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The British colonization of Australia had great impact on the indigenous civilization. What is colonialism all about?
Today we are going to the 1700's in our time-machine:
We are staning on the bow of a big ship, waching over the land getting closer. Who are you, what are you doing on the boat?

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Think back to the trip you took to the 1700's, they brougt lots of forreign species with them. Why did they do that?

The great distance from the rest of the world to the continent of Australia is an important factor why the nature of this remote area evolved different from other parts of the planet.
Marsupials, for example, have been very successful on this continent and the surrounding islands. The kenguru is probably the most known marsupial. In this lesson, we will take a closer look at how colonialism affected the wildlife in Australia and how human activity can affect biodiversity.

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Raise the awareness of what can happen when introducing non domestic species.

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The time machine brings the pupils back to an Aboriginal family in real time (Group 1 Kaurareg, group 2 Amangu, group 3 Wiradjuri, group 4 Pitjantjatjara, group 5 Yorta Yorta, group 6 Kaurna).

Watch the documentary for inspiration:

https://youtu.be/Tcq4oGL0wlI

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Learning goals

-   Envirionmental and climatical changes in your area?

-  Industrial changes in your area in through the history.

- Cultural changes in your area today, especially with emphasis on the cultural/religious changes within the aboriginal community

- Human rights and cultural rights

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Make a presentation, digital or analog, of you and your tribe. (To example video, padlet, blogg post, newspaper article, diary entry, picture presentations with text...this is all up to your creativity:)

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Who are you and your tribe today and in an historical perspective?

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Suggestions and inspiration for questions to be answered

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Suggestions and inspiration for questions to be answered

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-  What characterize the geography in the area you live in today? What about 100 years ago?

-  How does the family you visit live, what kind of house do they have, how many people live in one household? Historically?

- Where are they from, could you find out anything about their history?

- Do they have livestock, or do they exploit nature resources in other ways?

-  Are there any new industries that has come to your area the last decades?

- What is important to them in their everyday life (culture, culture rights, religion etc.)
- How is the health in the family?

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Indigenous Australians are people who are descended from groups that lived in Australia and surrounding islands before British colonisation. They include the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia. The term Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is preferred by many; First Nations of Australia, First Peoples of Australia and First Australians are also increasingly common terms.

The time of arrival of the first peoples on the continent and nearby islands is a matter of debate among researchers. The earliest conclusively human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man LM3 and Mungo Lady, which have been dated to around 50,000 years BP. Recent archaeological evidence from the analysis of charcoal and artefacts revealing human use suggests a date as early as 65,000 BP. Luminescence dating has suggested habitation in Arnhem Land as far back as 60,000 years BP. Evidence of fires in South-West Australia suggest "human presence in Australia 120,000 years ago", although more research is required. Genetic research has inferred a date of habitation as early as 80,000 years BP. Other estimates have ranged up to 100,000 years and 125,000 years BP.

The population of Indigenous Australians at the time of permanent European settlement is contentious and has been estimated at between 318,000 and 1,000,000 with the distribution being similar to that of the current Australian population, the majority living in the south-east, centred along the Murray River. A population collapse principally from disease followed European settlement, beginning with a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans. Massacres and frontier conflicts involving European settlers also contributed to depopulation. The characterisation of this violence as genocide is controversial and disputed.

Although there are a number of commonalities among the various Aboriginal peoples, there is also a great diversity among different communities and societies in Australia, each with its own mixture of cultures, customs and languages. In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 Aboriginal languages were spoken; it is currently estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use, but only 13 of these are not considered endangered. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Indigenous languages in the phonology and grammatical structure).

The Australian Census includes counts of Indigenous peoples, based on questions relating to individuals' self-identification as Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or of both origins. As of 30 June 2016, the count was 798,365, or 3.3% of Australia's population. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal flag and the Torres Strait Islander flag have been among the official flags of Australia.

There is a number of appropriate terms to use when referring to Indigenous peoples of Australia, but there is general agreement that it is important to respect the "preferences of individuals, families, or communities, and allow them to define what they are most comfortable with" when referring to Indigenous people.

The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century to mean, "first or earliest known, indigenous". It comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab (from) and origo (origin, beginning). The term was used in Australia to describe its Indigenous peoples as early as 1789. It became capitalised and was employed as the common name to refer to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, although today the latter are not included in the term. The term "Aborigine" is deprecated, being regarded as outdated and inappropriate, having connotations of colonial Australia.

While the term "Indigenous Australians" has grown since the 1980s, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples dislike it, feeling that it is too generic and removes their identity. However, the term has a practical application and can be used where appropriate.

In recent years, "First Nations", "First Peoples" and "First Australians" have become more common. First Nations is considered the most acceptable by most people.

Being as specific as possible, for example naming the language group (such as Arrernte), demonym relating to geographic area (such as Nunga), is considered best practice and most respectful. (See also below under Regional groups section.) The abbreviation "ATSI" (for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people) is considered disrespectful.

Terms "black" and "blackfella"

The term "black" has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement. While originally related to skin colour and often used pejoratively, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to any people of such heritage regardless of their level of skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term "black", and writer Kevin Gilbert's book from the time was entitled Living Black. The book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community, including Robert Jabanungga, reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture. Use of this term varies depending on context and its use needs care as it may be deemed inappropriate.

Aboriginal peoples of Australia are the various peoples indigenous to mainland Australia and associated islands, excluding the Torres Strait Islands.

The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many regional groups that may be identified under names based on local language, locality, or what they are called by neighbouring groups. Some communities, cultures or groups may be inclusive of others and alter or overlap; significant changes have occurred in the generations after colonisation. The word "community" is often used to describe groups identifying by kinship, language or belonging to a particular place or "country". A community may draw on separate cultural values and individuals can conceivably belong to a number of communities within Australia; identification within them may be adopted or rejected. An individual community may identify itself by many names, each of which can have alternative English spellings.

The Tasmanian Aboriginal population are thought to have first crossed into Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between the island and the rest of mainland Australia during the last glacial period. Estimates of the population of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania, before European arrival, are in the range of 3,000 to 15,000 people although genetic studies have suggested significantly higher figures, which are supported by Indigenous oral traditions that indicate a reduction in population from diseases introduced by British and American sealers before settlement. The original population was further reduced to around 300 between 1803 and 1833 due to disease, warfare and other actions of British settlers. Despite over 170 years of debate over who or what was responsible for this near-extinction, no consensus exists on its origins, process, or whether or not it was genocide. However, using the "...UN definition, sufficient evidence exists to designate the Tasmanian catastrophe genocide". A woman named Trugernanner (often rendered as Truganini) who died in 1876, was, and still is, widely believed to be the very last of the full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal people. However, in 1889 Parliament recognised Fanny Cochrane Smith (d:1905) as the last surviving full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal person.

The 2016 census reported 23,572 Indigenous Australians in the state of Tasmania.

The Torres Strait Islander people possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, and speak a Papuan language. Accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation "Aboriginal Australians". This has been another factor in the promotion of the more inclusive term "Indigenous Australians". Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders. A further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage.

The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879. Many Indigenous organisations incorporate the phrase "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander" to highlight the distinctiveness and importance of Torres Strait Islanders in Australia's Indigenous population.

Several settlements of humans in Australia have been dated around 49,000 years ago. Luminescence dating of sediments surrounding stone artefacts at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia, indicates human activity at 65,000 years BP. Genetic studies appear to support an arrival date of 50-70,000 years ago.

The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of Africa) are those of Mungo Man; they have been dated at 42,000 years old. The initial comparison of the mitochondrial DNA from the skeleton known as Lake Mungo 3 (LM3) with that of ancient and modern Aboriginal peoples indicated that Mungo Man is not related to Australian Aboriginal peoples. However, these findings have been met with a general lack of acceptance in scientific communities. The sequence has been criticised as there has been no independent testing, and it has been suggested that the results may be due to posthumous modification and thermal degradation of the DNA. Although the contested results seem to indicate that Mungo Man may have been an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans, the administrative body for the Mungo National Park believes that present-day local Aboriginal peoples are descended from the Lake Mungo remains. Independent DNA testing is unlikely as the Indigenous custodians are not expected to allow further invasive investigations.

It is generally believed that Aboriginal people are the descendants of a single migration into the continent, a people that split from the first modern human populations to leave Africa 64,000 to 75,000 years ago, although others support an earlier theory that there were three waves of migration, most likely island hopping by boat during periods of low sea levels (see Prehistory of Australia). Recent work with mitochondrial DNA suggests a founder population of between 1,000 and 3,000 women to produce the genetic diversity observed, which suggests "that initial colonisation of the continent would have required deliberate organised sea travel, involving hundreds of people". Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct Australian megafauna.

Genetically, while Aboriginal Australians are most closely related to Melanesian and Papuan people, there is also another component that could indicate South Asian admixture or more recent European influence. Research indicates a single founding Sahul group with subsequent isolation between regional populations which were relatively unaffected by later migrations from the Asian mainland, which may have introduced the dingo 4-5,000 years ago. The research also suggests a divergence from the Papuan people of New Guinea and the Mamanwa people of the Philippines about 32,000 years ago, with a rapid population expansion about 5,000 years ago. A 2011 genetic study found evidence that the Aboriginal, Papuan and Mamanwa peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovan peoples of Asia, (not found amongst populations in mainland Asia) suggesting that modern and archaic humans interbred in Asia approximately 44,000 years ago, before Australia separated from New Guinea and the migration to Australia. A 2012 paper reports that there is also evidence of a substantial genetic flow from India to northern Australia estimated at slightly over four thousand years ago, a time when changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the Australian archaeological record, suggesting that these may be related.

Aboriginal Australian men have Haplogroup C-M347 in high frequencies with peak estimates ranging from 60.2% to 68.7%. In addition, the basal form K2* (K-M526) of the extremely ancient Haplogroup K2 - whose subclades Haplogroup R, haplogroup Q, haplogroup M and haplogroup S can be found in the majority of Europeans, Northern South Asians, Native Americans and the Indigenous peoples of Oceania - has only been found in living humans today amongst Aboriginal Australians. 27% of them may carry K2* and approximately 29% of Aboriginal Australian males belong to subclades of K2b1, a.k.a. M and S.

Although it is estimated that people migrated from the Indonesian archipelago and New Guinea to mainland Australia about 70,000 years ago, as of 2020 evidence of human settlement has only been uncovered by archaeologists dating back to about 2500 years ago.

Aboriginal people in some regions lived as foragers and hunter-gatherers, hunting and foraging for food from the land. Although Aboriginal society was generally mobile, or semi-nomadic, moving according to the changing food availability found across different areas as seasons changed, the mode of life and material cultures varied greatly from region to region, and there were permanent settlements and agriculture in some areas. The greatest population density was to be found in the southern and eastern regions of the continent, the River Murray valley in particular. Canoes were made out of bark for use on the Murray.

