase in age or grade equivalent scores. Adults with dyslexia may need accommodations in the work place such as extended time or electronic readers to accommodate diagnosed dyslexia.

The Best Time to Assess

Federal law states that eligibility for SLD must consider a student's response to intervention or classroom instruction, commonly called Response to Intervention (RTI) or Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS). These terms reference educational research demonstrating that appropriate early intervention, provided in kindergarten through grade three, is very effective in closing the gap for struggling readers. Early intervention or additional direct instruction should begin as early as kindergarten or first grade for struggling readers when the gap is small and students benefit from brain plasticity advantages for learning language-based information. When a student is not achieving at an average rate, additional instruction (e.g., an additional hour of direct instruction for grades one through three) may be provided immediately to help them catch up. Student progress must be monitored using reliable and valid progress monitoring measures to be sure the gap is closing. Analysis of data must drive all school team decisions about a student's program and learning profile.

When students do not catch up after additional instruction and support using an RTI/MTSS approach, clinical evaluation is needed to determine and document the nature of the learning problem. After evaluation, the school team will consider the case history and the testing data and will determine eligibility for Special Education services under IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). Data and evaluation results should be shared with parents throughout this process. For students with diagnosed SLD and dyslexia, the plan is typically an Individualized Education Plan (IEP), which provides both remediation and accommodations. Independent (i.e., private) schools are not required to follow IDEA; therefore, they can decide if and how they are able to remediate and accommodate students with learning differences.

Another type of school plan, called a Section 504 Plan, comes under the Americans with Disabilities Act and provides only accommodations, focusing on granting access for individuals with handicapping conditions. A Section 504 Plan does not specify the provision of direct specially designed instruction or remediation.

Areas Assessed

The following areas should be assessed in an educational evaluation of dyslexia:

Phonological Awareness - an individual's awareness of and access to the sound structure of his/her oral language

Phonological or Language-Based Memory - ability to recall sounds, syllables, words

Rapid Automatic Naming - speed of naming objects, colors, digits, or letters

Receptive Vocabulary - understanding of words heard

Phonics Skills - understanding of the symbol (letter) to the sound(s) relationship, either individually or in combination with other letters

Decoding -ability to use symbol-sound associations to identify (read - pronounce) words

Real Words

Nonsense Words

Oral Reading Fluency - ability to read accurately, at a story-telling pace - to facilitate / support comprehension

Single Words

Sentences and Paragraphs

Spelling

Writing

Sentence Level

Paragraph Level

Math assessment can be done as part of a complete educational evaluation and should include measures of untimed math calculations, math reasoning with math word problems read aloud, and math fluency. Many students with language-based learning disabilities or dyslexia struggle to memorize language-based information such as multiplication tables but may have adequate math calculation and math reasoning skills when reading is accommodated (word problems read aloud). Other students may struggle with mathematical language and have problems with math word problems that go beyond decoding difficulties. The skilled clinician can analyze the student's strengths and weaknesses in math, considering the student's performance on each math subtest instead of relying solely on broad math scores that provide only an average of the subtest scores. For example, students who have average math calculation skills, untimed, and average math reasoning (math problems read aloud), may have weak math fluency. When this is the case, students need extended time to accommodate their demonstrated weak math fluency. Broad math scores that report the average of all subtests may mask individual weak areas. Careful analysis of a student's performance on educational subtests is needed for clinical assessment of learning needs. This will lead to appropriate and needed recommendations for remediation and accommodation.

What to Expect

Evaluation of dyslexia involves collecting information about birth history, family history, child development, including speech and language development and early educational history. The clinician, SLD Specialist, Dyslexia Therapist, Speech-Language Pathologist, or other trained professionals, must review school records incorporating any previous assessments or previous diagnoses and note early interventions, such as speech/language therapy, if any were provided. After clinical review or analysis of the collected data and information, the written report summarizes all the intake information and history. The report should clearly describe the referral questions or concerns that led to the assessment. For individual clinical assessment of SLD and dyslexia, a battery of tests is used to ensure reliability and validity. Standard scores and percentile ranks should be included in the report. Age and grade-level scores may be included, but they are just approximations and should never be relied upon as measures of academic achievement.

Scoring and interpretation are completed by the skilled clinician who synthesizes intake information, reports, test scores, interprets results, gives a clearly stated diagnosis when appropriate, and provides a well-written report to parents and the school team. If the student is diagnosed with SLD or dyslexia, the written report clearly states recommendations for remediation, also called specially designed instruction, as mandated by federal law. The written report also specified needed accommodations such as providing additional time for assessments or having tests read to the student.

Understanding the Scores

Cognitive or intelligence testing is not required as part of the SLD identification process. Average or higher scores on measures of listening comprehension, receptive vocabulary, math calculation and math reasoning can demonstrate the presence of average or higher intellectual potential in the young student. Current federal special education law, IDEA, states that the use of severe discrepancy (the difference between cognitive or IQ scores and educational achievement scores) must not be required for identification of SLD including dyslexia. However, some students with complicated learning profiles such as twice exceptional students (most commonly, gifted students with SLD or dyslexia) will need cognitive or intellectual testing to demonstrate their unique learning profile and needs.

For older students, cognitive or IQ testing is still required for application for accommodations on high stakes tests such as SAT or ACT. Cognitive or IQ testing is also required for admission to most college and university programs that provide support for students with diagnosed SLD or dyslexia. A clear diagnostic statement must be provided in the written report to document the presence of the diagnosed SLD; qualifying language that does not provide a clear diagnosis (e.g., "symptoms are suggestive of..." or "may fit the profile of...") will not be accepted when applying for accommodations on high stakes testing or for accommodations at the college and university level.

Additional Supports

Students and adults with diagnosed dyslexia may need support and consultation to help them understand their unique learning profile. Evaluation for the presence of other conditions that commonly co-occur with SLD and dyslexia should be considered when appropriate. Ongoing family and educational support together with updated assessment information is needed to meet increased academic demands and to provide required documentation in academic settings and in the workplace.

References

Lowell, S. C., Felton, R. H., & Hook, P. E. (2014). Basic facts about assessment of dyslexia: Testing for teaching, Baltimore, MD: The International Dyslexia Association.

Lowell, S. C. (2011, Summer). Best practices in reading instruction: An international effort. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 37(3).

Moats, L. C. & Dakin, K. E. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems, Baltimore, MD: The International Dyslexia Association.

Shaywitz, S. E., Escobar, M. D., Shaywitz, B., Fletcher, J. M., & Makuch, R. (1992, February). Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability, 326(3), 145-50.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Susan C. Lowell, M.A., B.C.E.T., for her assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet.
If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, pleaseclick here.

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Dyslexia Assessment: What Is It and How Can It Help? - International Dyslexia Association

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Accommodations do not change the content of instruction, give students an unfair advantage, or change the skills or knowledge that a test measures.

Accommodations, provided for both testing and instruction, change the way students access information and demonstrate their knowledge, skills, and abilities; they do not change academic standards or expectations. The purpose of accommodations is to ensure equal access to the full school experience for students with dyslexia or other learning disabilities (e.g., providing extended exam time for a student who has slow processing speed affecting academic fluency). Accommodations are adjustments made to allow a student to demonstrate knowledge, skills, and abilities without lowering learning or performance expectations and without changing what is being measured (e.g., providing text in audio-format when academic knowledge [e.g., history, biology, literature] is the target skill being measured). Accommodations do not change the content of instruction, give students an unfair advantage, or change the skills or knowledge that a test measures. Accommodations make it possible for students with dyslexia to demonstrate their learning without being hindered by their disabilities.

Appropriate accommodations need to be an integral part of the normal cycle of teaching and testing- never reserved only for periods of assessment. Classroom accommodations make it possible for students to learn and demonstrate their learning through full participation in classroom instruction. Assessment (testing) accommodations are changes in assessment materials (e.g., large print) or procedures (e.g., extended time) that allow students to demonstrate their abilities-not their disabilities-during tests and exams. Without accommodations, an assessment may not accurately measure the knowledge and skills of a student with a learning disability (e.g., dyslexia). An accommodation does not change item or test validity.

Modifications Are Different from Accommodations

Modifications to curriculum content, homework assignments, or assessments change the nature of instruction and assessments and what students are expected to learn-but they have the advantage of allowing interaction with other students in the classroom and school. An instructional modification (i.e., homework assignments) might be assignment of math problems requiring a lower level of math knowledge-skill. A modification in curriculum content might be to teach different, lower level concepts and information (e.g., continuation of work on multiplication when other students move on to fractions). Assessment modifications might include use of a calculator on a test of math facts accuracy or text in audio-format when reading comprehension is the target skill being measured. Modifications can be allowed for both testing and instruction. If the validity of a test item or the content of instruction is affected or altered, the change is a modification-not an accommodation.

Accommodation or Modification?

Choosing between an accommodation or a modification is a decision critical for future educational choices. Modifications change instructional content and knowledge-and their assessment; accommodations do not. A student's IEP team is responsible for making formal decisions related to accommodations (or modifications, if warranted).

Choosing Accommodations Wisely and Purposefully

Each accommodation needs to be matched to the individual student's educational needs. Decide which accommodations are needed to ensure that the student is on equal footing with those who do not have a disability. Provide evidence to support choice of accommodation requests. Are the accommodations linked directly to the student's functional limitations? How? Keep in mind that the answers to these questions may not be the same for instruction and assessment.

Accommodations are only helpful if the student knows how to use them effectively.

Extra time alone rarely improves performance for students with dyslexia-or for students without learning disabilities. Not every student needs, or benefits from, extended time. Extended time provides students with time to use strategies needed to accomplish tasks inherently difficult for them (e.g., systematic decoding strategies for students with poor single word decoding skills; rereading text with complex syntax and grammar in order to comprehend). Some students, who may benefit from extended time, need to be taught how to use the extra time. Students who routinely read too fast for either accuracy or comprehension need to learn explicit word identification strategies as well as strategies for improving their reading comprehension.

