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We take in oxygen with the air we breathe. We can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen. At most. That makes humans aerobic, just like all the other organisms which need oxygen.

We take in oxygen with the air we breathe. We can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen. At most. That makes humans aerobic, just like all the other organisms which need oxygen.

Sugar and oxygen

Aerobic means 'needing oxygen' (O2). All aerobic organisms and micro-organisms use oxygen to convert sugars into energy. These sugars come from the food they consume. This process releases substances including carbon dioxide (CO2) which they breathe out again. The aerobic reaction looks like this:

sugars + oxygen (O2) --> carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) + energy

Aerobicity and humans

Some prokaryote and many organisms are aerobic. Humans are as well. You breathe in oxygen. During the aerobic reaction, this is converted to CO2 which you breathe out. Bread dough rising is a familiar example of aerobic micro-organisms at work. There are in bread dough, baker's yeast. These are single-cell fungi which convert oxygen into carbon dioxide (CO2). This causes the dough to rise and gives the bread its shape.

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We take in oxygen with the air we breathe. We can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen. At most. That makes humans aerobic, just like all the other organisms which need oxygen. We take in oxygen with the air we breathe. We can only survive for a few minutes without oxygen.

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Anaerobic means 'without oxygen' (O2). Anaerobic micro-organisms do not use oxygen to produce energy from sugars. Some anaerobic organisms are even damaged by oxygen. The sugars are contained in the food they consume. The aerobic reaction looks like this:

sugars --> carbon dioxide (CO2) + energy + by-product (such as an alcohol or hydrocarbon)

Anaerobic means 'without oxygen' (O2). Anaerobic micro-organisms do not use oxygen to produce energy from sugars. Some anaerobic organisms are even damaged by oxygen. The sugars are contained in the food they consume. The aerobic reaction looks like this:

sugars --> carbon dioxide (CO2) + energy + by-product (such as an alcohol or hydrocarbon)

Alcohol from yeast

A well-known example of an anaerobic micro-organism at work is the production of alcohol in beer and wine. Unicellular fungi in beer, called yeasts, convert glucose (sugar) into alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO2) without using oxygen.

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Anaerobic means 'without oxygen' (O2). Anaerobic micro-organisms do not use oxygen to produce energy from sugars. Some anaerobic organisms are even damaged by oxygen. The sugars are contained in the food they consume.

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An organism with a cell nucleus is called a eukaryote, from the Greek 'eu' (true) and 'karyos' (kernel).

An organism with a cell nucleus is called a eukaryote, from the Greek 'eu' (true) and 'karyos' (kernel).

From apes to algae

Eukaryotes can be unicellular organisms, such as yeasts and algae, or multicellular organisms, such as humans, animals and plants. The eukaryotes make up one of the three domains into which all organisms on earth are divided. Theirs is the eukarya domain. The other two are the bacteria and the archaea domains.

Exception to the rule

Mankind belongs to the eukaryotes. Almost every cell in our bodies has a nucleus. Only our red blood cells have no nucleus.

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An organism with a cell nucleus is called a eukaryote, from the Greek 'eu' (true) and 'karyos' (kernel). An organism with a cell nucleus is called a eukaryote, from the Greek 'eu' (true) and 'karyos' (kernel). Eukaryotes can be unicellular organisms, such as yeasts and algae, or multicellular organisms, such as humans, animals and plants.

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Only unicellular organisms can be prokaryotes. The word comes from the Greek 'pro' (before) and 'karyos' (kernel). So prokaryotes do not have cell nuclei. Multicellular organisms, such as animals and plants, always have cell nuclei.

Domain

Bacteria / Archaea

Only unicellular organisms can be prokaryotes. The word comes from the Greek 'pro' (before) and 'karyos' (kernel). So prokaryotes do not have cell nuclei. Multicellular organisms, such as animals and plants, always have cell nuclei.

When you look from really close, a new world is revealed to you. Discover the invisible world.

Three domains

All organisms on earth can be divided into three domains. The bacteria and archaea together make up the prokaryotes. The eukaryotes, organisms with cell nuclei, make up the third domain.

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Only unicellular organisms can be prokaryotes. The word comes from the Greek 'pro' (before) and 'karyos' (kernel). So prokaryotes do not have cell nuclei. Multicellular organisms, such as animals and plants, always have cell nuclei. Domain Bacteria / Archaea Only unicellular organisms can be prokaryotes.

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Microworld - The most powerful life on earth

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Microworld - The most powerful life on earth

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-Use this link to correspond with the Microworld section of your Microbes activity

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The most powerful life on earth

When you look from really close, a new world is revealed to you.
More beautiful and spectacular than you could ever have imagined.