Along the northern coast of Australia, parsnip yams were harvested by leaving the bottom part of the yam still stuck in the ground so that it would grow again in the same spot. Similar to many other farmers in the world, Aboriginal peoples used slash and burn techniques to enrich the nutrients of their soil. However, sheep and cattle later brought over by Europeans would ruin this soil by trampling on it. To add on the complexity of Aboriginal farming techniques, natives deliberately exchanged seeds to begin growing plants where they did not naturally occur. In fact there were so many examples of Aboriginal Australians managing farm land in a complex manor that Australian Anthropologist, Dr. Norman Tindale was able to draw an Aboriginal grain belt, detailing the specific areas where crops were once produced.

Technology used by Indigenous Australian societies before European contact included weapons, tools, shelters, watercraft, and the message stick. Weapons included boomerangs, spears (sometimes thrown with a woomera) with stone or fishbone tips, clubs, and (less commonly) axes. The stone age tools available included knives with ground edges, grinding devices, and eating containers. Fibrecraft was well-developed, and fibre nets, baskets, and bags were used for fishing, hunting, and carrying liquids. Trade networks spanned the continent, and transportation included canoes. Shelters varied regionally, and included wiltjas in the Atherton Tablelands, paperbark and stringybark sheets and raised platforms in Arnhem Land, whalebone huts in what is now South Australia, stone shelters in what is now western Victoria, and a multi-room pole and bark structure found in Corranderrk. A bark tent or lean-to is known as a humpy, gunyah, or wurley. Clothing included the possum-skin cloak in the southeast and riji (pearl shells) in the northeast.

There is evidence that some Aboriginal populations in northern Australia regularly traded with Makassan fishermen from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans.

At the time of first European contact, it is generally estimated that the pre-1788 population was 314,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 500,000 to 750,000 could have been sustained, with some ecologists estimating that a population of up to a million or even two million people was possible. More recent work suggests that Aboriginal populations exceeded 1.2 million 500 years ago, but may have fallen somewhat with the introduction of disease pathogens from Eurasia in the last 500 years. The population was split into 250 individual nations, many of which were in alliance with one another, and within each nation there existed separate, often related clans, from as few as 5 or 6 to as many as 30 or 40. Each nation had its own language, and a few had several.

There is some evidence to suggest that the section of the Australian continent now occupied by Queensland was the single most densely populated area of pre-contact Australia. There are also signs that the population density of Aboriginal Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the Gulf of Carpentaria and westward including certain sections of Northern Territory and Western Australia.

State/territory

1930-estimated share of population

1988-estimated share of population

Distribution of trad. tribal land

The Torres Strait peoples' fishing economy relied on boats, which they built themselves. There is also evidence of the construction of large, complex buildings on stilts and domed structures using bamboo, with thatched roofs, which catered for extended family members living together.

British colonisation of Australia began with the arrival of the First Fleet in Botany Bay, New South Wales, in 1788. Settlements were subsequently established in Tasmania (1803), Victoria (1803), Queensland (1824), Western Australia (1826), and the Colony of South Australia (1836).

The first settlement in the Northern Territory was built after Captain Gordon Bremer took possession of the Tiwi Islands of Bathurst and Melville, claiming them for the colony of New South Wales, although that settlement failed after a few years, along with a couple of later attempts; permanent settlement was only finally achieved at Darwin in 1869.

Australia was the exception to British imperial colonisation practices, in that no treaty was drawn up setting out terms of agreement between the settlers and native proprietors, as was the case in North America, and New Zealand. Many of the men on the First Fleet had had military experience among Native American tribes in North America, and tended to attribute to the Aboriginal people alien and misleading systems or concepts like chieftainship and tribe with which they had become acquainted in the northern hemisphere.

British administrative control began in the Torres Strait Islands in 1862, with the appointment of John Jardine, police magistrate at Rockhampton, as Government Resident in the Torres Straits. He originally established a small settlement on Albany Island, but on 1 August 1864 he went to Somerset Island. English missionaries arrived on Erub (Darnley Island) on 1 July 1871. In 1872 the boundary of Queensland was extended to include Thursday Island and some other islands in Torres Strait within 60 miles (97 km) of the Queensland coast, and in 1879 Queensland annexed the other islands, which became part of the British colony of Queensland.

One immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis. In the 19th century, smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths, and vaccinations of the "native inhabitants" had begun in earnest by the 1840s. This smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90% of the Darug people. The cause of the outbreak is disputed. Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers, but it is also argued that Macassan fishermen from South Sulawesi and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia before the arrival of Europeans. A third suggestion is that the outbreak was caused by contact with members of the First Fleet. A fourth theory is that the epidemic was of chickenpox, not smallpox, carried by members of the First Fleet, and to which the Aboriginal people also had no immunity.

Another consequence of British colonisation was European seizure of land and water resources, with the decimation of kangaroo and other indigenous foodstuffs which continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as rural lands were converted for sheep and cattle grazing. Settlers also participated in the rape and forcible prostitution of Aboriginal women. Despite this a number of Europeans, including convicts, formed favourable impressions of Aboriginal life through living with Aboriginal Groups.

During the 1860s, Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into craniofacial anthropometry. The skeleton of Truganini, a Tasmanian Aboriginal who died in 1876, was exhumed within two years of her death despite her pleas to the contrary by the Royal Society of Tasmania, and later placed on display. Campaigns continue to have Aboriginal body parts returned to Australia for burial; Truganini's body was returned in 1976 and cremated, and her ashes were scattered according to her wishes.

Place names sometimes reveal discrimination, such as Mount Jim Crow in Rockhampton, Queensland (now Mount Baga), as well as racist policies, like Brisbane's Boundary Streets which used to indicate boundaries where Aboriginal people were not allowed to cross during certain times of the day. There is ongoing discussion about changing many of these names.

Throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people had their lives under the jurisdiction of various state-based protection laws. These Acts of Parliament appointed Protectors of Aborigines and Aboriginal Protection Boards, whose role was to ensure the safety of Indigenous Australians as well as controlling their lives in matters of employment and marriage. Wages were controlled by the Protectors, and Indigenous Australians received less income than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment.

During this time, many Aboriginal people were victims of slavery by colonists alongside Pacific Islander peoples who were kidnapped from their homes, in a practice known as blackbirding. Between 1860 and 1970, under the guise of protectionist policies, people, including children as young as 12, were forced to work on properties where they worked under horrific conditions and most did not receive any wages. In the pearling industry, Aboriginal peoples were bought for about 5 pounds, with pregnant Aboriginal women "prized because their lungs were believed to have greater air capacity" Aboriginal prisoners in the Aboriginal-only prison on Rottnest Island, many of whom were there on trumped up charges, were chained up and forced to work. In 1971, 373 Aboriginal men were found buried in unmarked graves on the island. Up until June 2018, the former prison was being used as holiday accommodation.

From 1810, Aboriginal peoples were moved onto mission stations, run by churches and the state. While they provided food and shelter, their purpose was to "civilise" Aboriginal communities by teaching western values. After this period of protectionist policies that aimed to segregate and control Aboriginal populations, in 1937 the Commonwealth government agreed to move towards assimilation policies. These policies aimed to integrate Aboriginal persons who were "not of full blood" into the white community in an effort to eliminate the "Aboriginal problem". As part of this, there was an increase in the number of children forcibly removed from their homes and placed with white people, either in institutions or foster homes.

As part of the colonisation process, there were many small-scale conflicts and clashes between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people across the continent and islands. In Queensland, the killing of Aboriginal peoples was largely perpetrated by civilian "hunting" parties and the Native Police, armed groups of Aboriginal men who were recruited at gunpoint and led by colonialist to eliminate Aboriginal resistance. There is evidence that massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, which began with arrival of British colonists, continued until the 1930s. Researchers at the University of Newcastle under Lyndall Ryan have been mapping the massacres. as of 2020 they have mapped almost 500 places where massacres happened, with 12,361 Aboriginal people killed and 204 Colonists killed, numbering at least 311 massacres over a period of about 140 years. After losing a significant number of their social unit in one blow, the survivors were left very vulnerable - with reduced ability to gather food, reproduce, or fulfill their ceremonial obligations, as well as defend themselves against further attack.

Estimating the total number of deaths during the frontier wars is difficult due to lack of records and the fact that many massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander were kept secret. It is often quoted that 20,000 Aboriginal Australians and 2000 colonists died in the frontier wars; however, recent research indicates at least 40,000 Aboriginal dead and 2,000 to 2,500 settlers dead. Other research indicates a minimum of 65,000 Aboriginal peoples may have been killed in Queensland alone. There have been arguments over whether deaths of Aboriginal peoples, particularly in Tasmania, as well as the forcible removal of children from Aboriginal communities, constitutes genocide. Many place names in Australia mark places of frontier massacres, for example Murdering Gully in Newcastle.

There has always been Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander resistance, from the arrival of colonists through to now.

In 1938, over 100 Aboriginal peoples protested one of the first Australia Day celebrations by gathering for an "Aborigines Conference" in Sydney and marking the day as the "Day of Protest and Mourning"; the day is now often referred to as "Survival Day" or "Invasion Day" by Indigenous peoples.

In 1963 the Yolngu people of Yirrkala in Arnhem Land sent two bark petitions to the Australian government to protest the granting of mining rights on their lands. The Yirrkala Bark petitions were traditional Aboriginal documents to be recognised under Commonwealth law.

On Australia day in 1972, 34 years after the first "Day of Protest and Mourning", Indigenous activists set up the Aboriginal Tent Embassy on the lawn of Old Parliament House to protest the state of Aboriginal land rights. The Tent Embassy was given heritage status in 1995, and celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2012, making it the longest, unanswered protest camp in the world.

1871-1969: Stolen Generations

The term Stolen Generations refers to those children of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent who were forcibly removed from their families by the Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions for the purpose of eradicating Aboriginal culture, under acts of their respective parliaments. The forcible removal of these children occurred in the period between approximately 1871 and 1969, although, in some places, children were still being taken in the 1970s.

By 1900, the recorded Indigenous population of Australia had declined to approximately 93,000. However, this was only a partial count as both Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders were poorly covered, with desert Aboriginal peoples not counted at all until the 1930s. During the first half of the twentieth century, many Indigenous Australians worked as stockmen on sheep stations and cattle stations for extremely low wages. The Indigenous population continued to decline, reaching a low of 74,000 in 1933 before numbers began to recover. By 1995, population numbers had reached pre-colonisation levels, and in 2010 there were around 563,000 Indigenous Australians.

Despite efforts to bar their enlistment, over 1,000 Indigenous Australians fought for Australia in the First World War.

1934 saw the first appeal to the High Court by an Aboriginal Australian, and it succeeded. Dhakiyarr was found to have been wrongly convicted of the murder of a white policeman, for which he had been sentenced to death; the case focused national attention on Aboriginal rights issues. Dhakiyarr disappeared upon release. In 1938, the 150th anniversary of the arrival of the British First Fleet was marked as a Day of Mourning and Protest at an Aboriginal meeting in Sydney, and has since become marked around Australia as "Invasion Day" or "Survival Day" by Aboriginal protesters and their supporters.