Practice is the key to effective use of accommodations. Accommodations should be integrated into classroom practice before use is expected in assessment situations.

Types of Accommodations

Presentation, Response, Setting, and Timing/Scheduling are the four basic types of accommodations used during instruction and assessment:

Presentation accommodations allow students to access instructional materials in ways that do not require them to read standard print presented in a standard visual format:
Presentation Accommodations-Instruction

Verbal instructions

Repetition of instructions

Text/Instructions in audio-format

Larger print

Fewer Items per page

Visual prompts or cues (e.g., arrow pointing on page)

Alternative answer sheet

Information in songs or poems (e.g., facts, definitions).

Presentation Accommodations-Assessment

Calculator

Speech-to-Text software

Text-to-Speech software

Electronic dictionary

Spelling checker

Grammar check.

Response accommodations allow students alternatives for completion of activities, assignments, and tests. Students may be permitted to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in alternate ways, or to solve or organize their work using an electronic device or organizer.

Mark answers in test book instead of on separate answer sheet

Dictate to scribe or record oral responses on audio-recorder

Record oral responses on Livescribe pen

Point to response choices

Type (keyboard) response.

Setting accommodations change the location in which a test or assignment is given or the conditions of the assessment setting.

Individual or small group

Reduce visual and/or auditory distractions (e.g., separate desk or location within classroom-"private office")

Distraction-free setting (separate room)

Alternative furniture arrangement (e.g., facing frontèteacher for whole group lessons vs block of tables for small group work).

Timing/Scheduling accommodations change the length of time allowed for completion of a test, project, or assignment and may also change the way the time is organized (e.g., breaks):

Flexible scheduling (e.g., several sessions vs one)

Extended time

Allowing for more frequent breaks (as appropriate)

Changing order of tasks or subtests.

Organization, Study Strategies, and Increasing Accessibility to State/District Tests
Organization
In addition to the types of accommodations and examples listed, devices and strategies that help students to organize their time and their work can sometimes be helpful. Some examples are listed:

Timers to keep track of time

Highlighters to mark text

Planners for tracking assignments

Graph paper to organize math problems on paper

Color Coding (e.g., subject areas, categorization within notes).

Study Strategies

Visualization

Retelling as soon as possible after a lecture

Putting new learning into own words as soon as possible after class-talking about learning

Organizing a study group for discussion (practice).

Accommodations and State/District Tests
Accommodations provided, and routinely used, should be the same, or similar, during classroom instruction, classroom tests, and state/district tests. However, some accommodations are only permitted during instruction and cannot be used on state/district assessments. Requirements vary from state to state and from district to district, but accommodations that are written into students' IEPs and 504 plans should be available.

The 2004 reauthorization of IDEA requires states to have accommodation guidelines for assessments and to report the number of students using accommodations during state and district assessments. All fifty states currently have published guidelines indicating the specific assessment accommodations that are permitted. Policies in some states also include instructional accommodations. The purpose of these state guidelines is to ensure that test scores actually reflect what students know and are able to do. For those states that have adopted Common Core State Standards, CCSS testing companies have created universal accessibility features (e.g., magnified text, repetition of instructions, scratch paper, digital notepad for note-taking, spell-check software, use of a highlighter) available to all students taking these tests. Details of accessibility features and requirements and guidelines for provision of accommodations, different for each of the two CCSS testing companies, are included in the following documents:

PARCC Accessibility Features and Accommodations Manual (link)

Road to Success for Students with Dyslexia: Intervention and Accommodations-with Appropriate Intensity and Duration

An accommodation is not a substitute for appropriate intervention-remediation. An accommodation, such as extended time, can be the bridge between success and failure for a student with dyslexia-the critical difference that levels the playing field. To achieve this success, students with dyslexia usually require a purposefully planned combination of intervention-remediation (with appropriate intensity and duration) and accommodations:

Intervention specific to the patterns of individual strengths and challenges of each student provides the opportunity for academic achievement; this specialized instruction is not a crutch but a lifeline.

Accommodations level the playing field for students with dyslexia and other learning disabilities; they do not give an unfair advantage.

As either a parent or a teacher, do not assume a student learns the same way you do.

Always keep the goal in mind-and plan instruction, assessment, and accommodations accordingly.

Please note that this fact sheet does not provide a comprehensive list of accommodations-only a sampling of options. It is up to families and each student's instructional team to explore alternatives as they plan the optimal combination of instruction and accommodations that is the best match for each student.
Helpful Resources
National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD): www.understood.org; Accommodations: What They Are and How They Work

ADA-Americans with Disabilities Act-Testing Accommodations https://www.ada.gov/regs2014/testing_accommodations.pdf

Accommodations, Modifications, and Alternate Assessments: How They Affect Instruction and Assessment

High-Stakes Assessment (Teaching LD) http://www.dldcec.org/ld_resources/alerts/4.htm

Forum on Accommodations in the 21 st Century: Critical Considerations for Students with Disabilities. Joint Publication of National Center on Educational Outcomes. https://nceo.umn.edu/docs/OnlinePubs/AccommodationsForumReport2011.pdf
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Nancy Cushen White, Ed.D., BCET, CALT-QI, for her assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet.
If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, pleaseclick here.

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Accommodations for Students with Dyslexia - International Dyslexia Association

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New York State Assembly | Bill Search and Legislative Information

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nbsp BILL NUMBER: A4330A REVISED MEMO 11/09/15 Simon (MS) &nbspTITLE OF BILL : An act to amend the education law, in relation to the certification or training of teachers, administrators and instructors in the area of dyslexia and related disorders &nbspPURPOSE OR GENERAL IDEA OF BILL : This bill would require school districts to diagnose students as having dyslexia, to acknowledge the diagnosis on their Individual Education Plans (IEP), and to provide dyslexic students with teachers trained to instruct such students.

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According to NYS Law, the term dyslexia can and should be on an IEP.

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AD/HD and dyslexia are distinct conditions that frequently overlap, thereby causing some confusion about the nature of these two conditions. AD/HD is one of the most common developmental problems, affecting 3-5% of the school population. It is characterized by inattention, distractibility, hyperactivity and impulsivity. It is estimated that 30% of those with dyslexia have coexisting AD/HD. Coexisting means the two conditions, AD/HD and dyslexia,can occur together, but they do not cause each other. Dyslexia is a language-based learning disability characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, spelling,and reading decoding. People with dyslexia have problems discriminating sounds within a word or phonemes, a key factor in their reading and spelling difficulties. (See IDA fact sheets Definition of Dyslexia and Dyslexia Basics .)

How are AD/HD and dyslexia diagnosed?

AD/HD and dyslexia are diagnosed differently. An evaluation for AD/HD is carried out by a physician or a psychologist. This evaluation should include the following:

1. complete medical and family history

2. physical examination

3. interviews with parents and child

4. behavior rating scales completed by parents and teachers

5. observation of the child

6. psychological tests to measure intellectual potential, social and emotional adjustment, as well as to assess for the presence of learning disabilities, such as dyslexia.

Although AD/HD has been given numerous names since it was first identified in 1902, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th Edition (DSM-IV), describes different subtypes. These subtypes are as follows:

1. AD/HD predominantly inattentive type is characterized by distractibility and difficulty sustaining mental effort and attention.

2. AD/HD predominantly hyperactive impulsive type is characterized by fidgeting with hands and feet, squirming in one's chair, acting as if driven by a motor, interrupting and intruding upon others.

3. AD/HD combined type meets both sets of inattention and hyperactive/impulsive criteria.

Dyslexia is diagnosed through a psychoeducational evaluation. (See Dyslexia Assessment Fact Sheet .)

Is AD/HD over-diagnosed?

The American Medical Association and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have concluded that AD/HD is not overdiagnosed; however, increased awareness has resulted in an increase in the number of individuals diagnosed with AD/HD. Girls and gifted children are actually underdiagnosed or may be diagnosed late. Girls often have AD/HD predominantly inattentive type where the essential feature is inattention. This subtype of AD/HD can easily be overlooked because the more obvious characteristics of hyperactivity and impulsivity are not present. Gifted children may be identified late because their strong intellectual abilities help them to compensate for these weaknesses in attention.

Can individuals inherit AD/HD and dyslexia?

Both AD/HD and dyslexia run in families. Genetics play a role in about half of the children diagnosed with AD/HD. For the other half, research has yet to identify a cause. Regarding dyslexia, about one third of the children born to a dyslexic parent will also likely be dyslexic.

Are there characteristics that individuals with AD/HD and dyslexia have in common?

Dyslexic children and children with AD/HD have some similar characteristics. Dyslexic children, like children with AD/HD, may have difficulty paying attention because reading is so demanding that it causes them to fatigue easily, limiting the ability to sustain concentration. People with dyslexia and those with AD/HD both have difficulty with reading. The dyslexic person's reading is typically dysfluent, with major problems with accuracy, misreading both large and small words. The person with AD/HD may also be a dysfluent reader, but his or her reading is not characterized by misreading words. The AD/HD reader may skip over punctuation, leave off endings, and lose his or her place. The dysfluency of both the ADHD person and the dyslexic reader may negatively impact comprehension. Both may avoid reading and derive little pleasure from it. Both the person with dyslexia and the person with AD/HD typically have trouble with writing. The typical dyslexic writer has significant problems with spelling, grammar, proofreading, and organization. The AD/HD writer often has difficulty with organization and proofreading. Both the dyslexic writer and the AD/HD writer may have handwriting difficulties.
Individuals with dyslexia and AD/HD may be underachieving in school even though they are often bright and motivated. The goal for them, as it is for all children, is to meet their potential. It is critical that children with these disorders be carefully evaluated because treatment for one disorder is different from the other. Inaccurate diagnosis can lead to inappropriate intervention and a delay in timely, effective intervention.

