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1. What is one of the Earth's largest volcanoes? Where is it located? One of the earth's largest volcano is the Yellowstone volcano. It is located in Wyoming-Yellowstone.

2. Why is Yellowstone considered a supervolcano? It is considered a supervolcano because it exceeded the magnitude of 8, and it has caused big eruptions.

3. How many times has the Yellow stone erupted? When was the most recent? The Yellowstone has erupted 3 times, the last was 640,000 years ago.

4. When was the last supervolcano eruption? The last eruption was about 75,000 years ago.

5. What effect do scientists think the last supervolcano eruption had on climate? The effect that they thought the supervolcano had was a 6-10 year volcanic winter.

Reveiw

1. What is the composition of supervolcano eruptions? Why are these so massive? The eruptions of supervolcanos can be up to 1,000 cubic km of erupting material. (240 cubic miles) Scientists are still debating why the supervolcanoes are so massive.

2. What is the source of volcanism for the supervolcano at Yellowstone? The source of volcanism is the caldera at Yellowstone.

3. How can a supervolcano eruption change the course of life on Earth? A supervolcano can change the course of life because scientists predict that one of the suprevolcanos in the past has caused a volcanic winter for 6-10 years. That could happen again and change the Earth.

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massive volcano that can produce unbelievably

enorumous, but rare eruptions

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circular shaped hole into which a volcano collapses during an eruption.

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Composite Volcanoes

1. What is another name form composite volcanoes? Composite volcanoes are also called stratovolcanoes.

2. Explain a composite volcano's typical structure. A composite volcano is steep sided and large. It is composed of alternating layers of ash and lava flows.

3. List two ex. of composite volcanoes. What is the location of each? One example is Mt. Fuji, which is located on Honshu Island in Japan. Another composite volcano is Mt. St. Helens which is located in Washington state.

Cinder Cones

4. How is a cinder cone formed? A cinder cone is formed when small rock fragments pile on top of each other.

5. What is a cinder cone's typical, maximum height? A cinder cone can be up to 300 meters tall.

6. Where is Lava Butte located? Lava Butte is located in Deschutes National

Forest in Oregon.

7. When did Izalco last erupt? In 1966.

Shield Volcanoes

8. Describe a shield volcano's structure. A shield volcano is a shield shaped volcano composed of fluid lavas.

9. What is the height of Mauna Loa? 13,798' (4,169 m)

10. Where is Mt. Washington located? When did it last erupt? Mt. Washington is located in North Conway, New Hampshire. It last erupted in in 670 AD.

Review:

1. Why do mafic lavas produce shield volcanoes? Why do felsic lavas produce cone-shaped volcanoes? Mafic lavas produce shield volcanoes because the base is very wide, and the top is flat, creating the thin lava. Felsic lava's produce cone shaped volcanoes because it has higher gas contents which causes the big eruptions of cone-shaped volcanoes.

2. How did composite and shield volcanoes earn their names? The composite volcano earns it name by having alternating layers of magma and ash.The shield volcano gets its name because it looks like a broad, gently sloping profile which looks like a warriors shield.

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shield-shaped volcano composed of fluid

lavas.

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large, steep-sided composed of alternating

layers of ash and lava flows.

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small volcano composed of small rock fragments

piled on top of one another.

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1. how do volcanoes form? Volcanoes form when a vent from which the material of a magma chamber escapes. Volcanoes form when the mantle melts.

2. Where do volcanoes occur? Volcanoes are near convergent and divergent plate boundaries. They are also found within lithospheric plates at hotspots. Wherever mantle is able to melt, a volcano is there.

3. What is the Ring of Fire? Where is it located? The Ring of Fire is where a large number of earthquakes and and volcanic eruptions occur. It is located in the basin of the Pacific Ocean.

4. Where is Mt. St. Helen's located? Mt. St. Helen's is located in Washington state.

5. Where is Mt. Pinatubo located? Mt. Pinatubo is in the Philippines.

Review

1. Where do most volcanoes occur? Why? Most volcanoes occur near convergent and divergent plate boundaries along with a place where mantle is able to melt. They occur there because when one plate moves beneath the other, it causes subduction. When the descending plate gets deep enough inside the mantle, some of the rocks on the covering plate gets melts and forms magma that can travel upward.