Hundreds of Indigenous Australians served in the Australian armed forces during World War Two - including with the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion and The Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit, which were established to guard Australia's North against the threat of Japanese invasion. However, most were denied pension rights and military allotments, except in Victoria, where each case was judged individually, without a blanket denial of rights accruing from their service.

The 1960s was a pivotal decade in the assertion of Aboriginal rights and a time of growing collaboration between Aboriginal activists and white Australian activists. In 1962, Commonwealth legislation specifically gave Aboriginal people the right to vote in Commonwealth elections. A group of University of Sydney students organised a bus tour of western and coastal New South Wales towns in 1965 to raise awareness of the state of Aboriginal health and living conditions. This Freedom Ride also aimed to highlight the social discrimination faced by Aboriginal people and encourage Aboriginal people themselves to resist discrimination.

As mentioned above, Indigenous Australians received lower wages than their non-Indigenous counterparts in employment. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Queensland in particular had their income quarantined by the Protector and were allowed a minimal amount of their income. In 1966, Vincent Lingiari led the famous Wave Hill walk-off (Gurindji strike) of Indigenous employees of Wave Hill Station in protest against poor pay and conditions (later the subject of the Paul Kelly song " From Little Things Big Things Grow"). Since 1999, the Queensland Government, under pressure from the Queensland Council of Unions, has established a number of schemes to give any earned income not received at the time back to Indigenous Australians.

The landmark 1967 referendum called by Prime Minister Harold Holt allowed the Commonwealth to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people by modifying section 51(xxvi) of the Constitution, and for Aboriginal people to be included when the country does a count to determine electoral representation by repealing section 127. The referendum passed with 90.77% voter support.

In the controversial 1971 Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been terra nullius before British settlement, and that no concept of native title existed in Australian law. Following the 1973 Woodward commission enquiry, in 1976 the Australian federal government under Gough Whitlam enacted the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 to recognise Aboriginal Australians' system of land rights in the Northern Territory. In 1985, the Australian government returned ownership of Uluru (Ayers Rock) to the Pitjantjatjara Aboriginal people. In 1992, the High Court of Australia reversed Justice Blackburn's ruling and handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid and confirming the existence of native title in Australia.

Indigenous Australians began to serve in political office from the 1970s. In 1971, Neville Bonner joined the Australian Senate as a Senator for Queensland for the Liberal Party, becoming the first Indigenous Australian in the Federal Parliament. A year later, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Parliament House in Canberra. In 1976, Sir Douglas Nicholls was appointed as the 28th Governor of South Australia, the first Aboriginal person appointed to vice-regal office. In the general election of 2010, Ken Wyatt of the Liberal Party became the first Indigenous Australian elected to the Australian House of Representatives. In the general election of 2016, Linda Burney of the Australian Labor Party became the second Indigenous Australian, and the first Indigenous Australian woman, elected to the Australian House of Representatives. She was immediately appointed Shadow Minister for Human Services.

In sport Evonne Goolagong Cawley became the world number-one ranked tennis player in 1971 and won 14 Grand Slam titles during her career. In 1973 Arthur Beetson became the first Indigenous Australian to captain his country in any sport when he first led the Australian National Rugby League team, the Kangaroos. In 1982, Mark Ella became Captain of the Australian National Rugby Union Team, the Wallabies. In 2000, Aboriginal sprinter Cathy Freeman lit the Olympic flame at the opening ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and went on to win the 400 metres at the Games. In 2019, tennis player Ashleigh Barty was ranked world number one.

In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to have been the last uncontacted tribe in Australia.

An inquiry into the Stolen Generations was launched in 1995 by the Keating government, and the final report delivered in 1997 - the Bringing Them Home report - estimated that around 10% to 33% of all Aboriginal children had been separated from their families for the duration of the policies. The succeeding Howard government largely ignored the recommendations provided by the report, one of which was a formal apology to Aboriginal Australians for the Stolen Generations.

The republican model, as well as a proposal for a new Constitutional preamble which would have included the "honouring" of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, was put to referendum but did not succeed. In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed a Motion of Reconciliation drafted by Prime Minister John Howard in consultation with Aboriginal Senator Aden Ridgeway naming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most "blemished chapter in our national history", although Howard refused to offer any formal apology.

In 2001, the Federal Government dedicated Reconciliation Place in Canberra. On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd reversed Howard's decision and issued a public apology to members of the Stolen Generations on behalf of the Australian Government.

ATSIC was abolished by the Australian Government in 2004 amidst allegations of corruption.

Emergency Response/Stronger Futures

The Northern Territory National Emergency Response (also known as the Intervention) was launched in 2007 by the government of Prime Minister John Howard, in response to the Little Children are Sacred report into allegations of child abuse among Aboriginal communities in the NT. The government banned alcohol in prescribed communities in the Territory; quarantined a percentage of welfare payments for essential goods purchasing; dispatched additional police and medical personnel to the region; and suspended the permit system for access to Aboriginal communities. In addition to these measures, the army were released into communities and there were increased police powers, which were later further increased with the so-called "paperless arrests" legislation.

In 2010, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya found the Emergency Response to be racially discriminatory, and said that aspects of it represented a limitation on "individual autonomy". These findings were criticised by the government's Indigenous Affairs Minister Jenny Macklin, the Opposition and Indigenous leaders like Warren Mundine and Bess Price.

In 2011, the Australian government enacted legislation to implement the Stronger Futures policy, which is intended to address key issues that exist within Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory such as unemployment, school attendance and enrolment, alcohol abuse, community safety and child protection, food security and housing and land reforms. The policy has been criticised by organisations such as Amnesty International and other groups, including on the basis that it maintains "racially-discriminatory" elements of the Emergency Response Act and continues control by the federal government over "Aboriginal people and their lands".

In 2010, the federal government appointed a panel comprising Indigenous leaders, other legal experts and some members of parliament (including Ken Wyatt) to provide advice on how best to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the federal Constitution. The panel's recommendations, reported to the federal government in January 2012, included deletion of provisions of the Constitution referencing race ( Section 25 and Section 51(xxvi)), and new provisions on meaningful recognition and further protection from discrimination. Subsequently, a proposed referendum on Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians was ultimately abandoned in 2013.

The Uluru Statement from the Heart was released 26 May 2017 by delegates to an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Convention, held near Uluru in Central Australia. The statement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission" to supervise a process of "agreement-making" and "truth-telling" between government and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The statement references the 1967 referendum which brought about changes to the Constitution to include Indigenous Australians.

It has been variously estimated that before the arrival of British settlers, the population of Indigenous (probably Aboriginal only) Australians was approximately 318,000-1,000,000 with the distribution being similar to that of the current Australian population, the majority living in the south-east, centred along the Murray River.

Over time Australia has used various means to determine membership of ethnic groups such as lineage, blood quantum, birth and self-determination. From 1869 until well into the 1970s, children under 12 years of age with 25% or less Aboriginal blood were considered "white" and were often removed from their families by the Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments in order that they would have "a reasonable chance of absorption into the white community to which they rightly belong". Grey areas in determination of ethnicity led to people of mixed ancestry being caught in the middle of divisive policies which often led to absurd situations:

In 1935, an Australian of part Indigenous descent left his home on a reserve to visit a nearby hotel where he was ejected for being Aboriginal. He returned home but was refused entry to the reserve because he was not Aboriginal. He attempted to remove his children from the reserve but was told he could not because they were Aboriginal. He then walked to the next town where he was arrested for being an Aboriginal vagrant and sent to the reserve there. During World War II he tried to enlist but was rejected because he was an Aborigine so he moved to another state where he enlisted as a non-Aborigine. After the end of the war he applied for a passport but was rejected as he was an Aborigine, he obtained an exemption under the Aborigines Protection Act but was now told he could no longer visit his relatives as he was not an Aborigine. He was later told he could not join the Returned Servicemens Club because he was an Aborigine.

In 1983 the High Court of Australia (in the Commonwealth v Tasmania or " Tasmanian dam(s) case") defined an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as "a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives". The ruling was a three-part definition comprising descent, self-identification and community identification. The first part - descent - was genetic descent and unambiguous, but led to cases where a lack of records to prove ancestry excluded some. Self- and community identification were more problematic as they meant that an Indigenous person separated from her or his community due to a family dispute could no longer identify as Aboriginal.

As a result, there arose court cases throughout the 1990s where excluded people demanded that their Aboriginality be recognised. As a result, lower courts refined the High Court test when subsequently applying it. In 1995, Justice Drummond in the Federal Court held in Gibbs v Capewell "...either genuine self-identification as Aboriginal alone or Aboriginal communal recognition as such by itself may suffice, according to the circumstances." This contributed to an increase of 31% in the number of people identifying as Indigenous Australians in the 1996 census when compared to the 1991 census. In 1998 Justice Merkel held in Shaw v Wolf that Aboriginal descent is "technical" rather than "real" - thereby eliminating a genetic requirement. This decision established that anyone can classify him or herself legally as an Aboriginal, provided he or she is accepted as such by his or her community.

As there is no formal procedure for any community to record acceptance, the primary method of determining Indigenous population is from self-identification on census forms. The Australian Census includes counts based on questions relating to individuals' self-identification as Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, or of both origins. Owing to various difficulties which lead to under-counting, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) follows a set method to estimate total numbers.

The 2006 Australian census showed growth in the Indigenous population (recorded as 517,000) at twice the rate of overall population growth since 1996, when the Indigenous population stood at 283,000. In the 2011 census, there was a 20% rise in people who identify as Aboriginal. In the 2016 census, there was another 18.4% rise on the 2011 figure. 590,056 respondents identified themselves as Aboriginal, 32,345 Torres Strait Islander, and a further 26,767 both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.

Growth was mainly in major cities and along the eastern coast of Australia. The ABS published a report exploring the reasons for these findings, with some of the factors behind the increase being higher fertility rates of Indigenous women; people entering the population through migration; variation in census coverage and response rates; and people changing how they self-identify between census years. Another factor might be the children of mixed marriages: the proportion of Aboriginal adults married ( de facto or ) to non-Aboriginal spouses increased to 78.2% in the 2016 census, (up from 74% in 2011, 64% in 1996, 51% in 1991 and 46% in 1986); it was reported in 2002 that up to 88% of the offspring of mixed marriages subsequently self-identify as Indigenous Australians.

In the 2016, over 33% of the Indigenous population lived in major cities, compared with about 75% of the non-Indigenous population, with a further 24% in "inner regional" areas (compared with 18%), 20% in "outer regional" (8%), while nearly 18% lived in "remote" or "very remote" areas (2%). (Ten years earlier, 31% were living in major cities and 24% in remote areas.)