Have neurological studies shown functional and/or anatomical differences in the brains of people with AD/HD as compared to dyslexia?

The scientific community has been attempting to define the exact changes in the human brain that lead to AD/HD and dyslexia. There have been pathologic studies of a few brains from people with dyslexia after they died. While some changes in the brain have been found between the brains of people with dyslexia and people who do not have dyslexia, no consistent pattern has emerged that allows the exact "dyslexic center" to be determined. More promising techniques have been developed, which can be performed in living persons. These include imaging studies, as well as physiologic studies. Once again, interesting leads have been found, but none has given us a definitive answer regarding the underlying mechanisms of these disorders. It should also be mentioned that these tests are research tools. There are currently no biologic tests routinely available that allow an objective diagnosis of dyslexia or AD/HD.

What is the outlook for children with dyslexia and AD/HD?

If dyslexia and AD/HD are identified and treated early, children with these disorders are more likely to learn to overcome their difficulties while maintaining a positive self-image. Even though children with dyslexia do not outgrow their disability, they can learn to adapt and improve their weak skills. With proper remediation and needed accommodations, students with dyslexia can go on to be very successful students in colleges and universities, as well as in professional and adult life. After puberty, about 40-50% of children with AD/HD will improve and develop enough coping skills so that their symptoms no longer have a negative impact on their quality of life; however, the other 50-60% will continue to exhibit symptoms of AD/HD through adolescence and adulthood that will negatively affect their lives. It is important to remember that many students with AD/HD with appropriate support and accommodations can be very successful with higher level academic work and in their professional lives. It is never too late to diagnose these disorders. It is not uncommon for a gifted person in college or graduate school to be diagnosed with dyslexia or AD/HD. Such individuals can learn to develop their personal strengths and become not only successful students, but happy and productive adults, as well.

References

Dakin, K. E., & Erenberg, G. (2005). Questions about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia. Baltimore: The International Dyslexia Association.

Tridas, E. Q. (2007). From ABC to ADHD: What parents should know about dyslexia and attention problems. Baltimore: The International Dyslexia Association.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Karen E. Dakin, M.Ed., and Gerald Erenberg, M.D., for their assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet.
If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, pleaseclick here.

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This site is LOADED with information!

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Excellent site for information and audiobooks :)

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Books for Dyslexia | Dyslexia Help & Resources | Learning Ally

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Discover how the books for dyslexia from Learning Ally help you learn more about dyslexia and how to best approach children with dyslexia. Learn more today.

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2nd Edition

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Engaging Books for Children with Dyslexia (grades 3+)

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Engaging Books for Children with Dyslexia (grades 3+)

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These are titles that hooked all my students, regardless of ability. I consider these books central in launching an egalitarian reading culture.

Written in verse, The Crossover is a Newbery Medal-winning book about an African-American family featuring a basket-ball playing male protagonist. Kwame's book will appeal to readers who love sports, hip-hop, jazz and good story-telling. This poignent coming-of-age novel centers on the complex bonds of twin brothers in a sports-loving family, exploring their challenges on the basketball court, in school, and at home.
From our Education Editor, Kyle Redford: Written for grades 3-7. "The Crossover" was a major hit with all the kids in the class, especially among the boys who struggle with reading."
Neil Gaiman writes an imaginative and humorous story about what happens when mom goes out of town and dad steps out to pick up some milk for the cereal and tea. Add in some dinosaurs, pirates, aliens, wumpires and you've got yourself a very compelling and engaging story.

The squirrel never saw the vacuum cleaner coming, but self-described cynic Flora Belle Buckman, who has read every issue of the comic book Terrible Things Can Happen to You!, is just the right person to step in and save him. What neither can predict is that Ulysses (the squirrel) has been born anew, with powers of strength, flight, and misspelled poetry-and that Flora will be changed too, as she discovers the possibility of hope and the promise of a capacious heart.

Breakfast on Mars is a surprise favorite in the same vein as Jon Scieszka's Guys Read anthology series. Edited by Rebecca Stern and Brad Wolf, this collection of 38 out-of -the-box essays by some top Middle Grade authors).

From YCDC Education Editor, Kyle Redford:
"My fifth grade students loved it so much they chose it for purchase for our class library. Breakfast on Mars and 37 Other Delectable Essays will inspire students to think differently about the much feared assignment in elementary and middle schools around the country: essay writing."
"He's a comic book-loving, twinkie-eating grade school AMOEBA trying to find his place in the world (or at least trying to make it through a school day)."
Graphic Novels to Please All
Reviews for Squish:
"A perfect mix of writing that is simple enough for early readers but still remarkably snarky, clever, and entertaining. Kids will soak up the humor, tidbits of science instruction, and adventure."
-The Bulletin From the publisher:"Meet Babymouse, a sassy young mouse who dreams of glamor, excitement, adventure, straight whiskers, being queen of the world....Readers will love Babymouse's vivid imagination....and the clever illustrations and hilarious storyline of brother-sister team Matthew and Jennifer Holm."
Squish comes to us from the creators of the Baby Mouse series and is geared to young people in grades 3 to 7. This time, they've created lots of humor out of high school and science in this graphic novel series.
"The story hooks the reader; it is filled with adventure, suspense, great characters, and has above all an ending that leaves the reader wanting more. This book is written in graphic format that is a favorite of mine. The format is perfect for reluctant readers who never seem to finish a book on their own. Young adults who want to read anything they can get their hands on will also enjoy the graphics and fast paced text. The graphics make an enormous impact on the story." - Kathie M. Josephs, "Children's Literature"
Even though their covers are pink, and the protagonist female, boys fall for Babymouse also.

This graphic novel series about the adventures of a brother and sister duo-Emily and Navin-as they travel to new, strange worlds to save those they love.

Praise for the series:"Five-no, three pages into Amulet and you'll be hooked." - Jeff Smith, creator of BONE
Praise for Lunch Lady: "The Lunch Lady books are fun, quick reads for kids, with lots of zany and culinary-inspired humor." -The Graphic Novel Reporter "With its appealing mix of action and humor, this clever, entertaining addition to the series should have wide appeal."-School Library Journal "...a delightfully fun escapist read. Be sure to recommend this to fans of Captain Underpants." - Kirkus Reviews "Krosoczka's inventive visual details, spot-on characterizations, and grade-school humor make this a standout graphic-novel series." -Booklist
This graphic novel series is great for young people in grades 4-9. Each book in this ultra-popular graphic novel series features a different Greek god or goddess, and will become an obsession for the Greek Mythology fans in every classroom. And maybe even make some new ones...

The Bone series is geard toward grades 3 and up. These stories follow the adventures of the Bone cousins that ensue after Fone Bone, Phoney Bone and Smiley Bone are run out of Boneville. They get separated and lost in a vast uncharted desert and eventually find their way into a forested valley where they encounter many magical creatures. Creator Jeff Smith was inspired to learn to read by the Peanuts comic strip, and now does the same for many young readers of today with his own books.
Praise: "An utterly charming graphic memoir of tooth trauma, first crushes and fickle friends, sweetly reminiscent of Judy Blume's work....Irresistible, funny and touching - a must read for all teenage girls, whether en-braced or not." - KIRKUS Reviews "A charming addition to the body of young adult literature that focuses on the trials and tribulations of the slightly nerdy girl....This book should appeal to tweens looking for a story that reflects their fears and experiences and gives them hope that things get easier." - Publishers Weekly "Telgemeier's book is an excellent addition to middle school literature." - School Library Journal
A humorous graphic novel series for young people in grades 3-7.
From the publisher: "Callie loves theater. And while she would totally try out for her middle school's production of Moon over Mississippi, she's a terrible singer. Instead she's the set designer for the stage crew, and this year she's determined to create a set worthy of Broadway on a middle-school budget. But how can she, when she doesn't know much about carpentry, ticket sales are down, and the crew members are having trouble working together?" Praise: "Hilarious. . . . Telgemeier's graphic artist skills make this novel a pleasure to read and re-read." - Horn Book With the clear, stylish art, the strongly appealing characters and just the right pinch of drama, this book will undoubtedly make readers stand up and cheer. Brava! -Kirkus, starred review
Smile is a graphic novel geared for young people in grades 3 to 7.

From the publisher:
"Raina just wants to be a normal sixth grader. But one night after Girl Scouts she trips and falls, severely injuring her two front teeth, and what follows is a long and frustrating journey with on-again, off-again braces, surgery, embarrassing headgear, and even a retainer with fake teeth attached. And on top of all that, there's still more to deal with...."

Drama is from the same author as Smile, but this graphic novel is geared for a slightly older audience-grades 5-9.

The Strange Case of Origami Yoda
and its sequels:
Darth Paper Strikes Back
The Secret of the Fortune Wookie
Surprise Attack of Jabba the Puppet

by Tom Angleberger

The "Origami Yoda" books tell the story of a sixth-grade weirdo and his mysterious ability to dispense bona fide wisdom through a Yoda finger puppet (cartoons and marginalia included). The book is structured as a collection of stories gathered by Tommy and told by kids who either believe or don't. Ages 8-12

The popularity of the "Wimpy" series ushered in many popular spin-offs. The best thing about these humorous graphic novels is that they appeal to all reading abilities. Because everyone in the class reads (and enjoys) them, the series creates a shared experience among the students, regardless of reading abilities. Ages 8-12

Other Books Like Diary of a Wimpy Kid:

Planet Tad by Tim Carvell

Tad has an agenda: Survive seventh grade.

