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examples of motivation theory

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Do you often find yourself struggling to change your habits, regardless of how willing you are to set objectives? If your goals rarely reach fruition, you are not alone.

For many, there is the 'you' who you would like to be, and then (more consistently) the 'you' that you are.

These two versions of yourself are not always aligned. If they were, we would all be superheroes.

Disillusionment may follow about the number of things you "could" have done if only you had been persistent in your endeavors.

Research in psychology is here to orientate ourselves in a complex world, and even help us live our lives in more fulfilling and productive ways.

Locke's goal-setting theory of motivation, which has been tested and supported by hundreds of studies involving thousands of participants, consistently delivers positive changes in the lives of individuals worldwide (Locke and Latham, 2019).

This article will address Locke's ideas and give you insight into how to benefit from them.

They may play a big role in helping you live your best life.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our 3 Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free. These creative, science-based exercises will help you learn more about your values, motivations and goals and will give you the tools to inspire a sense of meaning in the lives of your clients, students or employees.

What is Goal-Setting Theory? A Look at Edwin Locke's Theory

Does this quote sound familiar? It is vital to modern goal-setting theory, even though it is over 2,500 years old.

When it is obvious that the goals cannot be reached, don't adjust the goals, adjust the action steps.

Confucius 551-479 B.C.
If you are new to this quote, it may be time to write it down and memorize it.

Most goals are possible to achieve, but people are unsuccessful at goal-setting when they omit to consider the most essential ingredients to any given goal.

Perhaps you made a resolution over a glass of wine on New Year's Eve, or while you were sitting on the subway coming back from work, determined to maximize your company's outputs.

You were taken by the belief, then, that you would train for a couple of months before running that summer marathon; that your team-building exercises would strengthen the bonds between your employees and in turn, positively impact their performance at work; that you would write 500 words a day and complete your first novel.

Without a doubt, you have already been exposed to countless inspirational quotes.

As one example, J. K. Rowling has a great inspirational quote. After all, she drafted Harry Potter on the back of a napkin in a cafe in Edinburgh. She believes that:

If this quote inspires you, that is fabulous. It is not always enough, however, to read a quote like this and change your goal-driven actions. Even with someone as inspiring as

In 90% of the cases, reading a motivational quote and promising yourself to work harder, change this or that habit, or improve an aspect of your life guarantees failure. Why is this? If setting goals and succeeding is part of what makes 'human,' then how do we address this fail-prone tendency?

It matters, to achieve your goals, as working towards meaningful goals provides us with a sense of direction, purpose, and meaning in life.

The more goals we set-within healthy boundaries-the more likely we are to build self-confidence, autonomy, and .

It is time to explore the science behind goal-setting. Let's flip that 90% failure rate on its head.

Goal-Setting Research: Findings and Statistics

Many studies on goal-setting reveal that the habit of making goals is strong, cross-culturally; however, the rate of attaining those goals via small, manageable changes is weak.

The following findings summarize the last 90 years of goal-setting:

Cecil Alec Mace conducted the first study on goal-setting in 1935;

People who write their goals are more likely to achieve their goal than those who don't by 50%;

Motivation experts agree that goals should be written down, and carried with oneself, if possible;

92% of New Year resolutions fail by the 15th of January;

Carefully outlined goals, which can be measured and set within specific timeframes, are more effective;

Explaining your goals to someone you are close to, or making the commitment public, substantially increases your chances of reaching your goal;

By contrast, goals that are kept to oneself are more likely to be mixed up with the 1,500 thoughts that the average person experiences by the minute;

Often, achieving a goal means sacrificing something or putting aside certain habits, or beliefs about yourself-it may even result in an emotional or physical toll;

Harvard research documents that 83% of the population of the United States do not have goals.

Goal-setting typically yields a success rate of 90%;

Goals have an energizing function. The higher the goal, the greater the effort invested (Locke & Latham, 2002).

Theoretical Definition(s) of Goal-Setting

To provide context, here are a few definitions of goal-setting defined by experts in the field:

Broadly defined, goal-setting is the process of establishing clear and usable targets, or objectives, for learning.

(Moeller, Theiler, & Wu, 2012)

Goal-setting theory is summarized regarding the effectiveness of specific, difficult goals; the relationship of goals to affect; the mediators of goal effects; the relation of goals to self-efficacy; the moderators of goal effects; and the generality of goal effects across people, tasks, countries, time spans, experimental designs, goal sources (i.e., self-set, set jointly with others, or assigned), and dependent variables.