2. What is needed for magma to form? In order for magma to form, the temperature can rise from a rock. There also has to be a lot of pressure on the rock for it to melt and turn into magma.

3. If a volcano is dormant, can it become active? Can it become extinct? A dormant volcano can become active, and it can also become extinct.

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volcano that is not erupted in recorded history

and is unlikely to erupt again.

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volcano that is not currently erupting

but has erupted in recent past.

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volcano that is currently erupting or just about to erupt.

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thickness of a liquid; its resistance to flow.

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region below a volcano where magma and gases collect

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1. What is a hotspot? A hotspot is a fixed region of hot material

that creates magma and generates volcanoes.

2. What does a thermal plume allow for? It allows solid, yet mobile mantle to rise very

slowly and convect outward.

3. What happens during convection? When hot material rises, and cooler material sinks.

4. What carries the volcano away from the hotspot? Tectonic Plate carries the volcano

away from the hotspot.

5. Why does the volcano subside when it moves off the hotspot? The buoyant effect of the

plum diminishes, allowing the volcano to subside.

Review

1. What causes melting at a hotspot? The hotspots lie directly above a column of hot rock

called the mantle plume. The Mantle plume continuously brings up hot rock from the

mantle toward the crust. The rock melts due to the release of pressure.

2. Describe how the Hawaiian hotspot formed a chain of volcanoes. It is formed by hotspot

volcanism.

3. Relative to the Hawaiian hotspot, where in the chain is the oldest

volcano? Where is the youngest? The oldest one could be in the rift zone, and the younger

one could be in the subduction zones.

4. What do you think the future for the Loihi seamount will be? I think that the volcano

will rise above sea level and join the other volcanoes on the island or potentially create

a new island.

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zone of hot material that rises toward the surface

from deeper in the mantle and can generate hotspots.

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fixed region of hot material that creates magma and

generates volcanoes.

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1. Where does the melted mantle rock rise? At a convergent plate boundary

2. What does spreading cause? It causes hot rock rising from the earth's core. Near the surface, the rock spreads in two directions.

3. What happens when there is a plate convergence? The rock on the seafloor containing carbon from the dead plankton is carried deep into the earth.

4. How is carbon dioxide released from the rock? As the carbon descends, the layer of rock is heated, so the rock melts and releases carbon dioxide.

5. How is carbon dioxide returned to the atmosphere? It turns into gas during an eruption and returns back to the atmosphere.

Review

1. What are the two sources of melting at convergent plate boundaries? one of the sources is when the temperature rises. Another source is is if water is added, which lowers the melting point.

2. Why are there so many volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean basin? There are so many volcanoes because convergent plate boundaries are found near the Pacific Ocean basin. The trenches mark subduction zones. Volcanoes are found in an arc above above those subduction zones.

3. What causes melting at divergent plate boundaries? The hot mantle rock rises into the space where the plates are moving apart. As the hot mantle rock rises, it goes from higher to lower pressure. That happens because there is no weight of all the rock above it. Lower pressure lowers the melting temperature of the rock.

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crack in the ground that may be site of a volcanic

eruption.

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a divergent plate boundary within a continent causes the continent to thin and break apart

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1. What is LA's most earthquake resistant building? The cities Emergency management department

2. Why is this building chosen to be the safest? This building was chosen to be the safest because of the basement.

3. Why is it called a floating building? It is called thefloating building because the stairwell that leads to the basement is not physically attached to the ground.

4. How many suspension points are in the building? How do they

move? There are over 40 suspension points. They move by something that moves the building up and down, and something that causes lateral movement.

5. What size earthquake should the building be able to withstand? The size of the earthquake can be an 8.0 magnitude.

6. How far is it designed to move? It is designed to move as much as 4 feet and up and down, as much as 2 feet.

7. Why aren't all buildings in Los Angeles designed like this? Not all buildings are designed like this because it is very expensive to create something like that.

Review:

1. What can be done to make a new building safer in an earthquake

zone? At the basement of the building, they can install isolators that move the base side to side and up and down, but the people on top won't feel anything.

2. What can be done to retrofit an older building in an earthquake zone? Something that could be done is that maybe the construction workers could remodel the basement and make the stairs attached to the base floor not physically touching it.