He also wants to: grow a mustache, get girls to notice him, and do a kickflip on his skateboard...

But those are not the main reasons he started a blog. Tad just has a lot of important thoughts he wants to share with the world, like: Here is the first thing I have learned about having a dog in your house: Don't feed them nachos. Not ever.

From the author's website:
"Charlie Joe Jackson may be the most reluctant reader every born. He does whatever it takes to get out of reading, and so far, it's worked out really well. But one day in middle school he gets into trouble, and finds his impressive record is on the line. Will he push his luck and do whatever it takes to get o ut of reading, or will he finally bite the bullet and... gasp...read a book?!? "

Alvin Ho by Lenore Look and LeUyen Pham

Big Nate by Lincoln Peirce

Auggie is heading to 5th grade at a mainstream school. Until now, his extreme facial deformity has kept him home and safe from peer ridicule. Readers enter into Auggie's life as he embarks upon a challenge to get his classmates to see beyond his face.

Simply told story from a captive gorilla's perspective. It is a sweet book that looks at life from the other side of the cage.

From the publisher:
"Ivan is an easygoing gorilla. Living at the Exit 8 Big Top Mall and Video Arcade, he has grown accustomed to humans watching him through the glass walls of his domain. He rarely misses his life in the jungle. In fact, he hardly ever thinks about it at all...and then he meets Ruby, a baby elephant taken from her family."

Roald Dahl's The BFG is a short classic and really ageless because the story-telling is so good. BFG stands for Big Friendly Giant. The "F" could also have stood for funny. The BFG, like so many of Roald Dahl's books, is so enduring because Dahl really "got" kids. He combined humor, kids' worries and dreams, whimsy in every story-that is what makes these stories worth the read.

The reader takes an adventure with Callum while he tries to keep a promise to a girl and an endangered bird. Set in modern Ireland, it is a suspenseful story that explores grief, survival and respect for the natural world.

Written in beautiful free verse narrative, the text is very accessible, but the story is deep and sophisticated. The reader follows 10-year-old Ha, her mother, and three brothers as they are forced to flee Vietnam during the war. They end up in Alabama having to make extraordinary cultural shifts.

Bestselling author James Patterson has created this semi-autobiographic series for young people in grades 3 to 7.

From the publisher:
"Here's a genuinely hilarious, surprisingly poignant story of a wildly imaginative, one-of-a-kind kid that middle-school readers won't soon forget. Blockbuster author James Patterson's page-turning thrillers have sold millions of copies around the world. So when he turns his storytelling talents to writing for young readers, his success is no real surprise. The comic cartoony line drawings by Laura Park add to the appeal."

Both books are written in easy-to-read free verse and are so compelling and funny that students find themselves rethinking poetry. Ages 8-12

Guys Write for Guys Read: Boys' Favorite Authors Write about Being Boys:

A collection of wonderful, short autobiographical stories written by favorite authors like Avi, Dan Gutman, Daniel Pinkwater, and Jerry Spinelli; edited by Jon Scieszka

Other Worlds

Other Worlds, the fourth volume in Jon Scieszka's Guys Read anthology series for tween boys, features ten thrilling new tales of science fiction and fantasy from some of the biggest names in children's literature.

Sports Pages

From fiction to nonfiction, from baseball to mixed martial arts and everything in between, these are ten stories about the rush of victory and the crush of defeat on and off the field. Compiled by kid-lit all-star Jon Scieszka, Guys Read: The Sports Pages is a thrilling collection of brand-new short stories from some of your favorite authors and athletes.
From the publisher:
"Ten original short stories of mystery, thrills, intrigue, and nefarious activity by ten of the best mystery/thriller writers of our day. Read these if you dare!"
Guys Read: Funny Business

From the publisher:
"Ten stories guaranteed to delight, amuse, and possibly make you spit your milk in your friend's face."
From the publisher:
"The Gang of Five is back in this third story from Paintbrush Falls. Addie Carle, the only girl in the group of friends, is outspoken, opinionated, and sometimes...just a bit obnoxious. Told in elegant, accessible verse...gives readers a look at a strong, smart, and sensitive girl struggling with the box society wants to put her in."
Guys Read: Thriller

The Series is best for older readers as independent read-younger readers need some guidance-not all stories are appropriate for elementary ages, and these stories are not just for boys. Grades 5-9

A hysterically funny autobiographical novel told with lots of visuals and exaggeration. Ages 9-12

A 566-page novel told mostly through illustration. Kids love this fat book; it makes them feel like "real readers." A Caldecott Medal winner. Ages 9-12

Like "Hugo Cabret" this book is told mostly through pictures. From the publisher: "Ben and Rose wish their lives were different. Set fifty years apart, their two stories - Ben's told in words, Rose's in pictures-weave back and forth on a spectacular journey."

A simply told touching story with short easy-to-read chapters.

A funny retelling of the classic tale done in graphic-novel format. Boys do like it, even though they resist it at first.

Geared for students in grades 5 to 8.

From the publisher:
"Ever since readers first met him in Liar, Liar, Kevin's been dying to ask out Tina Zabinski, the Most Beautiful Girl in the World. But since he can barely get a word out when he's around her, it's been hard. And it becomes even more difficult when the school's hunky new guy zeroes in on Tina.Then Kevin gets another one of his brilliant ideas: he's going to take a scientific approach to figuring out how love works...and then he'll ask Tina out. After all, love is based on chemistry and chemistry is science, right?"

A good short book packed with humor and adventure and a little introduction into how capitalism works. Ages 9-12

And the sequel, Lawn Boy Returns.

More books by Gary Paulsen include:
Liar, Liar: The Theory, Practice and Destructive Properties of Deception, and Flat Broke: The Theory, Practice and Destructive Properties of Greed

The author uses everything from journal entries to refrigerator notes to tell a touching story about one girl's challenging year. Ages 9-12

Young Adult Books

This YA graphic novel by Gareth Hinds will be enjoyed by young people in grades 7 and up.
Teachers who recommend these titles gain a lot of credibility with their students. Compiled by Kyle Redford
From the author's website:
"Perhaps the greatest tragic love story of all time, Shakespeare's tour de force of emotional and literary power, this play needs no introduction. My graphic novel adaptation underscores the universality of the drama by bringing a multiracial cast to the setting of historical Verona. The art is strongly influenced by classic European comics, with intense manga-style action scenes, as reckless young love plays out in the exquisite rhymed verse of the Bard at his best."

Simple cartoons help tell the story of Arnold Spirit, a 14-year-old Indian, who has not had an easy life. Using his humor and sharp observation, Arnold grapples with his own ambitions, his Indian identity and the world around him.

This robustly illustrated YA book is a powerful story about the monster, both real and imagined, that 13-year-old Conor must face.

Many titles by Jerry Spinelli seem to get students hooked on reading in the middle elementary grades. Loser and Love, Stargirl are favorites. Spinelli's autobiography, Knots in My Yo-Yo String, is also a surprise hit.

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A Classroom Reading List - Yale Dyslexia

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These are titles that hooked all my students, regardless of ability. I consider these books central in launching an egalitarian reading culture. Written in verse, The Crossover is a Newbery Medal-winning book about an African-American family featuring a basket-ball playing male protagonist. Kwame's book will appeal to readers who love sports, hip-hop, jazz and good story-telling.

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Developmental dyslexia and how it relates to brain function are complicated topics that researchers have been studying since dyslexia was first described over a hundred years ago.

W. Pringle Morgan (cited in Shaywitz, 1996), a doctor in Sussex, England, described the puzzling case of a boy in the British Medical Journal: "Percy ... aged 14 ... has always been a bright and intelligent boy, quick at games, and in no way inferior to others of his age. His great difficulty has been - and is now - his inability to read" (p. 98).

Almost every teacher in the United States has at least one student who could fit the same description written so many years ago. This situation leads many school personnel to wonder why their articulate, clearly bright student has so many problems with what appears to be a simple task - reading a text that everyone else seems to easily comprehend.

Having information about the likely explanation for and potential cause of the student's difficulties often relieves teachers' fears and uncertainties about how to teach the student and how to think about providing instruction that is relevant and effective. Current research on dyslexia and the brain provide the most up-to-date information available about the problems faced by over 2.8 million school-aged children.

When talking with teachers about their students who struggle with reading, we have encountered similar types of questions from teachers. They often wonder, What is dyslexia? What does brain research tell us about reading problems and what does this information mean for classroom instruction?

The purpose of this article is to explain the answers to these questions and provide foundational knowledge that will lead to a firmer understanding of the underlying characteristics of students with dyslexia. A greater understanding of the current brain research and how it relates to students with dyslexia is important in education and will help teachers understand and evaluate possible instructional interventions to help their students succeed in the classroom.

What is dyslexia?

Dyslexia is an often-misunderstood, confusing term for reading problems. The word dyslexia is made up of two different parts: dys meaning not or difficult, and lexia meaning words, reading, or language. So quite literally, dyslexia means difficulty with words (Catts & Kamhi, 2005).

Despite the many confusions and misunderstandings, the term dyslexia is commonly used by medical personnel, researchers, and clinicians. One of the most common misunderstandings about this condition is that dyslexia is a problem of letter or word reversals ( b/ d, was/ saw) or of letters, words, or sentences "dancing around" on the page (Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001).

In fact, writing and reading letters and words backwards are common in the early stages of learning to read and write among average and dyslexic children alike, and the presence of reversals may or may not indicate an underlying reading problem. See Table 1 for explanations of this and other common misunderstandings.