According to the 2005 National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS), at the time the Australian continent was colonised, there were around 250 different Indigenous languages, with the larger language groups each having up to 100 related dialects. Some of these languages were only ever spoken by perhaps 50 to 100 people. Indigenous languages are divided into language groups with from ten to twenty-four language families identified. It is currently estimated that up to 145 Indigenous languages remain in use, of which fewer than 20 are considered to be strong in the sense that they are still spoken by all age groups. All but 13 Indigenous languages are considered to be endangered. Several extinct Indigenous languages are being reconstructed. For example, the last fluent speaker of the Ngarrindjeri language died in the late 1960s; using recordings and written records as a guide, a Ngarrindjeri dictionary was published in 2009, and the Ngarrindjeri language is today being spoken in complete sentences.

Linguists classify many of the mainland Australian languages into one large group, the Pama-Nyungan languages. The rest are sometimes lumped under the term "non-Pama-Nyungan". The Pama-Nyungan languages comprise the majority, covering most of Australia, and are generally thought to be a family of related languages. In the north, stretching from the Western Kimberley to the Gulf of Carpentaria, are found a number of non-Pama-Nyungan groups of languages which have not been shown to be related to the Pama-Nyungan family nor to each other. While it has sometimes proven difficult to work out familial relationships within the Pama-Nyungan language family, many Australian linguists feel there has been substantial success. Against this, some linguists, such as R. M. W. Dixon, suggest that the Pama-Nyungan group - and indeed the entire Australian linguistic area - is rather a sprachbund, or group of languages having very long and intimate contact, rather than a genetic language family.

It has been suggested that, given their long presence in Australia, Aboriginal languages form one specific sub-grouping. The position of Tasmanian languages is unknown, and it is also unknown whether they comprised one or more than one specific language family.

Cross-cultural miscommunication can sometimes occur between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. According to Michael Walsh and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically " dyadic", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame.

There are three languages spoken in the Torres Strait Islands, two indigenous languages and an English-based creole. The indigenous language spoken mainly in the western and central islands is Kalaw Lagaw Ya, a language related to the Pama-Nyungan languages of the Australian mainland. The other indigenous language spoken mainly in the eastern islands is Meriam Mir: a member of the Trans-Fly languages spoken on the nearby south coast of New Guinea and the only Papuan language spoken on Australian territory. Both languages are agglutinative; however Kalaw Lagaw Ya appears to be undergoing a transition into a declensional language while Meriam Mìr is more clearly agglutinative. Yumplatok, or Torres Strait Creole, the third language, is a non-typical Pacific English Creole and is the main language of communication on the islands.

Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as "the Dreamtime" or "the Dreaming" stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, and naming as they went. Indigenous Australia's oral tradition and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime. The Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. Different language and cultural groups each had their own belief structures; these cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent, Baiame, Dirawong and Bunjil. Knowledge contained in the Dreaming has been passed down through different stories, songlines, dances and ceremonies, and even today provides a framework for ongoing relationships, kinship responsibilities and looking after country.

Torres Strait Islander people have their own traditional belief systems. Stories of the Tagai represent Torres Strait Islanders as sea people, with a connection to the stars, as well as a system of order in which everything has its place in the world. Some Torres Strait Islander people share beliefs similar to the Aboriginal peoples' Dreaming and "Everywhen" concepts, passed down in oral history.

Christianity and European culture have had a significant impact on Indigenous Australians, their religion and their culture. As in many colonial situations, the churches both facilitated the loss of Indigenous culture and religion and also facilitated its maintenance. In some cases, such as at Hermannsburg, Northern Territory and Piltawodli in Adelaide, the work of missionaries laid the foundations for later language revival. The German missionaries Christian Teichelmann and Schürmann went to Adelaide and taught the local Kaurna people only in their own language and created textbooks in the language. However, some missionaries taught only in English, and some Christian missions were involved in the placement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children after they were removed from their parents upon orders of the government, and are therefore implicated in the Stolen Generations.

The involvement of Christians in Aboriginal affairs has evolved significantly since 1788. The Churches became involved in mission work among Aboriginal peoples in the 19th century as Europeans came to control much of the continent, and the majority of the population was eventually converted. Colonial clergy such as Sydney's first Catholic archbishop, John Bede Polding, strongly advocated for Aboriginal rights and dignity. Around the year 2000, many churches and church organisations officially apologised for past failures to adequately respect Indigenous cultures and address the injustices of the dispossession of Indigenous people.

From the 1870s, Christianity spread throughout the Torres Strait Islands, and it remains strong today among Torres Strait Islander people everywhere. The London Missionary Society mission led by Rev. Samuel Macfarlane arrived on Erub (Darnley Island) on 1 July 1871, establishing its first base in the region there. The Islanders refer to this as "The Coming of the Light", or "Coming of Light" and all Island communities celebrate the occasion annually on 1 July. However the coming of Christianity did not spell the end of the people's traditional beliefs; their culture informed their understanding of the new religion, as the Christian God was welcomed and the new religion was integrated into every aspect of their everyday lives.

In the 2016 Census, Australia's Indigenous and non-Indigenous population were broadly similar with 54% (vs 55%) reporting a Christian affiliation, while less than 2% reported traditional beliefs as their religion, and 36% reported no religion. The proportion of Indigenous people who reported no religion has increased gradually since 2001, standing at 36% in 2016. According to "Table 8: Religious Affiliation by Indigenous Status", 347,572 Indigenous people (out of the total 649,171 in Australia) declared an affiliation to some form of Christianity, with a higher proportion of Torres Strait Islander than Aboriginal people in this number. 7,773 reported traditional beliefs; 1,511 Islam; other religions numbered less than 1,000 each. However the question is optional; 48,670 did not respond, and in addition, nearly 4,000 were reported as "inadequately described". (In the 2006 census, 73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion.)

Australia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being Australian rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art can be traced back at least 30,000 years, with examples of ancient rock art throughout the continent. Some of these are in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but examples can also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney. The Sydney rock engravings are between 5000 and 200 years old. Murujuga in Western Australia was heritage listed in 2007.

In terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux and Altamira ( Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe), and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. There are three major regional styles: the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria, known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found in Queensland; and the complex figurative style found in Arnhem Land and the Kimberley. These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of the Dreamtime. Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made from ochre. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes.

Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the watercolour paintings of the Hermannsburg School and the acrylic Papunya Tula "dot art" movement. Some notable Aboriginal artists include William Barak (c.1824-1903) and Albert Namatjira (1902-1959).

Since the 1970s, Indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints - with styles such as that of the Western Desert Art Movement becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements.

Aboriginal art has influenced many non-Indigenous artists, such as Margaret Preston (1875-1963) and Elizabeth Durack (1915 - 2000).

Music, dance and ceremony

Music and dance have formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of people through the millennia of the individual and collective histories of Australian Indigenous peoples to the present day. Around 1950, the first research into Aboriginal music was undertaken by the anthropologist A. P. Elkin, who recorded Aboriginal music in Arnhem Land.

The various Aboriginal peoples developed unique musical instruments and styles. The didgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, was traditionally played by Aboriginal men of the eastern Kimberley region and Arnhem Land (such as the Yolngu). Bullroarers and clapsticks were used across Australia. Songlines relate to the Dreamtime in Aboriginal culture, overlapping with oral lore. Corroboree is a generic word to explain different genres of performance, embracing songs, dances, rallies and meetings of various kinds.

The Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts in Brisbane teaches acting, music and dance, and the Bangarra Dance Theatre is an acclaimed contemporary dance company.

There was no written form of the many languages spoken by Indigenous peoples before colonisation. A letter to Governor Arthur Phillip written by Bennelong in 1796 is the first known work written in English by an Aboriginal person. The historic Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 are the first traditional Aboriginal documents recognised by the Australian Parliament.

In the 20th century, David Unaipon (1872-1967), known as the first Aboriginal author, is credited for providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal person, in his Legendary Tales of the Aborigines (1924-1925). Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920-1995) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist, credited with publishing the first book of verse by an Aboriginal author, We Are Going (1964). Sally Morgan's novel (1987) was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing Indigenous stories to a wider audience. The talents of playwrights Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert were recognised. Poetry by Indigenous poets, including traditional song-poetry - ranging from sacred to everyday - has been published since the late 20th century.

Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include Alexis Wright; Kim Scott (twice winner of the Miles Franklin Award); Tara June Winch; Melissa Lucashenko; playwright and comedy writer Nakkiah Lui; in poetry Yvette Holt; and in popular fiction Anita Heiss. Leading activists Marcia Langton, who wrote First Australians (2008) and Noel Pearson ( Up From the Mission, 2009) are as of 2020 active contemporary contributors to Australian literature. Journalist Stan Grant has written several non-fiction works on what it means to be Aboriginal in contemporary Australia, and Bruce Pascoe has written both fiction and non-fiction works. AustLit's BlackWords project provides a comprehensive listing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Writers and Storytellers. The Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages contains stories written in traditional languages of the Northern Territory.

(1955) was the first Australian feature film to be shot in colour film, the first to star Aboriginal actors in lead roles ( Ngarla Kunoth and Robert Tudawali), and the first to be entered at the Cannes Film Festival. 1971's was a British film set in Australia; it was a forerunner to many Australian films related to indigenous themes and introduced David Gulpilil to cinematic audiences. Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1976), directed by Fred Schepisi, was an award-winning historical drama from a book by Thomas Keneally, about the tragic story of an Aboriginal bushranger. Peter Weir's 1977 mystery drama The Last Wave, also starring Gulpilil and featuring elements of Aboriginal beliefs and culture, won several AACTA Awards.

The canon of films related to Indigenous Australians increased from the 1990s, with Nick Parson's film (1996) featuring Ernie Dingo and Bryan Brown; Rolf de Heer's The Tracker (2002), starring Gary Sweet and David Gulpilil; and Phillip Noyce's Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002).

The soundtrack of the 2006 film directed by Rolf de Heer was filmed entirely in dialects of the Yolŋu Matha language group, with the main version featuring subtitles and English narration by David Gulpilil. The film won won the Un Certain Regard Special Jury Prize at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival.

The Straits, a 2012 drama series for TV based on an idea by Torres Strait Islander actor Aaron Fa'aoso, was partly filmed in the Torres Strait Islands and starred Fa'aoso and Jimi Bani (from Mabuiag Island), as well as Papua New Guinean actors. The documentary TV series Blue Water Empire (aired 2019), featuring Fa'aoso and Bani, tells the story of Torres Strait Islands from pre-colonial era up to contemporary times.

The third series of the sketch comedy TV series Black Comedy, co-written by Nakkiah Lui, Adam Briggs, Steven Oliver and others, and featuring many Indigenous actors, goes to air in January 2020.