Those who think a flea is small are about to enter a whole new world. The world of microorganisms. A microorganism, or microbe, is a creature that is too small to be seen with the naked eye. They're so small, in fact, that a million bacteria - one of the smallest microbes - can fit on the tip of a pin. Without microorganisms like moulds, yeasts, (micro)algae, bacteria, archaea, viruses and micro-animals, life on earth would not be possible.

micro small but in great numbers

When you look around, you see trees, plants and perhaps some birds. These organisms are visible to the naked eye. For a long time, scientists thought that 'nature' was made up of only these visible things. Today, we know better. Two-thirds of life on earth is microorganisms, which cannot be seen without a microscope.

tree of life three domains

In the 3.5 billion years that they have inhabited the earth, microbes have evolved and adapted to nearly every type of environment. That's why they can live in the most extreme places. Everywhere there is food, there is life. And microbes eat almost everything, including metals, acids, petroleum and natural gas. The number of, and the number of different species of, microorganisms are enormous, and new species are discovered every day.

100 million different types

The micro-world may be invisible and mysterious, but it's also indispensable. Microbes are essential in our world and in our bodies. Microalgae in the ocean produce half of all the oxygen in our atmosphere. Fungi and bacteria convert the organic material from dead animals into new raw materials. And intestinal bacteria help you digest your food. Without any of them, life on earth wouldn't be possible.

indispensable

The Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to discover microbes; in 1674 with a microscope he made himself. In a drop of water from the murky Berkelse meer (lake), he saw what he called 'tiny animalcules'. Those turned out to be green algae and rotifers. A short time later (1676), he also discovered red blood cells and bacteria.

about Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

Microbiology: that's something to do with microscopes, white coats and a laboratory, right? Well, yes. But it's certainly not as boring as it sounds. The contributions of microbiologists mean that AIDS is no longer immediately fatal, and damage from notorious hospital bacteria can remain in check. But beer brewers also need microbial knowledge to keep yeast alive during the brewing process. And most of the products in your refrigerator wouldn't exist without microbiology. You wouldn't even need a refrigerator without microbes. For most people, microbiology is a mystery, even though it actually offers us so many possibilities.

the method of microbiologists revolution in microbiology

Microorganisms have sex in all different kinds of ways. The speed and efficiency with which they do it give them many new features andensure that microorganisms can adapt perfectly to their environment and can survive basically anywhere. And they do. How did they manage to make that happen?

sex or no sex?

Hot geysers, acidic volcanic lakes, deep-sea trenches, salty lakes, glaciers and even nuclear reactors. After eons of evolution, all kinds of microbes have sought refuge in the most extreme places. Organisms that prefer to dwell in those conditions are known as extremophiles.

meet the extremophiles

Han Wösten, Chairman of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Vereniging voor Microbiologie (KNVM) (the Royal Dutch Society of Microbiology), provides an introduction to Microbiology. Why are microbes so special and important to our lives? What is his perspective about the future?

watch the video

The most powerful life on earth

When you look from really close, a new world is revealed to you.
More beautiful and spectacular than you could ever have imagined.

A single bacteria can fit more than a million times on the tip of a needle.

Those who think a flea is small are about to enter a whole new world. The world of microorganisms. A microorganism, or microbe, is a creature that is too small to be seen with the naked eye. They're so small, in fact, that a million bacteria - one of the smallest microbes - can fit on the tip of a pin. Without microorganisms like moulds, yeasts, (micro)algae, bacteria, archaea, viruses and micro-animals, life on earth would not be possible.
micro small but in great numbers

When you look around, you see trees, plants and perhaps some birds. These organisms are visible to the naked eye. For a long time, scientists thought that 'nature' was made up of only these visible things. Today, we know better. Two-thirds of life on earth is microorganisms, which cannot be seen without a microscope.
tree of life three domains

In the 3.5 billion years that they have inhabited the earth, microbes have evolved and adapted to nearly every type of environment. That's why they can live in the most extreme places. Everywhere there is food, there is life. And microbes eat almost everything, including metals, acids, petroleum and natural gas. The number of, and the number of different species of, microorganisms are enormous, and new species are discovered every day.
100 million different types

The micro-world may be invisible and mysterious, but it's also indispensable. Microbes are essential in our world and in our bodies. Microalgae in the ocean produce half of all the oxygen in our atmosphere. Fungi and bacteria convert the organic material from dead animals into new raw materials. And intestinal bacteria help you digest your food. Without any of them, life on earth wouldn't be possible.
indispensable

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek drew pictures of everything he saw through his microscope.