One of the most complete definitions of dyslexia comes from over 20 years of research:

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. (Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003, p. 2)

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability in reading that often affects spelling as well. In fact, reading disability is the most widely known and most carefully studied of the learning disabilities, affecting 80% of all those designated as learning disabled. Because of this, we will use the terms dyslexia and reading disabilities (RD) interchangeably in this article to describe the students of interest.

It is neurobiological in origin, meaning that the problem is located physically in the brain. Dyslexia is not caused by poverty, developmental delay, speech or hearing impairments, or learning a second language, although those conditions may put a child more at risk for developing a reading disability (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

Children with dyslexia will often show two obvious difficulties when asked to read text at their grade level. First, they will not be able to read as many of the words in a text by sight as average readers. There will be many words on which they stumble, guess at, or attempt to "sound out." This is the problem with "fluent word recognition" identified in the previous definition.

Second, they will often show decoding difficulties, meaning that their attempts to identify words they do not know will produce many errors. They will not be very accurate in using letter-sound relationships in combination with context to identify unknown words.

These problems in word recognition are due to an underlying deficit in the sound component of language that makes it very difficult for readers to connect letters and sounds in order to decode. People with dyslexia often have trouble comprehending what they read because of the great difficulty they experience in accessing the printed words.

What areas of the brain relate to language and reading?

The human brain is a complex organ that has many different functions. It controls the body and receives, analyzes, and stores information.

The brain can be divided down the middle lengthwise into a right and a left hemisphere. Most of the areas responsible for speech, language processing, and reading are in the left hemisphere, and for this reason we will focus all of our descriptions and figures on the left side of the brain. Within each hemisphere, we find the following four brain lobes (see Figure 1).

Excerpted from Teaching Reading Sourcebook, Third Edition. Honig B., Diamond L. & Gutlohn, L. (© 2018 by CORE)

The frontal lobe is the largest and responsible for controlling speech, reasoning, planning, regulating emotions, and consciousness. In the 19th century, Paul Broca was exploring areas of the brain used for language and noticed a particular part of the brain that was impaired in a man whose speech became limited after a stroke. This area received more and more attention, and today we know that Broca's area, located here in the frontal lobe, is important for the organization, production, and manipulation of language and speech (Joseph, Noble, & Eden, 2001). Areas of the frontal lobe are also important for silent reading proficiency (Shaywitz et al., 2002).

The parietal lobe is located farther back in the brain and controls sensory perceptions as well as linking spoken and written language to memory to give it meaning so we can understand what we hear and read.

The occipital lobe, found at the back of the head, is where the primary visual cortex is located. Among other types of visual perception, the visual cortex is important in the identification of letters.

The temporal lobe is located in the lower part of the brain, parallel with the ears, and is involved in verbal memory.
Wernicke's area, long known to be important in understanding language (Joseph et al., 2001), is located here. This region, identified by Carl Wernicke at about the same time and using the same methods as Broca, is critical in language processing and reading.

In addition, converging evidence suggests that two other systems, which process language within and between lobes, are important for reading.

The first is the left parietotemporal system that appears to be involved in word analysis - the conscious, effortful decoding of words (Shaywitz et al., 2002). This region is critical in the process of mapping letters and written words onto their sound correspondences - letter sounds and spoken words (Heim & Keil, 2004). This area is also important for comprehending written and spoken language (Joseph et al., 2001).

The second system that is important for reading is the left occipitotemporal area. This system seems to be involved in automatic, rapid access to whole words and is a critical area for skilled, fluent reading (Shaywitz et al., 2002, 2004).

What does brain imaging research tell us about dyslexia?

Structural brain differences

Studies of structural differences in the brains of people of all ages show differences between people with and without reading disabilities.

The brain is chiefly made up of two types of material: gray matter and white matter. Gray matter is what we see when we look at a brain and is mostly composed of nerve cells. Its primary function is processing information.

White matter is found within the deeper parts of the brain, and is composed of connective fibers covered in myelin, the coating designed to facilitate communication between nerves. White matter is primarily responsible for information transfer around the brain.

Booth and Burman (2001) found that people with dyslexia have less gray matter in the left parietotemporal area (Area A in Figure 2) than nondyslexic individuals. Having less gray matter in this region of the brain could lead to problems processing the sound structure of language (phonological awareness).

Many people with dyslexia also have less white matter in this same area than average readers, which is important because more white matter is correlated with increased reading skill (Deutsch, Dougherty, Bammer, Siok, Gabrieli, & Wandell, 2005). Having less white matter could lessen the ability or efficiency of the regions of the brain to communicate with one another.

Other structural analyses of the brains of people with and without RD have found differences in hemispherical asymmetry. Specifically, most brains of right-handed, nondyslexic people are asymmetrical with the left hemisphere being larger than the same area on the right.

In contrast, Heim and Keil (2004) found that right-handed people with dyslexia show a pattern of symmetry (right equals left) or asymmetry in the other direction (right larger than left). The exact cause of these size differences is the subject of ongoing research, but they seem to be implicated in the reading and spelling problems of people with dyslexia.

Functional brain differences

We lack space here for a detailed explanation of imaging techniques. For excellent descriptions of several techniques, readers are directed to Papanicolaou, Pugh, Simos, and Mencl (2004) and Richards (2001).

One commonly used method for imaging brain function is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a noninvasive, relatively new method that measures physiological signs of neural activation using a strong magnet to pinpoint blood flow. This technique is called "functional" because participants perform tasks while in (or under) the magnet, allowing measurement of the functioning brain rather than the activity of the brain at rest.

Several studies using functional imaging techniques that compared the brain activation patterns of readers with and without dyslexia show potentially important patterns of differences. We might expect that readers with RD would show underactivation in areas where they are weaker and overactivation in other areas in order to compensate, and that is exactly what many researchers have found (e.g., Shaywitz et al., 1998).

This type of functional imaging research has just begun to be used with children. This is in part because of the challenges involved in imaging children, including the absolute need for the participant's head to remain motionless during the scanning.

We will present the largest, best-specified study as an example of these new findings with children. Shaywitz et al. (2002) studied 144 righthanded children with and without RD on a variety of in- and out-of-magnet tasks. They compared brain activation between the two groups of children on tasks designed to tap several component processes of reading:

identifying the names or sounds of letters

sounding out nonsense words

sounding out and comparing meanings of real words

The nonimpaired readers had more activation in all of the areas known to be important for reading than the children with dyslexia.

Shaywitz et al. (2002) also found that the children who were good decoders had more activation in the areas important for reading in the left hemisphere and less in the right hemisphere than the children with RD.

They suggested that for children with RD, disruption in the rear reading systems in the left hemisphere that are critical for skilled, fluent reading (Area B in Figure 2) leads the children to try and compensate by using other, less efficient systems (Area A in Figure 2 and systems in the right hemisphere).

This finding could explain the common experience in school that even as children with dyslexia develop into accurate readers, their reading in grade-level text is often still slow and labored without any fluency (e.g., Torgesen, Rashotte, & Alexander, 2001).

In summary, the brain of a person with dyslexia has a different distribution of metabolic activation than the brain of a person without reading problems when accomplishing the same language task. There is a failure of the left hemisphere rear brain systems to function properly during reading.

Furthermore, many people with dyslexia often show greater activation in the lower frontal areas of the brain. This leads to the conclusion that neural systems in frontal regions may compensate for the disruption in the posterior area (Shaywitz et al., 2003). This information often leads educators to wonder whether brain imaging can be used as a diagnostic tool to identify children with reading disabilities in school.

Can we screen everyone who has reading difficulties?

Not yet. It is an appealing vision of putting a child we are concerned about in an fMRI machine to quickly and accurately identify his or her problem, but research has not taken us that far.

There are several reasons why a clinical or school-based use of imaging techniques to identify children with dyslexia is not currently feasible. One is the enormous cost of fMRI machines, the computers, and the software needed to run them. Another part of the cost is the staff that is needed to run and interpret the results.

Also, in order for this technology to be used for diagnosis, it needs to be accurate for individuals. Currently, results are reliable and reported for groups of participants, but not necessarily for individuals within each group (Richards, 2001; Shaywitz et al., 2002).

The number of children who would be identified as being average when they really have a problem (false negatives) or as having a problem when they are average (false positives) would need to be significantly lower for imaging techniques to be used for diagnosis of individual children.

Can dyslexia be cured?

In a word, no. Dyslexia is a lifelong condition that affects people into old age. However, that does not mean that instruction cannot remediate some of the difficulties people with dyslexia have with written language. A large body of evidence shows what types of instruction struggling readers need to be successful (e.g., National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; Snow et al., 1998; Torgesen, 2000).

Now researchers can also "look" inside the brains of children before and after an intensive intervention and see for the first time the effects of the intervention on the brain activity of children with RD. The following are two such studies.

Aylward et al. (2003) imaged 10 children with dyslexia and 11 average readers before and after a 28-hour intervention that only the students with dyslexia received. They compared the two groups of students on out-of-magnet reading tests as well as the level of activation during tasks of identifying letter sounds.

They found that while the control children showed no differences between the two imagings, the students who received the treatment showed a significant increase in activation in the areas important for reading and language during the phonological task. Before the intervention, the children with RD showed significant underactivation in these areas as compared to the control children, and after the treatment their profiles were very similar.

These results must be viewed with caution because of several limitations. One limitation is the lack of specificity about the intervention that was provided, another is the small sample size, and the last is the lack of an experimental control group (i.e., a group of children with RD who did not receive the treatment). Without an experimental control group, we cannot be certain that the intervention caused the changes found in the brain activation because of so many other possible explanations.

Shaywitz et al. (2004) addressed these limitations in their investigation of brain activation changes before and after an intervention. They studied 78 second and third graders with reading disabilities who were randomly assigned to three groups:

the experimental intervention

school-based remedial programs

control

A summary of the instructional intervention is provided in Table 2 and a full and detailed description of the intervention and out-of-magnet reading assessments can be found in Blachman et al. (2004).