Though lost to history, many traditional forms of recreation were played and while these varied from tribe to tribe, there were often similarities. Ball games were quite popular and played by tribes across Australia, as were games based on use of weapons. There is extensive documented evidence of traditional football games being played. Perhaps the most documented is a game popularly played by tribes in western Victorian regions of the Wimmera, Mallee and Millewa by the Djab wurrung, Jardwadjali and Jarijari people. Known as Marn Grook, it was a type of kick and catch football game played with a ball made of possum hide. According to some accounts, it was played as far away as the Yarra Valley by the Wurundjeri people, Gippsland by the Gunai people, and the Riverina in south-western New South Wales. Some historians claim that Marn Grook had a role in the formation of Australian rules football, and many Aboriginal people, from children in remote communities to professional players at the highest level, the Australian Football League, play the modern game. Well-known players include Graham Farmer, Gavin Wanganeen and Adam Goodes. Goodes was also the Australian of the Year for 2014.

A team of Aboriginal cricketers from the Western District of Victoria toured England in 1868, making it the first Australian sports team to travel overseas. Cricketer and Australian rules football pioneer Tom Wills coached the team in an Aboriginal language he learnt as a child, and Charles Lawrence accompanied them to England. Johnny Mullagh, the team's star player, was regarded as one of the era's finest batsmen.

Sporting teams include the Indigenous All-Stars, Flying Boomerangs and Indigenous Team of the Century in Australian rules football, and the Indigenous All Stars, NSW Koori Knockout and the Murri Rugby League Team in rugby league.

To this day, the forced removal of children known as the Stolen Generations has had a huge impact on the psyche, health and well-being of Indigenous Australians; it has seriously impacted not only the children removed and their parents, but their descendants as well. Not only were many of the children abused - psychologically, physically, or sexually - after being removed and while living in group homes or adoptive families, but were also deprived of their culture alongside their families. This has resulted in the disruption of oral culture, as parents were unable to communicate their knowledge to their children, and thus much has been lost.

There are many issues facing Indigenous people in Australia today when compared with the non-Indigenous population, despite some improvements. Several of these are interrelated, and include health (including shorter life expectancy and higher rates of infant mortality), lower levels of education and employment, inter-generational trauma, high imprisonment rates, substance abuse and lack of political representation.

Some demographic facts are related to these issues, as cause and/or result:

In the 2016 Australian Census, over 33% of the Indigenous population lived in major cities, compared with about 75% of the non-Indigenous population, with a further 24% in "inner regional" areas (compared with 18%), 20% in "outer regional" (8%), while nearly 18% lived in "remote" or "very remote" areas (2%).

The Indigenous population of Australia is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, with an estimated median age of 21 years (37 years for non-Indigenous), due to higher rates of birth and death. For this reason, age standardisation is often used when comparing Indigenous and non-Indigenous statistics.

families, children and youth

health

education

economic development

housing

justice (including youth justice)

land and water, "where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' land, water and cultural rights are realised"

cross-system priorities, which "addresses racism, discrimination and social inclusion, healing and trauma, and the promotion of culture and language for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples"

Social and cultural determinants such as discrimination, lack of education or employment (and therefore income), and cultural disconnection can impact both physical and mental health, and contemporary disadvantage is related to colonisation and its ongoing impact.

Successive censuses have shown, that (after adjusting for demographic structures) Indigenous Australians experience greater rates of renal disease, several communicable diseases (such as tuberculosis and hepatitis C virus), type 2 diabetes, respiratory disease, poor mental health and other illnesses than the general population.

The life expectancy of Indigenous Australians is difficult to quantify accurately. Indigenous deaths are poorly identified, and the official figures for the size of the population at risk include large adjustment factors. Two estimates of Indigenous life expectancy in 2008 differed by as much as five years. The ABS introduced a new method in 2009, but problems remained. A 2013 study, referring to the national Indigenous reform policy, Closing the Gap, looked at the difficulties in interpreting the extent of the gap because of differing methods of estimating life expectancy between 2007 and 2012. The 2019 report by the Close the Gap campaign reported that the gap in life expectancy was "widening rather than closing".

Infant mortality (ages 0-4) was twice as high as for non-Indigenous children in 2014-6.

Mental health, suicide and self-harm remain major concerns, with the suicide rate being double that of the non-Indigenous population in 2015, and young people experiencing rising mental health rates. There are high incidences of anxiety, depression, PTSD and suicide amongst the Stolen Generations, with this resulting in unstable parenting and family situations.

Many Indigenous communities suffer from a range of health, social and legal problems associated with substance abuse of both legal and illegal drugs, including but not limited to alcohol abuse, petrol sniffing, the use illegal drugs such as methamphetamine ("ice") and cannabis and smoking tobacco. Tobacco use has been estimated to be the "greatest contributor (23%) to the gap in the disease burden between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians", with Indigenous people more than 2.5% likely to smoke daily than non-Indigenous Australians.

Petrol sniffing has been a problem among some remote communities. A 2018 longitudinal study by the University of Queensland (UQ), commissioned by the National Indigenous Australians Agency, reported that the number of people sniffing petrol in the 25 communities studied had declined by 95.2%, from 453 to just 22, related to the distribution of a new, low aromatic petrol, Opal, in NT in 2005.

The 2018 UQ study also reported that alcohol and cannabis were the drugs causing most concern. Ice was reported present in 8 of the 25 communities, but nearly all only occasional use.

There is a significant gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in educational attainment. This presents significant issues for employment. As of 2018, Indigenous students or adults, when compared with non-Indigenous peers:

Have a lower school attendance rate, with these rates at 82% and 93% respectively (in remote areas, as low as 63%)

Have lower literacy and numeracy, although rates had improved significantly on some NAPLAN (standardised school testing) measures

Reach Year 12 at a lower rate, with improvement from 59% to 74% between 2006 and 2016, with the gap at 24% in 2016

Are underrepresented in higher education and have lower completion rates

Closing the Gap has focused on improving education for Indigenous people, with some success. Attainment of Year 12 or equivalent for ages 20-24 has increased from 47.4% in 2006 to 65.3% in 2016. This has led to more Indigenous people undertaking higher or vocational education courses. According to the Closing the Gap report, Indigenous students in higher education award courses more than doubled in number over the decade from 2006 (9,329) to 2017 (19,237).

However, most of the Closing the Gap targets for education are not on track. In general, the gaps have improved (such as in NAPLAN results) or not devolved (school attendance rate remaining stable for several years) have not met targets. Remoteness seems to be a factor; students in isolated or remote communities do not perform or attend as well as students in urban areas. The Closing the Gap Report 2019 reported that of the seven targets, only two - early childhood education and Year 12 attainment - had been met. Only Year 9 numeracy was on track in all states and territories, with variations among them.

The Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts was established as a training centre by the state and federal governments in 1997.

Compared to the national average, Indigenous people experience high unemployment and poverty rates. As of the 2018 Closing the Gap Report, the Indigenous employment rate had decreased from 48% to 46.6% between 2006 and 2016, while the non-Indigenous employment rate remained steady at around 72% (a 25.4% gap). The employment rate for Indigenous women, however, increased from 39% to 44.8% in the same period.

A 2016 ABS report on labour force characteristics show low employment rates. An analysis of the figures suggested significant barriers to Indigenous people gaining employment, possibly including job location, employer discrimination, and lack of education and others. A big factor is education. Those with a degree had an employment probability of 85% (for males) and 74% (for females) for gaining employment, decreasing along with qualifications, so that those who have completed Year 9 and below have a 43% (male) and 32% (female) probability of gaining employment. Other factors, unlike education, are not covered by government policy, such as discrimination and unfair treatment. Employed Indigenous Australians were more likely to experience discrimination than those who are unemployed, and it has been found that the second most common source of unfair treatment (after members of the public) is at work or applying for work. There was also a significant lack of consultation with Indigenous peoples on the methods they think best to tackle issues like unemployment.

Indigenous Australians are over-represented in Australia's criminal justice system. As of September 2019, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander prisoners represented 28% of the total adult prisoner population, while accounting for 3.3% of the general population. In May 2018, Indigenous women made up 34% of the prison population. A 2017-2018 report into youth justice undertaken by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that about half (a total of 2,339) of the young people aged 10-17 under supervision in 2016-17 were Indigenous, although of that age group, Indigenous youth represent 5% of the general population. It concludes from the data that there is a clear issue occurring not only within Australia's criminal justice system, but within communities as a whole.

In 2007, the Northern Territory Government commissioned a Board of Inquiry into the Protection of Aboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse, which produced a report known as the Little Children are Sacred report. This suggested, based largely on anecdotal evidence, that children in remote Aboriginal communities in NT were suffering from widespread sexual abuse. The Australian Human Rights Commission's Social Justice Report 2008 said that the 2005−2006 ABS statistics did not appear to support the "allegations of endemic child abuse...that was the rationale for the NTER" ("The Intervention" by the Howard government) that followed.

Since the 20th century there have been a number of individuals and organisations who have instigated significant events in the struggle for political representation, land rights and other political issues affecting the lives of Indigenous Australians:

Under Section 41 of the Australian Constitution, Aboriginal Australians always had the legal right to vote in Australian Commonwealth elections if their State granted them that right. This meant that all Aboriginal peoples outside Queensland and Western Australia had a legal right to vote. The right of Indigenous ex-servicemen to vote was affirmed in 1949 and all Indigenous Australians gained the unqualified right to vote in Federal elections in 1962. Unlike other Australians, however, voting was not made compulsory for Indigenous people, and it was not until the repeal of Section 127 of the Constitution of Australia following the 1967 referendum that Indigenous Australians were counted in the population for the purposes of distribution of electoral seats.

As of January 2020, six Indigenous Australians have been elected to the Australian Senate: Neville Bonner (Liberal, 1971-1983), Aden Ridgeway (Democrat, 1999-2005), Nova Peris (Labor, 2013-2016), Jacqui Lambie (2014-2017, 2019- incumbent), Pat Dodson (Labor, 2016- incumbent), and former Northern Territory MLA Malarndirri McCarthy (Labor, 2016- incumbent).

Following the 2010 Australian Federal Election, Ken Wyatt of the Liberal Party won the Western Australian seat of Hasluck, becoming the first Indigenous person elected to the Australian House of Representatives. His nephew, Ben Wyatt, was concurrently serving as Shadow Treasurer in the Western Australian Parliament and in 2011 considered a challenge for the Labor Party leadership in that state. Linda Burney became the second Indigenous person, and the first woman, to serve in the federal House of Representatives.

A number of Indigenous people represent electorates at state and territory level, and South Australia has had an Aboriginal Governor, Sir Douglas Nicholls. The first Indigenous Australian to serve as a minister in any government was Ernie Bridge, who entered the Western Australian Parliament in 1980. Carol Martin was the first Aboriginal woman elected to an Australian parliament (the Western Australian Legislative Assembly) in 2001, and the first woman minister was Marion Scrymgour, who was appointed to the Northern Territory ministry in 2002 (she became Deputy Chief Minister in 2008). Representation in the Northern Territory has been relatively high, reflecting the high proportion of Aboriginal voters. The 2012 Territory election saw large swings to the conservative Country Liberal Party in remote Territory electorates, and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly, along with one Labor candidate, in a chamber of 25 members. Among those elected for the CLP were high-profile activists Bess Price and Alison Anderson.