The Dutchman Antoni van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to discover microbes; in 1674 with a microscope he made himself. In a drop of water from the murky Berkelse meer (lake), he saw what he called 'tiny animalcules'. Those turned out to be green algae and rotifers. A short time later (1676), he also discovered red blood cells and bacteria.
about Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

Microbiology: that's something to do with microscopes, white coats and a laboratory, right? Well, yes. But it's certainly not as boring as it sounds. The contributions of microbiologists mean that AIDS is no longer immediately fatal, and damage from notorious hospital bacteria can remain in check. But beer brewers also need microbial knowledge to keep yeast alive during the brewing process. And most of the products in your refrigerator wouldn't exist without microbiology. You wouldn't even need a refrigerator without microbes. For most people, microbiology is a mystery, even though it actually offers us so many possibilities.
the method of microbiologists revolution in microbiology

If we translate the unimaginably long time of 4,6 billion years that earth exists to a calendar year, microbes appeared already in February. Only in mid-November more complex organisms such as worm-like organisms came to being. Mid-December mammals arrived. Then man appeared 31st of December, 1 second before midnight.

Microorganisms emerged around 3.5 billion years ago. Back then, the earth was very different than it is today. Microorganisms were able to colonise the steamy, toxic globe, and have been the most powerful organisms ever since. Around 1.7 billion years ago, the first multicellular microorganisms were formed from unicellular ones. And much later than that, about 600 million years ago, the first visible life forms, such as worms, emerged. These multicellular and more complex organisms had important advantages over their microscopic competitors.
the first life emerges

Microorganisms have sex in all different kinds of ways. The speed and efficiency with which they do it give them many new features andensure that microorganisms can adapt perfectly to their environment and can survive basically anywhere. And they do. How did they manage to make that happen?
sex or no sex?

waterbears can live through all kinds of extreme situations for nearly a decade in its state of suspended animation.

Hot geysers, acidic volcanic lakes, deep-sea trenches, salty lakes, glaciers and even nuclear reactors. After eons of evolution, all kinds of microbes have sought refuge in the most extreme places. Organisms that prefer to dwell in those conditions are known as extremophiles.
meet the extremophiles

Han Wösten, Chairman of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Vereniging voor Microbiologie (KNVM) (the Royal Dutch Society of Microbiology), provides an introduction to Microbiology. Why are microbes so special and important to our lives? What is his perspective about the future?
watch the video

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The most powerful life on earth When you look from really close, a new world is revealed to you. More beautiful and spectacular than you could ever have imagined. Those who think a flea is small are about to enter a whole new world.

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The water bear or moss piglet is a real animal despite its small size. It has legs (8), eyes, nerves, muscles and a snout-like mouth. It can survive extreme conditions for nearly 30 years.

Latin name

Tardigrada (rank)

Size

300-500 µm

Lives

in moist, moss-rich environment and in fresh water

Eats

algae and moss

Enemies

spiders, mites, etc.

The water bear or moss piglet is a real animal despite its small size. It has legs (8), eyes, nerves, muscles and a snout-like mouth. It can survive extreme conditions for nearly 30 years.

Live and survive anywhere

Water bears live everywhere around us, for example in moss, on stones or roof tiles which have a bit of moss on them. They are also found, though, on high mountains and in the depths of the sea.

Survival ball

The water bear can put itself into a kind of sleep mode in order to survive. It crumples up into a small ball with water content of just 3%. It can wake from this state after a period of 30 years even though its normal lifespan is just a few months. It 'comes alive' again as soon as the environmental conditions allow. A few drops of water are enough.

Space experiment

In 2007, a number of water bears were sent on a rocket into space. Some of the tiny animals were still alive when they came back to earth ten days later. They had survived extreme cold, a vacuum and high concentrations of cosmic and UV radiation.

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The water bear or moss piglet is a real animal despite its small size. It has legs (8), eyes, nerves, muscles and a snout-like mouth. It can survive extreme conditions for nearly 30 years. Latin name Tardigrada (rank) Size 300-500 µm Lives in moist, moss-rich environment and in fresh water Eats algae and moss Enemies spiders, mites, etc.

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Water can look murky or even dirty when colonies of algae are growing in it. Algae, however, are really useful. For the environment, traffic, cosmetics, dyes and as a source of energy. They could become the raw material of the future.

Water can look murky or even dirty when colonies of algae are growing in it. Algae, however, are really useful. For the environment, traffic, cosmetics, dyes and as a source of energy. They could become the raw material of the future.