Before the intervention, all groups looked similar in their brain activity, but immediately after the intervention the experimental and control groups had increased activation in the left hemispheric regions important for reading.

One year after intervention, the experimental group showed increased activity in the occipito-temporal region important for automatic, fluent reading (Area B in Figure 2), while at both time points the level of compensatory activation in the right hemisphere decreased.

Shaywitz et al. (2002) concluded, "These findings indicate that ... the use of an evidence-based phonologic reading intervention facilitates the development of those fast-paced neural systems that underlie skilled reading" (p. 931).

Important considerations to keep in mind about the brain research

While research advances have allowed us to look more closely within the brain for the first time and revealed important information about how and where we think during reading, there are important considerations that must be remembered.

One is that with the exception of the research by B.E. Shaywitz, S. Shaywitz, and their colleagues, the sample sizes in each study are very small. The evidence from these small studies is converging into results that are reliable, but the results may change as more and more participants are included in the research base. This is especially true with children where both the number of studies and the sample sizes are quite small.

Second, we must consider the type of task being used in the magnet. Because of the requirement that the person's head not move during the imaging, researchers are not able to study people actually reading aloud. Instead, they give tasks that require the person to read silently and then make a decision that he or she indicates with a push button (e.g., Do the letters t and v rhyme? Do leat and jete rhyme?).

Because the researchers have worked carefully on these tasks and have specified the particular process that is being measured, we can trust their conclusions about what the activation levels mean; however, the tasks are quite removed from natural classroom reading and should not be interpreted as if they were the same. The area of brain research is developing rapidly; technological advances are being made that will address these issues as time goes on.

Recommendations for teachers

What does all of this information mean for school personnel and their students? Once teachers understand the underlying processes and causes of reading disabilities, they can use this information as they work with students and their families. The following are specific recommendations based on the neurological research:

Adequate assessment of language processing is important in determining why students struggle to learn to read.
Dyslexia, or reading disability, is a disorder of the language processing systems in the brain. Specific information about exactly what sorts of weaknesses are present is needed in order to determine the appropriate instruction to meet each student's needs.

Imaging research confirms that simple tasks can more reliably be interpreted as "red flags" suggesting that a young child may be at risk for dyslexia.

It is vital to begin using screening and progress monitoring procedures early on to measure children's understanding of sounds in speech, letter sounds in words, and fluent word recognition. Using such assessment in an ongoing way throughout a child's school career can help teachers know what skills to teach and whether a child is developing these skills.

Explicit, intense, systematic instruction in the sound structure of language (phonemic awareness) and in how sounds relate to letters (phonics) is needed for readers with dyslexia.

Imaging research confirmed that instruction in the alphabetic principle caused distinct differences in brain activation patterns in the students with RD (Shaywitz et al., 2004). Keep in mind that the intervention was explicit, intense, long term, and specifically focused on phonological processing, phonics, and fluency.

The roles of motivation and fear of failing are important when discussing reading problems.

Students do not struggle simply because they are not trying hard enough. They may have a brain difference that requires them to be taught in a more intense fashion than their peers. Without intense intervention, low motivation may develop as students try to avoid a difficult and painful task.

School personnel can use their knowledge of the neurological characteristics and basis of dyslexia to help their students understand their strengths and weaknesses around reading and language.

Understanding a possible reason why they find something difficult that no one else seems to struggle with may help relieve some of the mystery and negative feelings that many people with a disability feel. Sharing our knowledge of brain research may demystify dyslexia and help students and their parents realize that language processing is only one of many talents that they have and that they are not "stupid," they simply process language differently than their peers.

Recommendations for parents

The identification of a child with dyslexia is a difficult time for parents and teachers. We suggest that teachers can help parents learn more about their child's difficulty in the following ways:

Teachers can share information about the student's specific areas of weakness and strength and help parents realize the underlying causes of their child's difficulty.
This conversation can also include information about how to help their child use areas of strength to support areas of weakness.

It is critical to help parents get clear about what dyslexia is and is not.

Sharing the common misconceptions and the correct information found in Table 1 with parents may help clear up any confusion that may exist.

Early intervention with intense, explicit instruction is critical for helping students avoid the lifelong consequences of poor reading.

Engaging parents early in the process of identifying what programs and services are best for their child will ensure greater levels of success and cooperation between home and school.

There are many organizations devoted to supporting individuals with RD and their families.

Accessing the knowledge, support, and advocacy of these organizations is critical for many families. A list of several large organizations to share with parents can be found in Table 3.

Finally, teachers can often best help families by simply listening to the parents and their concerns for their children.

Understanding a disability label and what that means for the future of their child is a very emotional process for parents and many times teachers can help by providing a sympathetic ear as well as information.

Imaging research has demonstrated that the brains of people with dyslexia show different, less efficient, patterns of processing (including under and over activation) during tasks involving sounds in speech and letter sounds in words. Understanding this has the potential to increase the confidence teachers feel when designing and carrying out instruction for their students with dyslexia.

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Dyslexia and the Brain: What Does Current Research Tell Us?

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The identification of a child with dyslexia is a difficult process, but there are ways that parents and teachers can learn more about the reading difficulty and support the child's learning.

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Here's a 9 minute video on the reading brain and the differences of those with dyslexia!

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How is the dyslexic brain different? Hear from dyslexia expert Guinevere Eden on what parts of the brain are used for reading. And see how the brain changes when people with dyslexia learn to read fluently.

About the Author

About the Author

The Understood Team

is made up of passionate writers, editors, and community moderators. Many of them learn and think differently, or have kids who do.

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How is the dyslexic brain different? Hear from dyslexia expert Guinevere Eden on what parts of the brain are used for reading. And see how the brain changes when people with dyslexia learn to read fluently. The Understood Team is made up of passionate writers, editors, and community moderators.

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This is a realistic fiction book about a middle school girl who has managed to keep her learning struggles hidden. This book is great for developing empathy among peers or siblings of the student with dyslexia as they understand the challenges of dyslexia.

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Download the PDF version of this article here.
Understanding how to teach your students with dyslexia can be a the thing that changes their lives forever. Dr. Kelli Sandman-Hurley shares teaching tips for dyslexia that are both practical and easy to implement.

Teaching Tips for Dyslexia

Take a moment every day or every teaching session to teach a dyslexic student that the English language is not crazy. For example, at the end of a session, show the student that the is there to show its relationship the word . The u is included so that . They will appreciate the explanation versus the 'English is crazy' approach, because it is not. Remind them that every word has a story and when we figure out the story, we will learn why it is spelled the way it is.

When a child has trouble decoding a word, make it a spelling question instead of a reading question (thanks to Gina Cooke for this insight that was truly fabulous). For example, if a student cannot decode the word curious, create a word sum (made famous by Pete Bowers) like this: cure + i + ous -> curious. Once they see the word parts they will know why the u is long and the i is long (a connector letter), have them verbally complete the word sum and then have them try to decode the word again.

Remind the student with dyslexia, that our written language is meant to represent meaning, not sound...therefore we have to investigate what the words means before we know how it is pronounced. For example, show them that the g in sign is there to mark it's relationship to signal and signature. You can do this with a word sum (made famous by Pete Bowers) like this: sign + al -> signal and sign + ate + ure ->signature. So, the way a word is pronounced depends on the affixes that are attached to it.

When using an OG approach and dictating spelling words, make sure the student is repeating the word before they try to spell. Then make sure they are tapping out the sounds - not the letters- before they write it down. Lastly, if it is a polysyllabic word, make sure they are spelling syllable by syllable.

Give a student with dyslexia permission to process. Increased processing time will almost always yield positive results. Our students have learned that our society wants immediate responses which is why many students just blurt out any answer or wait just long enough before someone just gives them the answer. Not in my office. They learn to take the time they need to process the question, the words and the answer. It takes time for them to unlearn their immediate response behavior, but they will and they will be relieved.

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Teaching Tips for Dyslexia - Dyslexia Training Institute

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Download the PDF version of this article here. Understanding how to teach your students with dyslexia can be a the thing that changes their lives forever. Dr. Kelli Sandman-Hurley shares teaching tips for dyslexia that are both practical and easy to implement.

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This article talks about the importance of phonemic awareness, especially for beginning and struggling readers.

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What is Phonemic Awareness?

To start, phonology is a segment of linguistics that focuses on the study of speech sounds and patterns. In other words, its focus is on the study of sounds in a particular language.

Phonological awareness is the understanding that our spoken language is made up of words and that our words are made up of individual units of sounds called phonemes. Phonological awareness encompasses many skills such as word recognition, rhyming, syllables, and phonemic awareness. All of these are acquired by listening and manipulating words or sounds.

Without phonemic proficiency, studies have shown that students will struggle to master other components to reading as they continue their education.

Although these skills can be worked on simultaneously, phonemic awareness is typically the last of the phonological awareness skills that students master. Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made up of individual sound units called phonemes, and that those sounds have distinct articulatory features. We use articulators to shape the airstream when forming sounds. Articulators include the tongue, teeth, lips, alveolar ridge (ridge behind your teeth), hard palate, and soft palate. Here is a basic example of phonemes in a word:

The word 'cat' has three phonemes: k/a/t

The word 'boat'' has three phonemes: b/ō/t

The word 'dough' has only two phonemes: d/ō

Understanding that these phonemes exist and that the articulators (mouth, tongue, teeth, etc.) are all doing something different to form these sounds is vital in allowing a student to connect these different sounds to the letters that represent them. Since the emphasis is on oral language, students do not need to know the alphabet before developing their phonemic awareness.

Phonemic awareness can be difficult for some students to grasp. Unless explicitly taught, it can be challenging to hear individual sounds within words or individual words within a sentence. The reason?