40 people identifying themselves as of Indigenous Australian ancestry have been members of the ten Australian legislatures. Of these, 22 have been in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. The Northern Territory has an exceptionally high Indigenous proportion (about one third) of its population. Adam Giles, who was Chief Minister of the Northern Territory from 2013 to 2016, was the first Indigenous head of government in Australia.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) was set up as a representative body in 1990 under the Hawke government. In 2004, the Howard government disbanded ATSIC and replaced it and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Services (ATSIS) Regional and State Offices with an appointed network of Indigenous Coordination Centres (ICC) that administer Shared Responsibility Agreements and Regional Partnership Agreements with Aboriginal communities at a local level. ICCs operate as whole-of-government centres, housing staff from a number of departments to deliver services to Indigenous Australians.

Major political parties in Australia have tried to increase Indigenous representation within their parties. One suggestion for achieving this is to introduce seat quotas, as in the Maori electorates in New Zealand.

In October 2007, just before the calling of a federal election, the then Prime Minister, John Howard, revisited the idea of bringing a referendum to seek recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution (his government having previously sought to include recognition of Indigenous peoples in the Preamble to the Constitution in the 1999 Australian republic referendum). His announcement was seen by some as a surprising adoption of the importance of the symbolic aspects of the reconciliation process, and reaction was mixed. The Australian Labor Party initially supported the idea; however Kevin Rudd withdrew this support just before the election, earning a rebuke from activist Noel Pearson.

The Gillard Government (2010-2013), with bi-partisan support, convened an expert panel to consider changes to the Australian Constitution that would see recognition for Indigenous Australians. The Government promised to hold a referendum on the constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians on or before the federal election due for 2013. The plan was abandoned in September 2012, with Minister Jenny Macklin citing insufficient community awareness for the decision.

In December 2015, the 16-member Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Referendum Council was jointly appointed by the Prime Minister, Malcolm Turnbull, and Leader of the Opposition, Bill Shorten. After six months of consultation, the First Nations National Constitutional Convention met over four days from 23 to 26 May 2017, and ratified the Uluru Statement from the Heart by a standing ovation from the gathering of 250 Indigenous leaders. The Statement calls for a "First Nations Voice" in the Australian Constitution and a "Makarrata Commission" ( Makarrata is a Yolngu word "describing a process of conflict resolution, peacemaking and justice").

In May 2019, Prime Minister Scott Morrison created the position of Minister for Indigenous Australians, a Cabinet portfolio in the Second Morrison Ministry, with Ken Wyatt as the inaugural officebearer. On 30 October 2019, Wyatt announced the commencement of a "co-design process" aimed at providing an Indigenous voice to Parliament. The Senior Advisory Group is co-chaired by Professor Tom Calma , Chancellor of the University of Canberra, and Professor Dr Marcia Langton, Associate Provost at the University of Melbourne, and comprises a total of 20 leaders and experts from across the country. The other members are Father Frank Brennan, Peter Buckskin, Josephine Cashman, Marcia Ella-Duncan, Joanne Farrell, Mick Gooda, Chris Kenny, Vonda Malone, June Oscar, Alison Page, Noel Pearson, Benson Saulo, Pat Turner, Maggie Walter, Tony Wurramarrba, Peter Yu, and Dr Galarrwuy Yunupingu. The first meeting of the group was held in Canberra on 13 November 2019.

About 22% of land in Northern Australia ( Kimberley, Top End and Cape York) is now Aboriginal-owned. In the last decade, nearly 200 native title claims covering 1.3 million km ² of land - approximately 18% of the Australian continent - have been approved.

In 1992, in Mabo v Queensland, the High Court of Australia recognised native title in Australia for the first time. The majority in the High Court rejected the doctrine of terra nullius, in favour of the concept of native title.

In 2013 an Indigenous group describing itself as the Murrawarri Republic declared independence from Australia, claiming territory straddling the border between the states of New South Wales and Queensland. Australia's Attorney General's Department indicated it did not consider the declaration to have any meaning in law.

Unlike in other parts of the former British Empire, like the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand, no treaty has ever been concluded between Indigenous Australians and an Australian government. However, although there is still no move toward a treaty at federal level, it is contended that the Noongar Settlement (South West Native Title Settlement) in Western Australia in 2016 constitutes a treaty, and at the state and territory levels there are currently (early 2018) other negotiations and preparatory legislation. In South Australia, however, following the 2018 state election negotiations have been "paused". In June 2018, the Parliament of Victoria passed a bill to advance the process of establishing a treaty with Aboriginal Victorians.

After the arrival of European settlers in New South Wales, some Indigenous Australians became translators and go-betweens; the best-known was Bennelong, who eventually adopted European dress and customs and travelled to England where he was presented to King George III. Others, such as Pemulwuy, Yagan, and Windradyne, became famous for armed resistance to the European settlers.

During the twentieth century, as social attitudes shifted and interest in Indigenous culture increased, there were more opportunities for Indigenous Australians to gain recognition. Albert Namatjira became a painter, and actors such as David Gulpilil, Ernie Dingo, and Deborah Mailman became well known. Bands such as Yothu Yindi, and singers Christine Anu, Jessica Mauboy and Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, have combined Indigenous musical styles and instruments with pop/rock, gaining appreciation amongst non-Indigenous audiences. Polymath David Unaipon is commemorated on the Australian $50 note.

In health services, Kelvin Kong became the first Indigenous surgeon in 2006 and is an advocate of Indigenous health issues.

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Horton, Jessica (2015). "'Willing to fight to a man': The First World War and Aboriginal activism in the Western District of Victoria". Aboriginal History. 39: 203-222. doi:10.22459/AH.39.2015.10. JSTOR 43687042.

Hugo, Graeme (March 2012). "Population Distribution, Migration and Climate Change in Australia: An Exploration" (PDF). NCCARF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2013.

Huxley, Thomas (1870). "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind". Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. 2 (4): 404-412. doi:10.2307/3014371. JSTOR 3014371.

"'I am the first!' Linda Burney proclaims history for Indigenous people, women". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 3 July 2016.

Kayser, M; Brauer, Silke; Weiss, Gunter; Schiefenhövel, Wulf; Underhill, Peter; Shen, Peidong; Oefner, Peter; Tommaseo-Ponzetta, Mila; Stoneking, Mark (2003). "Reduced Y-Chromosome, but Not Mitochondrial DNA, Diversity in Human Populations from West New Guinea". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (2): 281-302. doi:10.1086/346065. PMC . PMID 12532283.

Lack, Clem Llewellyn (1963). "The Story of Cape York Peninsula: Part II: Torres Strait Saga". Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland. 7 (1): 132-153. ISSN 0085-5804.

Lockwood, Christine (2017). "4. Early encounters on the Adelaide Plains and Encounter Bay". In Brock, Peggy; Gara, Tom (eds.). Colonialism and its Aftermath: A history of Aboriginal South Australia. Wakefield Press. pp. 65-81. ISBN 978-1743054994.

"Mabo v Queensland (No 2) ('Mabo case') [1992] HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1". Australasian Legal Information Institute. 3 June 1992. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012.

MacAulay, V.; Hill, C; Achilli, A; Rengo, C; Clarke, D; Meehan, W; Blackburn, J; Semino, O; et al. (2005). "Single, Rapid Coastal Settlement of Asia Revealed by Analysis of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes" (PDF). Science. 308 (5724): 1034-36. Bibcode:2005Sci...308.1034M. doi:10.1126/science.1109792. PMID 15890885.

Maddox, Garry; AAP (29 May 2006). "Canoes set Cannes jury afloat". The Sydney Morning Herald.

Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Westaway, Michael C.; Muller, Craig; Sousa, Vitor C.; Lao, Oscar; et al. (21 September 2016). "A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia". Nature (Submitted manuscript). 538 (7624): 207-214. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..207M. doi:10.1038/nature18299. PMID 27654914.

Marten, James A. (2002). Children and War: A Historical Anthology. New York: New York University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-8147-5667-6.

Maynard, John; Haskins, Victoria (2016). Living with the Locals: Early Europeans' Experience of Indigenous Life. National Library of Australia.

McCallum, Kerry; Waller, Lisa (June-July 2012). "Failed state of health". Arena Magazine. No. 118. Fitzroy, Victoria. pp. 33-34. eISSN 1837-2317. ISSN 1039-1010.

McConvell, Patrick; Marmion, Douglas; McNicol, Sally; et al. (2005). National Indigenous Languages Survey Report 2005 (PDF). AIATSIS in association with the Federation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages (FATSIL). ISBN 0-642753-229.

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Indigenous Australians are people who are descended from groups that lived in Australia and surrounding islands before British colonisation. They include the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia.

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The session starts off with the teacher introdusing the
documentary https://youtu.be/Tcq4oGL0wlI

After the film, teacher introduce the settings for today:
The time machine has taken us back to real time in Australia. A country that just have faced massive bush fires but still are holding strong. Australia have an quality of life and unrivalled natural beauty.  Australia is a country where you can encounter numerous of opportunities. A country that have a young, open, multicultural and an ever-growing economy. Australia is perfect for those who want to live an efficient and curring-edge country.

Today we are going to go behind the scenes and look at something that still is troubling the country. The last days you have worked with the history of the indigenous people in Australia. Taking a tour from dreamtime to present time.

To understand  why indigenous people in Australia still faces difficulties the teacher wants you to look at some statistics. The teacher shows the picture of the statistics and talks about the numbers with the students. What do they think? How is it to be a indigenous people in Australia today?

Groups
The class is divided  into tree groups, four members per group.

1.  The first group represent The Australian human rights commission

2. The second group represent the  Australian government

3. The third group represent The indigenous people

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Get to know how it is to be indigenous in Australia today by looking at statestics. How are they treated?

Explore others perspectives and deal with disagreements.

explore what human rights mean, what function they have in the world today, the value of equality

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Present the subject and talk to the students about their pre-knowledge. What are invasive species?

The students read the text below and work on the task.

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Step 2.
Observation in Statistics
An observation on something that interests you, put in statistics. The observation is put in the statistics to show the value, like some animals, a person’s height, age or bank account value at a certain point in time. When you are measuring, for example, your bank account over a period it is called an “Observation unit”. The observation unit can be used when you are looking at how your savings perform over one year. Looking at your bank account every three months will give you a total of four observations.   All observations don’t imply that you were the one observing it. Looking into the observation of others is as good as an observation. If you choose to focus on how well the government is treating the aboriginals, you might not choose the observation that shows the worst statistics.