Similar to plants

Algae is the general name for various groups of simple organisms which use sunlight as a source of energy and produce oxygen (O2) in doing so (photosynthesis). This makes them similar to plants. However, unlike plants, they do not have complex structures, such as roots, stalks or leaves.

Vitally important

Algae can be unicellular or multicellular. Multicellular algae or macroalgae are also known as seaweed. You often find it washed up on the beach. Unicellular algae or phytoplankton are present in enormous numbers. There are between 100,000 and 100,000,000 microalgae in one litre of water from the North Sea. They are of major importance to our planet. They are the foundation of the food chain and produce half of the earth's oxygen.

Multifunctional

Many kinds of algae are edible. In Asian countries especially, algae are seen as a source of food and are grown on a large scale. Think of nori, for example, which is the black seaweed used in sushi. Algae are also used in medicines, as animal feed, in cosmetics, as dye and even as the raw material for biofuel and for energy generation. Algae are the raw material of the future.

Watch out for blue-green algae

Cyanobacteria are often called blue-green algae. Their numbers can increase dramatically in ditches in the summer. You can become ill if you swallow this water because the algae produce poisonous substances. That is why swimming in Dutch ditches or lakes is sometimes forbidden.

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Water can look murky or even dirty when colonies of algae are growing in it. Algae, however, are really useful. For the environment, traffic, cosmetics, dyes and as a source of energy. They could become the raw material of the future.

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The slime mould is a single-celled organism, but one that you can see with the naked eye, for example on a tree trunk in a damp forest.

Name

Slime mould

Latin
Physarum polycephalum

The slime mould is a single-celled organism, but one that you can see with the naked eye, for example on a tree trunk in a damp forest.

Mass of slime

You will see the slime mould as a plasmodium, a creeping, blob-like mass of slime. Slime moulds belong to the Amoebozoa group. Just like an amoeba, they move using little projections known as pseudopods or 'false feet'.

The brainless clever clogs

Despite not having a brain, the slime mould proved its savvy in a range of different tests. In a maze in which food had been placed in two different places, it changed shape so that it could take the shortest route to the food source. The slime mass primarily responds to chemical signals and is also able to 'remember' whether it has been somewhere before. We can see that from the fact that it avoids that spot. Pretty smart for a brainless creature, wouldn't you say?

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The slime mould is a single-celled organism, but one that you can see with the naked eye, for example on a tree trunk in a damp forest. Name Slime mould Latin Physarum polycephalum The slime mould is a single-celled organism, but one that you can see with the naked eye, for example on a tree trunk in a damp forest.

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Staphylococcus aureus is found in our airways and on our skin. This bacterium does not cause illness under normal circumstances. However, it can result in infection when given the chance.

Latin name
Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is found in our airways and on our skin. This bacterium does not cause illness under normal circumstances. However, it can result in infection when given the chance.

Watch out

Staphylococcus aureus grows best in an aerobic (oxygen-rich) environment but it can also live in anaerobic conditions (without oxygen). The bacterium has a diameter of about 0.8 µm, 60 times smaller than a hair's breadth. S. aureus is termed an opportunistic pathogen. It is not dangerous under normal conditions. However, if given the chance, for example when the skin or mucous membrane is damaged, it can take advantage of the opportunity and cause an infection, sometimes with serious results. S. aureus can also cause food poisoning.

Precautions against S. aureus

Fortunately, we can take precautions against S. aureus. It is sensible to wash your hands regularly, especially after sneezing and before cooking. Too much soap, though, is not advisable. Soap reduces the acidity of your hands, making it easier for S. aureus to survive than its more benign relation Staphylococcus epidermidis. You need S. epidermidis because it produces enzymes which reduce the growth of S. aureus.

The infamous MRSA bug

The MRSA 'hospital bug' is the most infamous strain of S. aureus. MRSA stands for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus. This bacterium can survive (is resistant to) most antibiotics and this makes it difficult to combat. MRSA is called the hospital bacterium because that is where it is mostly found. This is because a lot of antibiotics are used in hospitals.

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Staphylococcus aureus is found in our airways and on our skin. This bacterium does not cause illness under normal circumstances. However, it can result in infection when given the chance. Latin name Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus is found in our airways and on our skin. This bacterium does not cause illness under normal circumstances.

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Most people will be familiar with these tiny crustaceans from ponds or ditches, or from aquariums, where they serve as fish food. They are tiny little dots that move in rapid, jerky bounces by flipping the large antennae on their heads up and down.