(Locke & Latham, 2006)
Edwin Locke's goal-setting theory argues that for goal-setting to be successful with desired outcomes, they must contain the following specific points (Lunenberg & Samaras, 2011):

Clarity: goals need to be specific;

Challenging: goals must be difficult yet attainable;

Goals must be accepted;

Feedback must be provided on goal attainment;

Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate the performance;

Deadlines improve the effectiveness of goals;

A learning goal orientation leads to higher performance than a performance goal orientation;

Group goal-setting is as important as individual goal-setting.

The following video offers a concise explanation that summarizes the actions and steps to achieve specific goals. It's less than 3 minutes and informative.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mg21keJZPq8

This video clarifies-with the help of Chef Alfredo and Boss Romero-what implementing goals with employees looks like, practically speaking. The role of precision is key for employees to fulfill any task.

To make the memorization of these points easier, the acronym SMART may help you recall what the most important attributes of effective goal-setting are:

How do these work out in practice? In short, the answer relates to specificity, which we will address next.

Examples of the Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation in Practice

Put aside the irresistible need to make your goal as vague and romantic as possible and stick with the raw stuff. What action items do you need to do, to achieve this goal?

The anagram "SMART" is here to assist you in this process.

Getting SMART

The first point of the anagram says that goals should be ' specific.' All you need to do is make sure you are clear about what your goal is concretely going to deal with.

For example, instead of saying, " I must become more social " (if say, you are a lonesome cat lady who receives visits once a month), first define what you mean by being social, what your expectations are of social life and the ways in which you feel a greater social presence in your life would enhance it.

Then, sketch out a plan to put into action immediately, tackling instances of daily life you can work on (in the workplace, in already existing relationships, during daily encounters) and the extra incentives you can take to get out of your way to meet new people and enjoy new experiences and activities.

Write down what you are aiming to achieve and what you can do that may positively impact your socializing efforts (e.g. becoming more hospitable, relaxed, caring, kind, compassionate, empathetic).

Alternatively, specificity can also refer to setting specific dates, times, locations at which you will commit to spending time dedicating yourself to your goal.

Next, we need to consider what measurable goals mean.

' Measurable ' is that you should be able to measure in one way or another whether you have completed your goal or not, or still in the process of doing so.

How your goal should be measured is up to you. Still, you should have a clear idea and expectation as to how your goal, once completed, would look like.

If your goal was to become more social, that could mean to build strong friendships with two new people and to commit to attending one social event every week for an entire year.

Keeping track through 'measurement' helps to give you a sense of where you currently find yourself in relation to your goal and where you are heading next.

Goals ought to be ' acceptable ' to you. That means that you must not only identify with them but also, feel like they are in line with your value system and that they won't lead you to transgress your sense of integrity in any way.

If the goal is to be more social, the 'acceptability' part comes into play at the level of what you feel an adequate friendship would look like.

Whether its sharing fun activities, emotional and intimate conversations, cooking or playing sports together, it's important to be self-aware, to know what you are after and how your beliefs and feelings are entangled with the goal you are about to set for yourself.

Your goal must be realistic. In other words, you have to work with what you have while pushing yourself slightly beyond in order to change your current reality.

Going back to the instance of the lonesome cat lady (nothing wrong about that), a realistic goal would be to make efforts to develop at least two new friendships over the next six months, and not, say, to become a popular member of the community, as achieving this may take considerably more time.

We have just briefly mentioned the time framework, but nonetheless, it's totally worth re-emphasizing as much as necessary. The timeframe is all about setting a fixed deadline by which you should have completed your goal.

Regardless of what you have decided to do, make sure you interconnect your goal with your calendar, and that you make the necessary adjustments in your daily life so that working on your goal happens smoothly and gradually.

Key Studies Related to Goal-Setting Theory

Regardless of the tasks involved, the goal source, the setting, or the time frame, it is the tenets of Locke's goal-setting theory that remain solid.

Over time, the SMART theory has proved effective for increasing performance (Latham & Pinder, 2005; Lee & Earley, 1992; Miner, 1984) in a range of settings.

Here are five case studies exploring various ways of goal-setting and its effects.

5 Interesting Case Studies on Goal-Setting Theory

Performance, if set as a goal, does not lead to the same results without the specific goals of gaining knowledge and skillsets.

In our first study, Dweck et al. (1986, 1988, 1988) found that in the classroom, two recurrent personality traits could be observed. Students mainly divided into two categories: those primarily focused on gaining knowledge and skills, and those primarily concerned with their grade and performance in the class.

It was found that the first cohort performed better on taught subjects than the second.

Goal-setting, however, is not only about the decided object of focus. There are, in fact, many determinants that shape the goal-setting and goal completion process.

A second study conducted by Atkinson (1958) highlights how the difficulty of the given task also acts as a factor that hinders or improves performance. The highest level of effort took place when the task was moderately challenging, and the lowest level when the task was either too easy or too hard.

Furthermore, the social dimension which accompanies goal-setting should be considered too, whenever possible.