No. of Letters in Alphabet: 26

No. of Phonemes: ~44

No. of Ways to Spell Phonemes: ~250

The English language is certainly complex, but there are consistencies that we can teach our students. Phonemic awareness is a critical skill in this process and should be taught and assessed early in a child's life.

The skill should especially be focused on in Pre-K through 2nd grade. Studies have shown that children with high phonemic awareness at the beginning of 1st grade showed uniformly high reading and spelling achievement at the end of the year.

Strategies that help grow your students' phonemic awareness include finger tapping, blending strips, tokens and Elkonin boxes, and identifying the beginning and ending sounds in a word.

Specific skills that should be developed include:

Isolation of Initial Sound: What is the first sound in the word dot? (/d/)

Isolation of Final Sound: What is the last sound in the word sun? (/n/)

Phoneme Blending Onset and Rime: What is this word? /t/ /op/ (top)

Phoneme Blending All Phonemes: /p/ /i/ /g/ What is the word? (pig)

Phoneme Segmentation: What are the individual sounds you hear in pot? /p/ /o/ /t/

Phoneme Deletion of Initial Sound: Say take without the /t/. (ake)

Phoneme Deletion of Final Sound: Say big without the /g/. (bi)

Adding Phonemes: Say /it/. Now add /s/ to the beginning. (sit)

Phoneme Substitution of Initial Sound: Replace the first sound in the word back with /t/. (tack)

One thing to note, however, is that phonemic awareness is often falsely equated with phonics skills.

What is Phonics?

In its most basic form, phonics is the relationship between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes).

For most reading this, that relationship might seem like second nature to you. The truth is there are millions of people across the world that were never taught how a combination of letters can be blended together to produce a word.

Some might have memorized all the words they needed, while others continue to struggle with reading and writing.

What is important to remember about phonics is the fact that the alphabet lies at the core of any phonics program. A student must know the letter(s) of the alphabet that corresponds with certain sounds.

As we know in phonics, sounds can often be represented by multiple letters. For example, the words more, for, door, and oar all end with the same sound but are all represented by a different spelling.

The goal of phonics instruction is to help children grasp the idea that there is a logical, predictable, and organized relationship between the letters in the alphabet and spoken sounds.

The most effective phonics programs incorporate direct instruction that is structured, systematic (have a clear step-by-step order of instruction), and incorporate multi-sensory elements. What's also important is keeping children engaged by incorporating phonics games and activities.

By teaching your students phonics in a systematic, explicit, and structured way, they can begin to sound out and decode new words.

Synthetic Phonics vs. Analytic Phonics

It is a question that has come up more in recent years. Traditionally and historically, children have been taught using analytic phonics in which they analyze specific parts of a word.

There is an emphasis placed on the initial sound of a word (/t/ in 'top'), onset, rime, and word families. Children are taught to recognize larger chunks of a word, rather than the individual sounds or phonemes.

Children are also taught to take clues from the recognition of the whole word and the context.

On the other hand, synthetic phonics emphasizes hearing and identifying each phoneme in the word. This approach could be more helpful for early learners as it allows educators to simplify their instruction and tackle phonics on a smaller, more consistent scale.

One important note for educators is that this approach requires you to pronounce the phonemes as correctly as possible.

You would be surprised by some of the bad habits we display when speaking to our children on a day-to-day basis. We take shortcuts around words and sentences, so be mindful of this when you are teaching your lessons.

Summary

In short, phonemic awareness focuses only on the sounds of a word while phonics focuses on the relationship of sounds and letters.

In other words, it will be very difficult for your students to develop their phonics skills if they don't have a good foundation in phonological and phonemic awareness.

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Phonemic Awareness vs. Phonics | IMSE Journal

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To start, phonology is a segment of linguistics that focuses on the study of speech sounds and patterns. In other words, its focus is on the study of sounds in a particular language. Phonological awareness is the understanding that our spoken language is made up of words and that our words are made up of individual units of sounds called phonemes.

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Hank is a bright boy with learning challenges. This series is typically appropriate for grades 3-6.

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Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety.

In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading. That might be anything from reading a menu to taking notes for a book report. But sometimes, kids with dyslexia and other learning differences develop a bigger problem with anxiety.

Learn more about the link between anxiety and dyslexia, and ways to help your child.

How Dyslexia Can Cause Stress and Anxious Feelings

It's not surprising that kids with dyslexia feel anxious at times. They can face many stressful situations throughout a day. Many of those situations involve "what ifs"-a big part of anxiety. Here are two examples:

A child with dyslexia may have to go to the "easy shelf" when the class is picking out reading books. What if the other kids see him and think he's stupid or his choices are babyish?

The class is taking turns reading passages from a book. What if the teacher calls on him and he stumbles over the words?

Kids with dyslexia often have fears about what might happen if they need to do something that involves reading. They may be afraid of failing, or of being judged or embarrassed. There may even be moments when they fear they'll never learn or succeed at anything because of their reading challenges.

These negative emotions are understandable. But they typically don't spread beyond the situation at hand. With understanding and the right support, kids can move past them fairly quickly.

But when kids with dyslexia have stressful experiences often, the emotions can pile up. And so can the anxiety.

Avoid COVID Slide with tips and tools designed to help your child return to the classroom.

When Dyslexia Causes Ongoing Stress and Anxiety

Kids with dyslexia are as smart as their peers. But they face more daily stress because of their challenges.

They often have to cope with struggles, setbacks, and negative feedback at school. Because of this, some struggle socially and feel like they don't "fit in." Their trouble with reading can create "I can't" feelings that impact learning in other areas. This negative view can also impact everyday life.

Feeling a lack of control is a common source of anxiety. Kids with dyslexia can feel like nothing they do will make a difference. That's often because they don't know what's "wrong" with them or why they just can't read like other kids.

After a while, the ongoing stress doesn't just affect kids in the present. Instead of only feeling anxious about something that's happening now, kids may start worrying in advance. The "what ifs" may start being about things that will or might happen farther in the future.

When the anxiety rises to that level, it can move beyond being just a temporary issue. It can become a chronic problem.

Chronic anxiety doesn't just feel bad. In some cases, it can lead to disciplinary issues. Some kids may act out, clown around, or skip class. They may do that to avoid the shame they often feel during activities that involve reading.

For some kids, the anxiety about reading doesn't always stay limited to just reading. Kids may decide that if they "stink" at reading, they'll "stink" at everything else.

To avoid the risk of failure, they may avoid new challenges altogether. They may give up on other classes and activities when they become difficult, or not even bother trying in the first place.

Chronic Anxiety and Dyslexia

Having dyslexia doesn't "pre-wire" kids to be anxious. But in many cases, the more stress kids face, the more sensitive to stress they become. This, and genetics, can contribute to a chronic anxiety disorder.

With an anxiety disorder, worry and fears extend to all aspects of life. It can cause people to dread everyday events and obsess over how things might go wrong. It impacts how they function and gets in the way of enjoying life.

While dyslexia doesn't lead to anxiety disorder, the two conditions often co-occur. If your child has both, it can help to know you're not alone. According to one study, nearly 29 percent of kids with a specific learning disability also have an anxiety disorder.

See an 11-year-old describe her dyslexia and anxiety.

If you're concerned your child is struggling with chronic anxiety, it's important to share what you're seeing with your child's doctor and understand the types of emotional help available.

There's no way to completely spare your child the anxiety that comes from living with dyslexia. But there are many things you can do to help lessen his stress and ease his worries.

If you suspect a reading issue, act. If you're not sure if your child has dyslexia but are concerned about his ability to read, there are next steps you can take. Talk to your child's doctor or teacher about what you're seeing. And consider getting an evaluation. The sooner you can identify the cause of your child's trouble with reading and get him the help he needs, the less anxious he'll feel.

Know the signs of anxiety. Kids can show different symptoms at different ages. Learn what to look for in your child.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is and isn't. Dyslexia is a brain-based issue that has nothing to do with laziness or intelligence. Explain to your child that there are strategies he can learn to help him be successful. Encourage him to listen to other kids with similar struggles who've found ways to succeed. Share dyslexia success stories with him. It can help him know that he's not alone and that there are things he can do to work through difficulties. That may give him a greater sense of control over his academic future.

Find the level at which he can succeed, and let him stay there for a while. Encourage your child to read at a level that's comfortable for him. Don't rush to move him up to more

challenging materials. Give him time to build his confidence in a zone where he feels capable.

Help him anticipate and defuse stressful situations. Is tomorrow the day he needs to read his book report to the class? Brainstorm strategies that will lessen his stress. He could practice reading his book report to you and print out a copy in a large, easy-to-read type. Also tell him you will talk to the teacher about things that can help in school. Perhaps he can record the report and play it in class.

Provide alternatives for learning. Your child needs to practice reading and hone his skills. But if that's not the point of an assignment (for example, learning material in a biology textbook), why make the task even more daunting? If he has an IEP , make sure it provides alternatives. This can include listening to text on audio or watching video presentations. Read about classroom accommodations that can help.

Help him find a way to shine. You know your child is more than just his dyslexia, but he may not always feel that way. Try to identify a special strength in your child. Do your best to cultivate that skill so that he can feel what it's like to excel in something and be admired for it.

Seek out professional help. If your child's anxiety is preventing him from learning or functioning, speak to a professional about the possibility of an anxiety disorder. If he does have an anxiety disorder, talk to his doctor about treatment options. These could include cognitive behavior therapy and medication.

Get tips from a young adult with dyslexia on how he reduces anxiety.

Making sure your child has the tools he needs for reading and learning is a great way to head off anxiety.

Help your child understand what dyslexia is-and isn't. This can reduce anxiety by giving him a greater sense of control.