Latin name
Daphnia magna

Size

2-5 mm

Most people will be familiar with these tiny crustaceans from ponds or ditches, or from aquariums, where they serve as fish food. They are tiny little dots that move in rapid, jerky bounces by flipping the large antennae on their heads up and down.

Vital link

Water fleas are a vital link in the ecosystem of a pond or ditch. They eat green algae and bacteria, and, in turn, serve as food for larger animals, such as insect larvae, small fish, frogs and newts.

More females than males

Did you know that female water fleas do not need males to reproduce? They are able to incubate unfertilised eggs inside their bodies, and in this way, essentially make clones of themselves. This is why there are many more females than there are males. Only when their living conditions deteriorate - for example when there is a food shortage or it gets very cold - do they produce eggs which are fertilised by a male sperm cell. This results in offspring with wider genetic variation, which is handy from an evolutionary point of view, as it makes them more likely to be able to survive.

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Most people will be familiar with these tiny crustaceans from ponds or ditches, or from aquariums, where they serve as fish food. They are tiny little dots that move in rapid, jerky bounces by flipping the large antennae on their heads up and down.

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Cyanobacteria are a very old life form. About three billion years ago, cyanobacteria started supplying the atmosphere with oxygen through photosynthesis - an atmosphere which, up until that point, had mainly consisted of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour. Without this oxygen, life as we know it today could never have developed.

Latin name
Phormidium

Size

12 µm

Cyanobacteria are a very old life form. About three billion years ago, cyanobacteria started supplying the atmosphere with oxygen through photosynthesis - an atmosphere which, up until that point, had mainly consisted of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour. Without this oxygen, life as we know it today could never have developed.

Blue-green algae

Because cyanobacteria, such as green algae, use the sun's energy to produce nutrients, they are also sometimes referred to as blue-green algae. The blue-green colour comes from the two different types of pigment they use to absorb light energy: a blue pigment and a green pigment. There are also some species with red and yellow pigments, or with just one pigment.

Do not swim

During hot summers, the numbers of blue-green algae can increase dramatically in ditches and lakes. The annoying thing about this 'algal blooms' is that some produce toxins which are hazardous to people and animals. You can become ill if you swallow the water. The 'algal blooms' makes the water therefore temporarily unsuitable for swimming.

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Cyanobacteriën zijn een heel oude levensvorm. Zo'n drie miljard jaar geleden begonnen cyanobacteriën via fotosynthese de atmosfeer van zuurstof te voorzien, een atmosfeer die tot die tijd voornamelijk bestond uit koolzuurgas, stikstof en waterdamp. Zonder die zuurstof zou het leven zoals we dat nu kennen, zich onmogelijk hebben kunnen ontwikkelen.

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Ponds and ditches are not only home to unicellular green algae, but also to multicellular forms.

Latin name

Volvox sp.

How small?

large colonies 2 mm

Ponds and ditches are not only home to unicellular green algae, but also to multicellular forms.

Some 'colonies' are nothing more than a mass of single cells all doing exactly the same thing, but with the spherical volvox it's a slightly different story. Here different cells have specialised and work together. All the cells are located on the outside of the sphere. There are cells with flagella (whip-like hairs) to help the colony move around and cells which are responsible for reproduction.

Inside the mother sphere

During good times, reproductive cells grow directly into daughter colonies, which float inside the mother sphere. They continue on their own when the mother colony ruptures and then dies. As winter gets closer, sex comes into the picture. The reproductive cells either transform into a packet of sperm cells or enlarge to form an egg cell. The sperm cells are released and swim to the egg cells to fertilise them. The fertilised egg cell develops a tough, thick shell. Inside this capsule, the volvox is able to survive the winter in one piece.

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Ponds and ditches are not only home to unicellular green algae, but also to multicellular forms. Latin name Volvox sp. How small? large colonies 2 mm Ponds and ditches are not only home to unicellular green algae, but also to multicellular forms. Some 'colonies' are nothing more than a mass of single cells all doing exactly the same thing, but with the spherical volvox it's a slightly different story.

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This area of research is growing very quickly these days, but how this translates into making real changes in your lifestyle is still unclear. So what can we do, right here and right now? From what we know so far, making healthy life choices when it comes to food, exercise and stress management seems to be key to keeping your microbes, and eventually you, happy. Admittedly, we already knew all this, but now at least there is more and more scientific evidence that this really does work!

Sheba, the writer of this blog, is a volunteer at the Micropia-lab and has her own blog: We Talk Science.

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This area of research is growing very quickly these days, but how this translates into making real changes in your lifestyle is still unclear. So what can we do, right here and right now? From what we know so far, making healthy life choices when it comes to food, exercise and stress management seems to be key to keeping your microbes, and eventually you, happy.