3. What can be done to reduce the damage from fire after an earthquake? Something that can be done is to make the water pipes in a zigzag so that it can bend and flex when the ground shakes instead of breaking automatically.

4. Should all buildings in all areas be built to the highest earthquake standards? What is a more cost-effective approach? Not necessarily. Some buildings are not at a high risk of earthquakes. A more cost-effective approach could be to build something like that, but it would be smaller.

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adding new technology to older systems

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favored method of measuring earthquake magnitudes; measures the total energy released by an earthquake.

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scale that measures the magnitude of an earthquake's largest jolt of energy.

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scale that describes earthquake intensity.

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What was the magnitude of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake? The magnitude was

What does magnitude mean? Magnitude means

the intensity of an earthquake; how much damaged it caused

How much larger is each earthquake magnitude? The magnitude is

10 times larger using the richter scale.

What is the difference between two magnitudes? The difference between

two magnitudes is that some magnitudes recored can be up to 100 times larger than another one.

What is largest Earthquake ever measured? the greatest

earthquake ever measured was the earthquake in Chile

Review

1. Under what circumstances might the Mercalli intensity scale be useful today? Why was it replaced by the Richter and then the moment

magnitude scales? The Mercalli is still used today because it can still describe intensity. The Mercalli scale was replaced because using this scale, comparisons

between earthquakes were harder to make. This was replaced by the Richter Scale. The richter scale measured the magnitude of an earthquakes largest jolt of energy. However, the Richter scale had limitations. A single sharp jolt measures higher on the Richter scale than a very long, intense earthquake. Yet, that is misleading because longer earthquakes release more energy. Then, another scale was needed. Then, the moment magnitude scale came along and was the most favored earthquake measurer.

2. Why do scientists prefer the moment magnitude scale to the Richter scale? Scientists prefer the moment magnitude because it measures the TOTAL energy released by an earthquake.

3. In 2011 there was a 5.8 magnitude quake that struck Virginia and a 9.0 quake that struck Japan. How might a 5.8 magnitude quake rate the Mercalli scale in Virginia? How might a 5.8 quake rate on a Mercalli scale in Japan? I think that these would rate higher on a Mercalli scale because It would be describing intensity, and how people thought of it.

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logarithmic scale: scale in which each unit is an exponential

increase over the previous unit.

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What is a seismogram? A seismogram is a record

of ground motion at a seismic station.

What waves do a seismogram show? P waves and S-waves

What is the S-P interval? The difference between the faster P-waves and the slower S-waves is known as the S-P interval.

How many data stations are required to determine the epicenter? three data stations are required.

What is triangulation? The process of locating the epicenter is called triangulation.

Review:

How do you determine the distance from the seismograph to the earthquake epicenter? You look at the arrival times of the P-waves and S waves.

How do you find the epicenter from three seismographs? The first first seismograph station tells how far away the epicenter is. At the second seismograph station, they calculate the S-P interval, the two circles in which the distance of the epicenter is, overlap. The third station looks at data of the epicenter.

What role does the S-P interval play in locating an earthquake epicenter? It tells precisely how far away it is.

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a record of ground motion at a seismic station

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Earthquakes that are caused by stress within a plate. Intraplate earthquakes occur in the interior of a tectonic plate.

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point where rocks rapture to cause an earthquake

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point on Earth's surface directly above the focus of the earthquake.

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How earthquakes are generated. Stresses cause strain to build up in rocks until they can no longer bend elastically. Then, the rocks break and cause and earthquake.

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Ground shaking caused by the release of energy kept in rocks

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Posted on: February 5, 2014 | 0 Comments | by Jason M. Pond

Some of the most destructive, naturally occurring phenomena impacting individual property owners and businesses are earthquakes, sink holes, mud/rock slides and additional forms of ground movement, all of which are typically excluded on traditional 'property' policies unless a specialty policy or endorsement extending coverage is purchased. Without specialty earthquake coverage, damage to a dwelling and contents as a result of earthquake or other forms of earth movement would be excluded. In order to adequately protect your family and property, it's important to understand what earthquake insurance is designed to cover in the event of a loss.

Some insurance carriers do not offer earthquake or sink hole coverage in certain states.