1. a) Use the  document "

Face the facts: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples"

to find information. Use this information to observe and make statistics in a microsoft office dokument.  Do you find this source reliable?
b) Try to find new statistics, the information prestented are from 2014.  This link might help. https://www.pc.gov.au/research/ongoing/overcoming-indigenous-disadvantage/2016/report-documents/oid-2016-overcoming-indigenous-disadvantage-key-indicators-2016-report.pdf Have there been any changes?
c)  Take a look at  A report prepared by the Lowitja Institute for the Close the Gap Steering Committee | March 2020
https://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/document/publication/ctg2020_report_final.pdf

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Key questions

Why Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continue to be one of the most vulnerable groups in Australia.

Main issues to look into
- Life expectancy
- Reading writing and numeracy
- Employment
- Family and community violence
- Substantiated child abuse and neglect

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Do not share this: :)

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The last day of the national  reconciliation week!
The teacher sits in front of the class taking the children through the work they have been working with the last week.

Yesterday you worked with some statistics about Indigenous disadvantage in Australia. You have worked with some personal stories with pain and injustice. I hope you have wished that someone should to something about it. But at the end of the day, it’s just not your problem… or is it?

The teacher shows the students a video prestenting some of the reasons of why we have been working on indigenous people in Australia the last week.

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Sign in to iCloud to access your photos, videos, documents, notes, contacts, and more. Use your Apple ID or create a new account to start using Apple services.

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Know how the situation for indegenous people in Australia today.
Know why the indigenous culture and history matters today.
Know what everyone can do to make a differens.

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Make a video

- Make a video that shows  the questins they have been working with the last week.
- The  video should  last for 3-4 minutes

Make sure your video answers the key questions

Why  have we been working with the indigenous people in Australia?

What have you learned about the indigenous people in Australia?

Why do you think there is important to know about the indegenous people in Australia?
-

Creativity will be awarded - the app "my talking pet" do you have a special pet or teddy bear? Make him or she do the talking.

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Why work with the indigenous people in Australia?

What have you learned abbut the indigenous people in Australia?

Why do you think there is importent to know about the indegenous people in Australia?

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https://healingfoundation.org.au/schools/

https://libguides.stalbanssc.vic.edu.au/australia-1750-1918/teaching-resources

https://australianstogether.org.au/education/

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We are still in the 1900s Australia, and today we are fully introduced to the stolen children.

Teacher reading to start of class and set the mood. (Teacher should get in character by wearing appropriate clothes, makeup etc).

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Get to know the history behind the stolen generation and how indigenous people in Australia was treated in the 20th century, which influences their culture up until today.

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- What is "The Stolen Generation"

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Between 1910 and 1970, government policies of assimilation led to between 10 and 33 percent of Aboriginal Australian children being forcibly removed from their homes. These “Stolen Generations” were put in adoptive families and institutions and forbidden from speaking their native languages. Their names were often changed.
Indigenous people was discriminated and treated as foreigners and outcasts in their own land.

(read up on the topic using the link in the text)

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Work in pairs

The From Little Things Big Things Grow exhibition website includes interviews with 13 Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Listen to their personal video stories of discrimination, injustice and survival from the 1940s to the 1970s.

https://www.nma.gov.au/exhibitions/from_little_things_big_things_grow/personal_stories

Go forward to 1980 and make an interview with someone that was taken from their family and had to work for white people or grow up in an orphanage/mission?

- Make an interview guide
- Make a video of the interview (max 6 min)
(one acting as the interviewer and the other the person being interviewed)

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WARNING: Visitors should be aware that this website includes images and names of deceased people that may cause sadness or distress to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

Discrimination, injustice and survival

The From Little Things Big Things Grow exhibition website includes interviews with 13 Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Listen to their personal video stories of discrimination, injustice and survival from the 1940s to the 1970s.

Beulah Pickwick on growing up and working on the New South Wales and Queensland border.

Darce Cassidy on growing up in Sydney and discrimination in country New South Wales.

Debai Baira, formerly Badu Island, Torres Strait, now resident in Sydney, on the limitations of moving around and working in the Torres Strait.

Professor Dennis Foley on discrimination and ways around it on Sydney's public transport system in the 1950s and 1960s.

Dr Jan Richardson on injustices and triumphs in Western Australia in the 1960s and 1970s.

Joan Winch AM on discrimination in Western Australia in the 1940s and a lifelong lesson about rising above injustice.

Dr John Moriarty AM on restrictive laws imposed on Aboriginal people in the 1950s and 1960s and the fight to overcome them.

Lester Bostock on selective schooling and discimination in Sydney's hotels in the 1950s and 1960s.

Dr Linda Payi Ford on her mother's inspirational journey to save her baby daughter from authorities in the Northern Territory in the 1960s.

Maureen Logan on discrimination at the movies and in shops on the New South Wales and Queensland border in the 1950s.

May O'Brien BEM about her love of education, and the racism she encountered at school in Western Australia.

Warning: This story from Aunty May O'Brien uses words that were intended to be offensive to Aboriginal people. It is not the intention of Aunty May or the National Museum of Australia to cause offence by repeating such words.

Michael Williams on the respect gained by his father after years of discrimination, and overcoming racism at school in country Queensland.

Netta Tyson on discrimination while driving in Brisbane.

Audiovisual and image credits

Directed and filmed by: Jeremy Lucas
Research and interviews by: Suzanne Gibson and Troy Pickwick
Produced by: Jeremy Lucas and Suzanne Gibson
Photos: Jeremy Lucas

© National Museum of Australia

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WARNING: Visitors should be aware that this website includes images and names of deceased people that may cause sadness or distress to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The From Little Things Big Things Grow exhibition website includes interviews with 13 Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

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Entire website devoted to teaching with book and TV series.

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Warning: This resource may contain references to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who may have passed away.

On this website you will find rich educational material to support primary and lower-secondary teachers using the My Place TV series in the classroom. Explore background information, aligned with the My Place stories, on events and people significant to Australia's history. Download clips and stills from the TV series, as well as teaching activities and student activity sheets that relate to current themes. Go behind the scenes with production information and interviews.

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Warning: This resource may contain references to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who may have passed away. On this website you will find rich educational material to support primary and lower-secondary teachers using the My Place TV series in the classroom.

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Genre Pedagogy: the teaching-learning cycle

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Genre Pedagogy: the teaching-learning cycle

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This is also Ozzie and underpinning your process.

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A quick intro to genre approaches to learning

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Fully referenced govt website where it all comes from...

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Teaching-learning cycle: reading and writing connections

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​Teaching practices for literacy reading and viewing

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CCL: another methodological view of what you are doing...

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CCL: another methodological view of what you are doing...

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Charlie Horse's quick fire guide to some of the concepts behind cross-curricular learning.

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Watch this video and discuss: Is evolution of species still going on? What role do humans play in the changes of the world as an ecosystem both locally and globally?

Source for information: https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-Species

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The threat of invasive species - Jennifer Klos

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Just thinking this is useful and underpins what were your own ideas. :) More coming.

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Yes, there's even a padlet! I bet you didn't expect that...

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Yes, there's even a padlet! I bet you didn't expect that...

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i just don't have the book!

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The time machine has taken us to Australia in the 1900s looking at both sides of the people sharing the land; how the white settlers looked at the indigenous people, and how they looked at the white people.

The pupils should note down things they react on in the films (including language, how people are spoken about, unknown words, why things are presented as they are, happenings, etc). We will use time to talk about the films both in between and after.

Introducing An educational film about aborigines in Australia from the 1950s and a satirical look at white Australian culture from an Indigenous perspective.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZNIPXa5USZE&t=423s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NqcFg4z6EYY

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English

Explore and reflect on the situation of indigenous peoples in the Australia in the 1900s.

Use various digital resources and other tools in language learning, text creation, and interaction

Listen to and understand words and expressions in different variants of English

Social studies

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-  How was indigenous people treated in the 1900s?
- What is the background for Reconciliation Week?

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Literature introduction - My Place
Teacher shows the pupils in a guided reading session. Students respond to questions about the text and closely analyse an illustration.

My Place by Nadia Wheatley & Donna Rawlins.

The pupils follow the instructions and note questions, thoughts, words etc while listening to the reading. We will then talk about the text and illustrations together.
We will also look at how a timeline could be built up.

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Students complete a timeline of significant dates in Australian history, with emphasize on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander history.

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As pupils enter the classroom teacher sits in front - in role as indigenous old man - play music (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YdZQytU_nS0&t=91s)
We are about to learn about the time machine, and travel to various places in Australia. This first session will get the pupils aware of the thougt about Dreamtime...

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Pre-task/talk:
How do you think life was in Australia before time?
What differences do you think we will find in the upcomming filmclips?

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The time machine has taken us to ancient Australia where we meet the characters Barangaroo and Bunda...
We watch some clips together:
https://www.myplace.edu.au/teaching_activities/1878_-_before_time/beforetime02barangaroo/episode_landing_26.html
- https://www.myplace.edu.au/teaching_activities/1878_-_before_time/beforetime01bunda/episode_landing_25.html

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9th grade that lives in Norway
will be experiencing the Australian continent through different settings and times in history.

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National Reconciliation Week (NRW) is a time for all Australians to learn about our shared histories, cultures, and achievements, and to explore how each of us can contribute to achieving reconciliation in Australia.

The dates for NRW remain the same each year; 27 May to 3 June. These dates commemorate two significant milestones in the reconciliation journey— the successful 1967 referendum, and the High Court Mabo decision respectively.

Reconciliation must live in the hearts, minds and actions of all Australians as we move forward, creating a nation strengthened by respectful relationships between the wider Australian community, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

(Reconciliation Australia)

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This year Reconciliation Australia marks twenty years of shaping Australia's journey towards a more just, equitable and reconciled nation.

Much has happened since the early days of the people's movement for reconciliation, including greater acknowledgement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rights to land and sea; understanding of the impact of government policies and frontier conflicts; and an embracing of stories of Indigenous success and contribution.

2020 also marks the twentieth anniversary of the reconciliation walks of 2000, when people came together to walk on bridges and roads across the nation and show their support for a more reconciled Australia.

As always, we stand on the shoulders of those who came before us, and Australians now benefit from the efforts and contributions of people committed to reconciliation in the past.

Today we work together to further that national journey towards a fully reconciled country.

Reconciliation is a journey for all Australians - as individuals, families, communities, organisations and importantly as a nation. At the heart of this journey are relationships between the broader Australian community and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

We strive towards a more just, equitable nation by championing unity and mutual respect as we come together and connect with one another.

On this journey, Australians are all In This Togethe r; every one of us has a role to play when it comes to reconciliation, and in playing our part we collectively build relationships and communities that value Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, histories and cultures.

National Reconciliation Week 2020 Update
Our theme for #NRW2020 - In This Together - is now resonating in ways we could not have foreseen when we announced it last year, but it reminds us whether in a crisis or in reconciliation we are all #InThisTogether. Events
While we have always encouraged people to come together during NRW, due to COVID-19 restrictions any organisations or networks planning events will need to reconsider these at this time in light of the latest advice from Federal State, Territory and Local authorities.

We encourage everyone to think differently and creatively about what you had planned, take your events online, and join in social and digital media conversations.