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Your body contains a huge number of microbes - enough to make up 1.5 kg of your body weight. Gut microbes make up 99% of these bacteria, digesting food, creating hormones and vitamins, and strengthening your immune system. However, factors such as an intensive course of treatment with antibiotics can disrupt this bacterial society, leading to long-term health issues. During a poo transplant, people who suffer from particular gut diseases receive an infusion of poo from a donor with healthy gut microbes. The aim is to restore a healthy balance in the gut. Such therapies are all in a day's work at the first Dutch Donor Faeces Bank (NDFB) at the Leiden University Medical Center.

The poo transplant is far from a recent development. As early as the fourth century, the Chinese doctor Ge Hong treated patients with severe diarrhoea by giving them 'yellow soup', a potion containing fresh or fermented human poo. By contrast, Western medicine focused entirely on antibiotics as a cure for infections - including gut infections - after the discovery of penicillin. Although antibiotics save many lives, most patients come down with diarrhoea after prolonged use, which can pose a serious health risk. The reason is that antibiotics target not only the bacteria which caused the disease, but also many useful microbes which occur in the body naturally. Their absence clears the way for other bacteria that cause disease, such as Clostridium difficile. Currently, a poo transplant is one of the few effective treatments for C. difficile.

Several research projects have shown that more than 85% of patients with recurring C. difficile infections recover after having received a faecal transplant. In the Netherlands, poo transplants were first offered in 2016. Donor poo is obtained from volunteers who have been carefully screened. Their poo and blood are tested several times for bacteria that cause disease, viruses and parasites. Prior to the transplant, the patient is given a dose of antibiotics, after which the gut is purged with a laxative. The diluted, filtered donor poo is administered straight into the duodenum through a tube running through the nose, gullet and stomach, so the patient doesn't taste or smell anything.

The donor poo forms a natural ecosystem containing more than 1,000 varieties of useful gut bacteria. They colonise the patient's gut and restore its natural balance. The bacteria that caused the disease are removed and the patient recovers. Current research focuses on the effectiveness of capsules containing freeze-dried donor poo. These capsules would make the treatment a whole lot more comfortable for patients. Moreover, experts predict that it won't be long until the creation of a standard 'cocktail' of bacteria, which would make poo transplants redundant.

Do want to find out more about faecal transplants or do you have any questions? If so, you can ask a Micropia lab technician at our special 'The Lab Technician Explains' talks, which are held daily at 1 pm and 4 pm. As part of our new Tour de Poo through the museum, the lab technicians will tell you more about the use of live gut microbes to treat gut problems.

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Your body contains a huge number of microbes - enough to make up 1.5 kg of your body weight. Gut microbes make up 99% of these bacteria, digesting food, creating hormones and vitamins, and strengthening your immune system. However, factors such as an intensive course of treatment with antibiotics can disrupt this bacterial society, leading to long-term health issues.

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Do you want to know more about what bacteriophages are and how they can be used for treatment? If so, you can watch the episode of the Dutch television programme Zorg.nu with English subtitles about the Doctors of Tomorrow. In this programme, various experts such as Micropia professor Remco Kost offer explanations, while patients talk about their experiences with phage therapy. The programme also describes faecal transplants, which insert healthy gut microbiota in patients to counteract all sorts of intestinal complaints.

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Do you want to know more about what bacteriophages are and how they can be used for treatment? If so, you can watch the episode of the Dutch television programme Zorg.nu with English subtitles about the Doctors of Tomorrow. In this programme, various experts such as Micropia professor Remco Kost offer explanations, while patients talk about their experiences with phage therapy.

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Your mouth is a hive of activity. Approximately ten billion bacteria, divided among 700 different species, live in your mouth. They live alongside a multitude of fungi, archaea and viruses. Most of them are really useful as they help to keep your mouth healthy. The precise composition of this life inside the mouth differs from person to person: it is unique, like a fingerprint. However, the more you French kiss the same person, the more similar the collection of bacteria in the saliva in your mouths will become. That may well, though, not just be caused by kissing.

Some bacteria are found in everyone's mouth, such as Streptococcus, Actinomyces and Gemella. Lots of other species, however, are less common. Intimate kissing exposes you to a gigantic number of bacteria and other micro-organisms. In just 10 seconds, you will exchange about 80 million of them. Research carried out by Professor Remco Kort (TNO) for Micropia made that clear. Specimens from the saliva and tongues of 21 couples also showed that the collection of microbes in the mouth of partners is far more similar than that of two randomly chosen people. That is not just because of French kissing but also because of factors such as sharing the same food and toothpaste.