Brick Veneer, or Masonry Veneer exterior construction are sometimes excluded or surcharged for property damage depending upon the insurance policy terms and conditions.

Depending upon the state, mud slides, rising debris or mud-flow can be considered Flood. Flood is another peril that is not covered under a traditional home policy unless specialty coverage is added.

Earth Movement exclusionary language is commonly defined as "shrinking, settling, cracking, bulging, shrinkage or collapse of the ground surrounding or underneath a covered structure"

Earthquake coverage is designed to protect the structural integrity of your home and other structures on your property, and your personal contents in the event of an earthquake. A minor earthquake can cause foundation, plumbing and electrical problems, and these can lead to other serious property damage such as collapse, explosion, fire, extensive water damage, or electrical arcing. Your home policy traditionally covers loss due to fire, water damage, or even explosion, even if the cause of the loss is due to an earthquake. It's important to note, there are insurance companies that include a policy exclusion rescinding coverage on property and contents damage unless a separate earthquake policy is in place, prior to the loss.

An earthquake can be sudden, at times unnoticed, or relatively minor. At other times, the accumulated energy grows strong enough to cause a large event, with significant after-shocks. If this occurs in a well-populated area, large-scale death, injuries and extensive property damage may result.

Although property insurance policies contain earth movement exclusions, the courts have reviewed coverage when the cause of the earth movement can be attributed to man-made activities, while excluding loss from natural events, i.e., earthquake, related earth sinking or shifting, or mudslide. For example, building damages caused by nearby blasting activities or excavation on an adjacent lot that resulted in settling, sinking, and cracks and separations in the foundations were considered to be man-made activities and held to be covered, despite the earth movement exclusion.
What does elected earthquake coverage protect against?
'Quake' coverage insures property against physical loss caused by, contributed to, made worse by, or in any way resulting from earthquake to your covered property at your residence. An earthquake means an earthquake and all related after−shocks occurring within 72 hours of the initial shock.

State-by-state guidelines differ, but there are traditionally percentage deductibles based off of the full replacement cost of one's dwelling; 1%, 2% or 5%. This deductible applies separately to each coverage amount for your house and other permanent structures.

The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family and your property in the event of an earthquake. www.ready.gov

To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family communications plan.

Fasten shelves and heavy furniture securely to walls.

Fasten heavy items such as pictures and mirrors securely to walls and away from beds, couches and anywhere people sit.

Secure your water heater, refrigerator, furnace and gas appliances by strapping them to the wall studs and bolting to the floor.

If recommended by your gas company, have an automatic gas shut-off valve installed that is triggered by strong vibrations.

Locate safe spots in each room under a sturdy table or against an inside wall. Reinforce this information by moving to these places during each drill.

Hold earthquake drills with your family members: Drop, cover and hold on.

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Earthquake and Earth Movement | Swingle Collins | Dallas, Texas

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Some of the most destructive, naturally occurring phenomena impacting individual property owners and businesses are earthquakes, sink holes, mud/rock slides and additional forms of ground movement, all of which are typically excluded on traditional 'property' policies unless a specialty policy or endorsement extending coverage is purchased.

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Stresses that pull material in opposite directions.

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force per unit area inside a rock.

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Deformation in a rock when the stress exceeds the rock’s internal strength.

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Parallel stresses that move by other in the opposite direction.

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View of the back of the Stanford Geology Corner building after the 1906 Earthquake showing the old location of the Structural Geology and Fission Track Laboratories. Our new lab is on the other side of the building, Room 214. The building was rebuilt, but condemned after the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. It is now restored with a “life-safety fix” which involved placing numerous anchored steel and concrete strips between the inner and outer walls and between floors. So it may look like this again after the next big one, but if you are inside.. you should be okay.

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Break in rock caused by stresses; this occurs with or without the movement of material.

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Strain- the change of shape that a rock experiences when it has been altered by stresses.

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Metageologist - Geology: beautiful things, incredible ideas

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Structural Geology by the Deformation numbers - Metageologist

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Structural geologists seek to understand how rocks have changed shape, in order to better understand wider processes such as how mountains are formed. Sometimes they use a terminology called ‘Deformation-numbers’ which I will now explain via a series of pretty pictures. Structural geologists spend their day measuring the orientations of things. These can be planar

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Stress from the weight of material above a buried object; this reduces volume the rock is in.