If you're concerned your child may have chronic anxiety, talk to his doctor about what you're seeing and discuss next steps.

About the Author

About the Author

Peg Rosen

writes for digital and print, including ParentCenter, WebMD, Parents, Good Housekeeping, and Martha Stewart.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Jerome Schultz, PhD

is a clinical neuropsychologist and lecturer in the Harvard Medical School Department of Child Psychiatry.

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Dyslexia and Anxiety: What You Need to Know

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Kids know how important reading is. They hear it from their parents and teachers starting at a very young age. So when kids with dyslexia struggle with that vital skill, it can create feelings of anxiety. In most cases, those feelings are passing and limited to situations that involve reading.

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Approximately 10% of us have weak working memory; however, the estimates of the percentage of weak working memory in students with specific learning disorders, including dyslexia, ranges from 20 to 50 percent. Weak working memory is a core difficulty for students with ADHD, Inattentive Type.

Individuals with traumatic brain injury, deafness, oral language deficits or genetic disorders such as Down Syndrome are also more likely to have weak working memory. The purpose of this fact sheet is to describe the function of working memory, discuss the impact that weak working memory has on learning, and offer suggestions and resources for improving working memory and learning.

Types of Memory

Parents often report that their child has a "poor memory" and that poor memory is contributing to difficulties with learning; however, we don't have just one global memory system. We have several different memory systems that hold different types of information. For example, episodic memory is the store for events in the relatively recent past, such as the birthday party we attended last weekend. Procedural memory is memory for skills and habits. We use procedural memory for riding a bike or driving a car. Semantic memory is the store of knowledge gained over our lifetime and includes information about word meanings, spellings, and pronunciations. We may have great variation in the capacity of these different memory systems. For example, it's possible to have a very strong episodic memory but a weak semantic memory.

Working Memory

"Working memory" is crucial for learning and refers to the ability to hold and manipulate information mentally over short periods of time. Working memory is a process and is different than rote memory, which involves passively memorizing static information.

Working memory is a cognitive process and not a passive store of information.

Working memory is what is needed when we must go beyond straight memorization and do something with the information. Examples of everyday tasks that require working memory include:

Listening to, remembering, and following directions that contain multiple steps

Remembering a question long enough to think about it and formulate an answer

Carrying out the steps to a recipe when no longer looking at the recipe

Engaging in mental arithmetic

Working memory is limited both in capacity and duration. The average adult cannot hold more than six or seven bits of information in working memory. The duration of working memory is usually limited to a matter of seconds. Once information is lost from working memory, it cannot be retrieved. The student who "loses" some of the steps for directions delivered orally will not be able to retrieve the steps without repetition or some other form of assistance.

Components of Working Memory

Working memory is a system of interlinked components. The working memory system includes verbal and visual-spatial short-term memory stores. Verbal short-term memory holds information that can be expressed in numbers, words, and sentences. Visual-spatial short-term memory holds images, pictures, and information about location in space. Working memory also has a component that helps us resist distractions and remain focused when engaged in a task that requires working memory.

One of the key responsibilities of working memory is to manage, manipulate, and transform information from short-term and long-term memory. Working memory is the "go-between" for short and long-term memory. For example, solving a math word problem involves holding on to the details of the word problem in verbal short-term memory while retrieving from long-term memory the basic math facts needed to carry out the calculations involved in solving the problem.

Characteristics of a Weak Working Memory

Individuals with poor working memory tend to have trouble planning, organizing, and carrying out daily chores such as running errands, because it requires mentally formulating a "to do" list organized by time and location. Study skills may also suffer. Working memory allows us to keep track of priorities and helps us block the external or internal distractors that can derail us from the task at hand. Working memory helps us persist with tasks that require focused attention over time. Any of us, even those with strong working memories, can experience working memory problems when overly tired, anxious, or stressed.

Weak Working Memory in the Classroom

A weak working memory can also have an impact on learning. Students with working memory constraints may

perform below average in some or all areas of learning

have difficulty with complex reasoning

have trouble with tasks that have more than one step

stop working because they have lost track of what they are supposed to do

frequently engage in daydreaming

lack skills in planning and organization

have difficulty applying what they learned in a previous experience to a new situation

have trouble remembering all the steps in oral directions

have trouble thinking and doing at the same time

appear highly distractible and inattentive but not impulsive or hyperactive

demonstrate low self-esteem

have relationships with peers but have difficulty following conversations in a group

Impact of Weak Working Memory on Reading and Written Language

A weak working memory can impede phonological learning and production at all levels. Consider a frequent rhyming exercise for young children. "Tell me which word rhymes with fox: truck, dog, box."

To identify the two rhyming words, the child must hold and then compare all of the words in working memory (fox/truck, fox/dog, fox/box). When older children attempt to sound out new words, they must use their working memory to hold the entire sequence of sounds long enough to blend those sounds together.

Working memory is also key to

linking to information held in long-term semantic memory stores to provide the meaning and pronunciation of words.

holding and sequencing sounds for spelling and also for composing, holding, and connecting ideas in written text.

reading comprehension and reading fluency. When reading a long sentence, paragraph or passage, working memory is what allows us to hold on to and integrate information we read early on with information that comes later. Students with strong decoding skills but weak working memories often comment that they "can't remember anything!" from a page that they just read.

Impact of Weak Working Memory on Math

Children with math learning disorders have pervasive weaknesses across all working memory components. Young students with weak working memory make more errors when translating numbers from verbal to written form than do students with strong working memory. The most persistent weakness in children with math learning difficulties is the ability to store and retrieve number combinations and facts from long-term memory. As a result, working memory resources are not available for more complex aspects of mathematical processing. Math fluency is disrupted because a slow and unpredictable response time is the outcome of lack of automaticity in retrieval of basic math facts.

Helpful Approaches

Gaps in reading and spelling skills should be addressed directly. Weak working memory contributes to poor word decoding and encoding. Systematic synthetic multisensory phonic approaches are recommended for students with weak working memory.

For students with adequate decoding but low reading comprehension, direct training in strategies such as comprehension monitoring, knowledge and use of text structures, and use of linguistic context should be addressed. Students can also learn that it may be difficult to hold on to information when sentences are too long. Recognizing when sentences are too long is a cue to slow down, check for comprehension, and, if necessary, re-read.

Slow reading interferes with sentence/phrase comprehension. One strategy to address fluency is to model good fluency for the student by using proper intonation and chunking sentences into meaningful chunks. "Chunking" helps reduce the number of parts to be stored in working memory for immediate processing.

Students who struggle with math due to difficulty retrieving math facts should be allowed easy access to basic math facts. This approach allows the student to focus on higher level math reasoning without bogging down while trying to pull up information that is not automatic. In more advanced math, students may have trouble carrying out math processes that involve multiple steps. Such students may understand long division but make errors due to omitting some essential step. A ring with index cards that provide examples of worked problems that involved multiple steps can support memory and learning.

Classroom-based Support

Classroom-based supports are easy to use and can benefit all students, not just students with weak working memory! Such supports include the following:

Monitoring the students for signs of poor working memory

Reducing the amount of information to be stored (for example, providing information on a white board so students don't have to hold the information in memory)

Simplifying information to make it easier to process

Teaching students how/when to apply memory aids

Repeating information as often as needed

Keeping directions simple and brief

Providing worked examples

Working memory is essential for learning. While we do not yet have a way to change working memory per se, there are many things that parents and teachers can do to support learning and achievement in students who have weak working memories. Helpful resources and websites are listed below:

"Math: Memory Challenges" available at dyslexia.yale.edu

"Understanding Working Memory: A Classroom Guide" by S. Gathercole & T Alloway available at mrc-cbu.com.ac.uk

understood.org provides information regarding how children use working memory to learn. This information can be found under the section "Learning & Attention Issues."

Working Memory: How You Keep Things "In Mind" Over the Short Term. Burmester, A. Scientific American. The Conversation US. June, 2017.

"Working Memory Tips: Helping Kids Reach Their Full Potential" available at https://wwwparentingscience.com/working-memory-tips.html

References

Berch, D. (2011), Working memory limitations in mathematics learning: Their Development, assessment, and remediation. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, ( 37) 2. 21-26.

Dehn, M. J. (2011) Helping students remember: Exercises and strategies to strengthen memory. New Jersey: Wiley and Sons.

Dehn, M. J. (2008) Working memory and academic learning: Assessment and Intervention. New Jersey: Wiley and Sons.

Farrell, M. L., & Matthews, M. (2010). Ready to read: A multisensory approach to language-based comprehension instruction. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.

Gathercole, S. E., & Alloway, T.P. (2008) Working memory & learning: A practical guide for teachers. London: Sage Publications.

Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015) Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA) thanks Michele Berg, Ph.D., for her assistance in the preparation of this fact sheet.
The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). IDA encourages the reproduction and distribution of this fact sheet.
If portions of the text are cited, appropriate reference must be made. Fact sheets may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. © Copyright 2020. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA). For copyright information, pleaseclick here.

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Working Memory: The Engine for Learning - International Dyslexia Association

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The International Dyslexia Association has hundreds of FREE webinars to answer just about any questions you may have on reading and writing.

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Microsoft Assistive Technology, Helping Students Who Struggle

January 2020

Our speaker: Rachel Berge

This session will showcase how these free Learning Tools can be used to support classroom engagement of reading, writing and math for users with learning differences such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, ADHD, emerging readers or a combination of any of the broad range of unique student abilities.

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Microsoft Assistive Technology, Helping Students Who Struggle January 2020 Our speaker: Rachel Berge This session will showcase how these free Learning Tools can be used to support classroom engagement of reading, writing and math for users with learning differences such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, ADHD, emerging readers or a combination of any of the broad range of unique student abilities.