A photo of bacteria on the tongue, made by an electron microscope.

Microbes that end up in your mouth have to stick there, otherwise they will be swallowed. Being swallowed would mean their almost certain death because there are very few microbes which can survive your gastric juices. The overwhelming majority of the microbes you receive during a French kiss will be swallowed within a couple of hours. Some species, though, are well equipped to stick inside your mouth. They have developed all kinds of techniques to do this. Some produce proteins, for example, which allow them to stick very well to your teeth or tongue. Others are very good at attaching themselves to the bacteria which have formed a first layer.

Bacteria crawl up close to each other on your teeth and form a thin layer: a biofilm. We call it plaque.

Some believe that intimate kissing developed from mothers chewing food and then giving it to their babies. The theory is far from proven. But why do we French kiss anyway? Opinions are divided on that subject too. People get sexually aroused from kissing, that is certain, and it strengthens the bond with the partner. It is highly probable that bacteria and viruses play a major role in what happens during intimate kissing. A French kiss is an evaluation of the mouth flora of your partner, an important criterion in your choice of partner. Who has never been put off after a first kiss? But French kissing also boosts your resistance, because the wider the biodiversity in your mouth is the better equipped it is to keep unwelcome visitors at bay. Another hypothesis is that French kissing allows women to build up resistance to possible infections during pregnancy. In a nutshell, a helping hand which can often aid good health.

Kissing is often healthy, but not always. Besides all those microbes in your mouth that you need, there are also a few you should avoid. You can catch glandular fever, for example, from French kissing. It is a viral infection caused by theEpstein-Barr virus, a herpes virus. It is known colloquially as kissing disease due to the fact that it is often probably spread by saliva. Kissing someone with cold sores is also not an advisable thing to do. The herpes simplex virus which causes cold sores is highly infectious. About 40% of people aged 15 and over are carriers of the virus although only 20-40% of them will show any symptoms from time to time.

The Epstein-Barr virus.

French kissing is highly usual in over 90% of known human societies. So nearly everyone does it. Man appears to be the only animal to have acquired the habit. Various other species, such as fish, birds and monkeys, do have mouth-to-mouth contact but this is mostly rather superficial skin contact or is to do with sharing food. Animals also exchange microbes in the process just as in other kinds of physical contact. Exchanges also take place between humans and animals for instance during petting. This is why you will have more microbes in common with your pet than with other animals of the same species. This is also a good thing. But think twice before giving a kiss to your parrot or parakeet: your mouth is full of bacteria which can harm these birds.

It's all very well to know that the collection of microbes in your mouth are like your partner's, but of what use is the information? Remco Kort sees it as a piece of a major puzzle. "We live in symbiosis with our 100,000 billion microbes. They complement us. Without microbes in our intestine, we could not do things like produce vitamins or break down our food. Microbes play an essential role in our body. It is therefore important to research which people carry which micro-organisms, how your microbiome is formed, what causes it to change and how you can influence it. For example, by kissing. When we know the answers to those questions and to why some micro-organisms can make your body their home, we will have the key to the solution of a great many medical problems."

During the research Professor Remco Kort made all the participants spit in a tube to obtain a sample of their saliva.

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Your mouth is a hive of activity. Approximately ten billion bacteria, divided among 700 different species, live in your mouth. They live alongside a multitude of fungi, archaea and viruses. Most of them are really useful as they help to keep your mouth healthy.

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You can't see them, but they're there. They're in you, on you, and you alone have more than a hundred thousand billion of them. That's 14,000 times more than the number of people on earth. They're in your nose and your ears, under your armpits, in your eyes, mouth and stomach, on your skin and on the bottom of your feet. They're everywhere, actually. And that's a good thing. They protect you and help you stay healthy. Get to know this invisible life form. And you'll never see yourself, or the world, in the same way again. Discover more about invisible life " here". Want to see your own microbes? Click " here ".

You do not see them, but they are there. And they interfere with everything. Microbes.

While you were sleeping, your microbes were hard at work all night long. Because microbes never sleep. And when you get up in the morning, you'll encounter even more microbes. Your cheese sandwich at breakfast is only possible because of microbes like yeast and bacteria. Microbe skeletons in your toothpaste scrub your teeth clean. And in your intestines, nearly 1.5 kilograms of microbes help you digest your food. Your poop is even comprised of 50% bacteria. A morning full of microbes. Read " more ".

They sit on you, they are inside you, and you have more than a hundred thousand billion of them.