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stresses that push toward each other; this causes a decrease in the space that a rock can take up.

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tsunami:

Enormous wave generated by vertical movement of the ocean floor during an underwater earthquake;

tsunamis can also be caused by volcanic eruptions, landslides, or meteorite impacts. A deadly set of waves

can rise high on a beach and travel far inland.

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this diagram shows the distance from each seismic station to the earthquake's epicenter.

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seismograph:

Older type of seismometer in which a suspended, weighted pen wrote on a drum that moved with the ground

seismogram:

Seismogram is the printed record of seismic activity produced by a seismometer.

seismometer: Seismometer is a machine that measures seismic waves and other ground motions.

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Another pic of a seismology test for an earthquake 

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Another pic of a seismology test for an earthquake 

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Albert Einstein once said, "The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking." ¹ This sentiment, shared by a community of self-professed science lovers, (myself included) is true. I think about science all the time. Like when I compare nighttime constellations to skeletal formulas of organic compounds. Or when I relate reading musical chords to the translation of amino acids from mRNA.

I cannot help it. It just happens. Which explains why, at 7pm on Tuesday, after the effects of a 4.6 magnitude earthquake shook the city of Boston ², I was Googling convergent and divergent plate boundaries.

Shaking Things Up

Earthquakes are a surprisingly common; thousands occur each day but are of such small magnitude that they are rarely felt. Contrary to popular opinion, these tremors do not only occur at fault lines where two continental or oceanic plates meet, but anywhere on the earth's crust. As layers of the crust shift toward (convergent) or away from (divergent) each other, the resulting stress between the plates increases gradually. When this stress is suddenly released, seismic waves send vibrations throughout hundreds of miles of rock, initiating quakes on the surface as well as possible volcanic activity. The strength of the waves determines the quake's magnitude on the Richter scale from 1.0 to 10.0; exceeding 7.0 is considered to be major ³.

The earthquake felt on campus was the result of plate movement in southern Maine. I did not think there were many major fault lines in New England, but little tremors measuring less than 2.0 shake the Pine Tree State several times a year. In fact, in 2006, Maine experienced a slew of earthquakes caused mainly (haha) by the aftermath of last ice age. ⁴

You know, the one from 14,000 years ago. (Earth's crust is slow to catch up.)

Even though the massive ice sheets that once covered North America have since melted, the crust is still recovering from supporting their weight. Ice ranging from a mile to two miles thick pushed the Earth's crust down by 500 feet, creating a landscape designed by centuries of mountain building and erosion. ⁴

According to geologists, the continental plate under New England still has to rise about another 230 feet to recover from the weight of the ice age ⁴. However, if the past is any indication of how gradual this recovery will be (and it is), future quakes will be rather minor and go undetected. So, instead of being too shaken up the next time you feel the ground move, double check for construction down the street.

References

¹ Harris, K. (1995).Collected Quotes from Albert Einstein.. Retrieved Oct 16, 2012, from http://rescomp.stanford.edu/~cheshire/EinsteinQuotes.html.

²Winter, M. (2012). 4.6 earthquake shakes Maine, felt in Boston. USA Today. Retrieved Oct 16 2012 from http://www.usatoday.com/story/ondeadline/2012/10/16/earthquake-maine -boston/1637441/? utm_source= dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter&dlvrit=206567

³Earthquakes: Seismic Destruction. National Geographic. Retrieved Oct 16 2012 from http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/earthquake-profile/,

⁴ Keim, B. (2011). Mysterious Maine Earthquakes Caused by Ice Age Rebound. Wired Science. Retrieved Oct 16 2012 from http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/05/maine-earthquakes/

Ashley Mayrianne Jones (CAS/COM '14) is an ecology major and animal-lover from New Hampshire hoping to obtain a graduate degree in science and medical journalism. She can be reached at ashjones@bu.edu.

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seismic wave " Synapse | Boston University

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Albert Einstein once said, "The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking." 1 This sentiment, shared by a community of self-professed science lovers, (myself included) is true. I think about science all the time. Like when I compare nighttime constellations to skeletal formulas of organic compounds.

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Diagram of Seismic Waves from Earthquakes 

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Diagram of Seismic Waves from Earthquakes 