Of course reconciliation doesn't just happen one week every year, so you may also wish to postpone your planned event.
Online Resources
More information, including downloadable educational and activity resources will be available soon on this page as well as some suggestions for other in-real-life activities for small groups, individuals, families, and friends.

Stay tuned for more #NRW2020 announcements soon.

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National Reconciliation Week | Reconciliation Australia

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This year Reconciliation Australia marks twenty years of shaping Australia's journey towards a more just, equitable and reconciled nation. Much has happened since the early days of the people's movement for reconciliation, including greater acknowledgement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rights to land and sea; understanding of the impact of government policies and frontier conflicts; and an embracing of stories of Indigenous success and contribution.

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Teacher in role starts of every session:
- Takes the pupils back in time and sets the scene by decorating the classroom appropriatly (e.g. find settings outside, pictures, flags, images of books, flower wall, music etc.).
- Teacher is the guide and narrator. Pupils are the protagonists (makes the story).

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First off we watch this movie. What do we know about Australia and especially the indigenous people?

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Full Documentary. The Men of Fifth World - Planet Doc Full Documentaries

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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Australia

https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Australians

https://historycollection.co/16-incredible-facts-about-ancient-australia/

https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/evidence-of-first-peoples

https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/explore-defining-moments?from=0&filters_fm_education_subject=indigenous%20culture%20and%20history

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/people/reference/aboriginal-australians/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Territory

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The students should know what colonialism is and how it affected the indigenous people of Australia?
- know  why Australia was colonised.
- know some of the consequences it led to for the indigenous people of Australia.

Colonialism definition: The policy or practice of a wealthy or powerful nation's maintaining or extending its control over other countries, especially in establishing settlements or exploiting resources. (source: https://www.yourdictionary.com/)

Key questions (task)  who was the explorer James Cook (1728-1779) and what was the purpose of his work?
- 26th of January is the official national day of Australia. Why is this?

Activity:
Watch this episode:
https://youtu.be/Z7_1avVKDwc
This documentary explains the first few years of Britains settling in the area now known as Sydney. This happened only a little over 200 years ago. Discuss in class: How do you feel about David Suttor (from the documentary) still owning the land that used to belong to the Wiradjuri tribe?

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- Know how indigenous people in ancient Australia lived, what were their beliefs, how was the society and culture?

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Make a blog entry in Sway about a boy or girl that you meet during our time travel that lives like Barangaroo or Bunda. The blog should contain both text and pictures (drawings/pictures etc).
Text needs to be informative and contain information about life in "before time", but it should be written from your perspective (Remember to give credit to your sources in the end).
See example text:

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She lives with her extended family that counts both parents and siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins. They all live as nomads. This means that she and her family is nomads, that they move

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- Birthplace and parents. Siblings?
- Family group/clan
- Where do they live? How do they live?
- what do they eat? How do they get the food?
- What is important to your charater and why?
- What do the clan do "for fun"?
- What do you think about life in "before time"?

Barangaroo:
http://www.abc.net.au/abc3/myplace/narrowband/1758/default.htm

Bunda:
http://www.abc.net.au/abc3/myplace/narrowband/1768/default.htm

Before time:
https://www.myplace.edu.au/decades_timeline/Beforetime/decade_landing_24.html

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This year our school has decided to celebrate the annual National Reconciliation Week together with our Australian colleagues on the other side of the world.

Normally this is set from 27. May until the 03.  June, but our students will work on this cross curriculum project in the period 25. May - 04. June.

Open school Saturday 04 ofJune
The pupils will choose to present something they have worked on during this period for their family and friends on the annual open school day.

In this padlet is a Storyline planned for the English subject in 9th grade, to some extent it will also include other subjects.

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Picture 1: All things around us are yellow, orange, brown. Except from the scattered bushes that has a tint of green, and off course the ocean and sky that both has the same deep blue turquoise colouring. The air around us is hot, if you look over the land you can see it is vibrating. But here where we stand you get a little relief from the burning hot sun because of the sea breeze.
Picture 2:  In the end of the beach we can de a group of men, young and elders. What are they doing?
- Group talking about what they could be doing. Answer is, old man telling stories about dreamtime to children... Taking us to
Picture 3: Dreamtime tells us about the creation of man, animals and the land – how they lived 50 000 years ago. All tribes in Australia have their own understanding and interpretation of Dreamtime, but they all refer to the very beginning and is the time the ancestors, the Spirits created mankind. The Spirits did not only create people, but they also made the rivers, streams, water holes, land, hills, rocks, plants and animals. In the Dreamtime all creatures were one, in relation to each other and the Ancestors made particular sites to show the Aboriginal people which places were to be sacred. Here we preform ritual ceremonies and customary songs to please our Ancestral spirits. In other words – the Dreamtime is the beginning that never ends – it is a period on a continuum of past, present and future.

The Australian aborigines believed that the land they occupied was once not in existence like it is today. It was free from form or life, vacuous – empty.

They unquestionably believed that this was the way things once were because the ancestors had said so and they would never doubt their word. It was during what has become known as the Dreamtime, the land, mountains, hills, rivers, plants, lifeforms both animal and human and sky above were formed by the actions of mysterious and supernatural spirits.
Picture 4: There is no written language for Australian Aboriginal People so in order to convey their important cultural stories through the generations it is portrayed by symbols/icons through their artwork.

It is imperative to pass on information to preserve their culture.

Indigenous art is centered on story telling. It is used as a chronical to convey knowledge of the land, events and beliefs of the Aboriginal people.

The use of symbols is an alternate way to writing down stories of cultural significance, teaching survival and use of the land. The interpretations of the iconography differ depending on the audience.

The art often tells a story, and the story is not for anybody to paint. The artist must inherit the right to the story through generations – after all it is the story of the dreaming.

This painting is of the ancient story about the Milky Way  and the Seven Sisters. It was inherited by the artist Gabriella from her mother, handed down to her from her paternal grandmother, Long Rose.
Picture 5:  Talking about activity for today, using Indigenous symbols.

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ENGLISH

Main learning goals

Explore and reflect on the situation of indigenous peoples in the English-speaking world

Explore and describe ways of life, ways of thinking, communication patterns and diversity in the English-speaking world

Learning goals – language learning

Use varied strategies in language learning, text creation, and communication

Use various digital resources and other tools in language learning, text creation, and interaction

Listen to and understand words and expressions in different variants of English

Learning goals – writing

Write formal and informal texts, including compound, with structure and context that describe, narrate and reflect custom purpose, recipient and situation

Process own texts based on feedback and knowledge of the language

Express themselves with flow and context with varied vocabulary and idiomatic expressions adapted to purpose, recipient, and situation

Use knowledge of word classes and sentence structure when working on their own oral and written texts

Follow rules for spelling, word bending, sentence structure, and text structure

Learning goals – reading

Read, discuss and disseminate content from various types of texts,

Read, interpret and reflect on English-language fiction, including youth literature

Read case law texts and assess how reliable the sources are

Use sources critically and intelligibly

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- know what Dreamtime is and what importance it has to indigenous people
- Know indigenous art
- Make own art inspired by indigenous stories and art

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Make your own indigenous art inspired by the art and stories about Dreamtime.
You will find stories to choose from in the document:

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Pre knowledge:
During both primary and lower secondary school the pupils have been thought about indigenous people around the world.

In this storyline the focus will be on Australia and especially the indigenous people in that land.

The class have read the book "The Rabbit Proof Fence" as long reading the last two months to get some knowledge about the subject, and to spice their curiosity.

Class is divided into tribes representing the different regions in Australia:

Groups will get to know the indigenous people in their region, learning more about the culture, history, geographics and wildlife.

- Queensland
Tribe: Kaurareg (Torres Strait Islanders)

- Western territory
Tribe: Amangu (Noongar)

- New South Wales
Tribe: Wiradjuri from Wagga Wagga (Koorie)

- Northern territory
Tribe: Pitjantjatjara (Anunga)

- Victoria
Tribe: Yorta Yorta (Koorie)

- South Australia
Tribe: Adelaide (Kaurna)

Practical information:
There has been sent a note home to the parents together with the information to the open day 04th of June encouraging the families to facilitate and support discussions at home.

There will be created a word wall of new words related to this topic.

End product:
There will be different tasks during the project which will be graded in the end. Pupils is to make one sort of presentation for all of their time
travels. Use e.g. video, pp, newspaper, blogg, padlet, etc.

Creativity, engagement and ability to cooperate will also be noticed and highly appreciated.

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Activity 3 - Poetry writing and performing

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Activity 3 - Poetry writing and performing

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Work in pairs

Students analyse poems from Us Taken-Away Kids and slam poetry performed by Steven Oliver. Students write and perform their own spoken word poems reflecting on their learning about the Stolen Generations.

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This is an excerpt of a journal written by James Cook  during one of his voyages.
"Saturday, 21st. Winds Southerly, a Gentle breeze, and Clear weather, with which we coasted along shore to the Northward. In the P.M. we saw the smoke of fire in several places; a Certain sign that the Country is inhabited. At 6, being about 2 or 3 Leagues from the land, we shortned Sail, and Sounded and found 44 fathoms, a sandy bottom. Stood on under an easey sail until 12 o'Clock, at which time we brought too until 4 A.M., when we made sail, having then 90 fathoms, 5 Leagues from the land. At 6, we were abreast of a pretty high Mountain laying near the Shore, which, on account of its figure, I named Mount Dromedary"

Task: Write your own fiction journal from a place not yet discovered by humans.

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Role Playing: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in Australia

In this multidisciplinary activity, the students will perform a role-play where they will simulate different parties in the big question: who are to blame for the statistics for indigenious people in Australia today. The theme of the learning activity is power relations and human rights. The role-play provides students with excellent training in basic skills, as well as oral communication, wonder and exploration, and socially critical thinking and context.

Role-playing is a participatory method that awakens engagement and empathy, and which helps to identify students. As a method, the role-play gives students insight into the background of the actions of others, and the students themselves get to feel on the body what challenges the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islander people face today. By letting students play someone that is Aboriginal, the Government or a representative of the Australian Human Rights Commission, questions and reflections are raised about what motivates one's own and others' actions. Students are trained to familiarize themselves with the situation of others, formulate and present arguments, oral presentation and professional reflection.

The game is based on the fact that students are assigned roles that represent different parties in the conflict – the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islander  and government - and the Human Right Commission. Each group should discuss their own issues, on the basis Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continue to be one of the most vulnerable groups in Australia. The people are still fighting for their rights to be themselves, the government tries to help and the human rights Commission are trying to be sure that everyone gets their basic human rights. The groups are given a role description with an issue for each group. It should be discussed within each group and may lead to negotiations between the groups. The game ends with a vote on what alternative the groups go for in the main question: Why Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continue to be one of the most vulnerable groups in Australia.

End product
To show your work and to make your arguments clear - make a presentation. Might this be your end ressults? https://youtu.be/0P9FRacTji0