Jump into the pool and your microbes jump right in with you. They stay with you all the time. They wouldn't allow themselves to be washed away just like that. OK, maybe a couple of million of them would, but they'll be back to their full numbers before you know it. Every person has a unique composition of microbes. One person has a certain microbe that another person doesn't. You've got more of one sort than your neighbour has. Microbes make you so unique, scientists can tell by the traces on your keyboard that it belongs to you. And that's just the beginning. Your microbes. Check them out " here ".

Microbes do not let themselves get washed off your body just like that.

People think they can do anything. But microbes can do a lot more. Microbes can live in environments that would be unthinkable for humans. Like in nearly pure sulphuric acid. Or in boiling hot water. Or under extremely high pressure. Take Deinococcus radiodurans, for example. These bacteria can survive in extreme cold, drought or acidity. They can even live on the walls of a nuclear reactor. No wonder they're listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the toughest bacteria in the world. " More about this record-holder ".

Microbes, they can do the most extreme things.

Microbes love your warm feet. Around 150 different sorts of fungi live just on your feet. That includes 80 sorts on your heels, 60 on your toenails and 40 between your toes. And that's a good thing, because they protect you against harmful bacteria from the outside world. One of the most well-known foot fungi is Trichophyton rubrum. It feels most at home between your fourth and fifth toe, where the pressure, moisture and temperature are their highest. Unfortunately, this fungus can also cause swimmer's eczema and chalky, brittle toenails. See your feet from very close up " here ".

Drive a car with the help of microbes? Yes, you can! Algae can be used to make environmentally friendly biofuels. They use CO2 and sunlight to grow. That's how they got their nickname: 'green gold'. Microbes can help us in ways you can only imagine. We still know very little about them, but can learn a great deal from them.

Riding on the green gold.

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You can't see them, but they're there. They're in you, on you, and you alone have more than a hundred thousand billion of them. That's 14,000 times more than the number of people on earth. They're in your nose and your ears, under your armpits, in your eyes, mouth and stomach, on your skin and on the bottom of your feet.

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When you look from really close, a new world is revealed to you. More beautiful and spectacular than you could ever have imagined.

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Microbes play a crucial role in our lives. In fact we couldn't live without them but they could live without us. That is because some fungi and also soil bacteria, called the decomposers, break down dead plants and animals and their waste products into simpler substances, called nutrients.

These nutrients, including carbon dioxide, water, sodium and potassium are returned to the environment so that other living things can use them. This cyclical process by which essential elements are released and reused is known as recycling. All essential elements such as carbon and nitrogen are cycled through biochemical pathways.

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Microbes play a crucial role in our lives. In fact we couldn't live without them but they could live without us. That is because some fungi and also soil bacteria, called the decomposers, break down dead plants and animals and their waste products into simpler substances, called nutrients.

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artist's video: https://hmnh.harvard.edu/file/946521

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Photos by Scott Chimileski

A hidden world of vibrant colors, dynamic movements, and extraordinary shapes has come alive at Harvard.

Researchers Roberto Kolter and Scott Chimileski's large-scale photographs illustrating the intricate social and multidimensional wonder of the small-scale world of microbes are on display in the Science Center show "Scale: A Matter of Perspective" through Dec. 9. The stunning images, which blend art and science, also comprise the exhibit " World in a Drop: Photographic Explorations of Microbial Life " at the Harvard Museum of Natural History through Jan. 7.

For a hands-on experience, educators, researchers, and the Art+Bio Collaborative will hold a Microbes Mini-Festival on Sunday from 1 to 4 p.m. Visitors can observe thriving microbial colonies on cheese rinds, and watch the aquatic micro-animals known as "waterbears" prowl a landscape the unaided human eye can't see. The opportunity to work on a collaborative art project detailing a large microbial community and interact with fungi is part of the fun.

The images below give a glimpse of what keeps our ecosystems and our lives in balance. These stunning pictures invite people to explore the significant, structural world of the unseen.

- Deborah Blackwell

Health & Medicine

Credit: iStock

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Photos reveal strange beauty of microbes

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A hidden world of vibrant colors, dynamic movements, and extraordinary shapes has come alive at Harvard. Researchers Roberto Kolter and Scott Chimileski's large-scale photographs illustrating the intricate social and multidimensional wonder of the small-scale world of microbes are on display in the Science Center show "Scale: A Matter of Perspective" through Dec.

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https://docs.google.com/document/d/1s9QNV53LA_axd6pyxMgr1cpq8wKOQ8ZMjYW5xZ1LflE/edit?usp=sharing