For example, a major study carried out at Dominican University, listing 267 participants recruited from the business sector (Matthews, 2015) showed that:

In short, this study provided empirical evidence to support the claim that accountability, commitment, and writing down goals have a major influence on an individual's commitment towards reaching self-imposed goals.

Goal-setting enables people to stay focused and find meaning in what matters in their lives.

In fact, Boa et al. (2018) claim that goals also provide many people a sense of purpose, as well as a drive to live as actively as possible until their death; this proves especially true in the context of illness.

The researchers conducted a comparative case study of 10 healthcare professionals in a hospice, to practice patient-centered goal-setting.

The results indicated that instead of centering the approach around patients, participants tended to articulate them in relation to what they perceived to be important (problem-solving, alleviating symptoms).

This study by Boa et al. (2018) stressed the importance of making the goals suitable for the priorities of the individual, so as to maximize their effectivity and enhance people's quality of life.

Another study carried out by Carr (2018) sought to gauge the effects of an already existing goal-setting strategy in an elementary school serving many students from a disadvantaged socio-economic background.

The conclusions pointed out that goal-setting, when implemented consistently, had a positive effect on student self-efficacy, motivation, and reading proficiency.

This, Car argues, happened when the goals being set were specific, measurable, achievable, reasonable, timely and challenging at the same time.

Essentially, the SMART anagram prevails in many situations, backgrounds, and perspectives.

In Defense of Learning Goals

For many, the notion of performance as an accomplishment intertwines with goal-setting.

Just valuing or wanting the "end-product," and omitting what it takes to get there, is a common mistake made by many.

That's why research expresses how goals about learning (rather than performance) have higher success rates of goals being met.

The emphasis on learning has a trickle-down effect that actually benefits performance after all. The five studies listed below highlight the difference between performance and knowledge-based goals:

Winters and Latham (1996) found that setting a learning goal rather than a performance goal for tasks (for individuals with insufficient knowledge) was most effective;

Similarly, Drach-Zahavy and Erez (2002) made the case that people with a set learning goal for themselves (mentioned in their work as a "strategy goal") perform better than those who had set a performance-related goal on a task that involved predicting stock-market fluctuations;

Seijts, Latham, and Tasa (2004) made the point that informants who were assigned a challenging learning goal reached more market share on an interactive, computer-based simulation of the US cellular telephone industry than participants who were assigned a high-performance goal instead;

Kozlowski and Bell's study (2006) concluded that assigning a learning goal improved the self-regulatory affective and cognitive mechanisms, in contrast with a goal emphasizing high-performance;

Last but not least, Cianci, Klein, and Seijts (2010) reported that people who had a learning goal were less prone to tension. They also performed better even after negative feedback, compared to those only assigned a performance goal.

To implement learning-driven goals, it is important to understand how they differ from performance goals.

A performance goal might be something like, " I want to become fluent in XY language, " whereas a learning goal would be:

See the difference?

Self-Efficacy and Goal-Setting

Self-efficacy is a concept coined and developed by Albert Bandura. It is a cornerstone concept in the field of positive psychology.

Lightsey (1999) writes that:

This emphasizes how the construct has had a potent effect on several areas ranging from phobias and depression to vocation choice and managerial organization.

Akhtar (2008) defines self-efficacy as:

The idea that "what we think" affects "what we do" is not new. The field of positive psychology has explored the impact of our beliefs and worldviews on our health and how we live our lives.

As Mahatma Gandhi famously said:

It is important to distinguish a person's capability with how they perceive their own capability.

Often, there is also a discrepancy between the person's desire and the capacity, which leads us to self-efficacy. Self-efficacity is a form of self-confidence which embraces an 'I can handle this' attitude. It has an empowering effect on the actions of the person in question.

Motivation, on the other hand, refers to a person's willingness to fulfill a given task, or goal.

Locke's goal-setting theory aims to encompass both, by formulating goals which not only are in line with a person's capabilities but also provides the necessary resources so that the person is motivated by the goal while stimulating his or her sense of self-efficacy.

While it is not exactly possible to instill a sense ofin a person who disbelieves their capacity to perform well and push themselves beyond what they think they can achieve, setting goals within a positive framework can make a substantial difference.

The Goal-Setting Framework

What is the best approach to adopt when implementing goals?

We have seen, step by step, the way in which they should be structured. But not the general framework in which they should ground themselves for maximized effectiveness.

Depending on how they are framed, goals can have specific effects on a given person's learning process and performance. They can be framed negatively, by emphasizing how a person should prevent losses and failure at all cost.

A negative goal-setting approach could look like this:

This approach tends to be ineffective and degrading. Research shows that punitive strategies often result in anxiety, a lower persistence, and performance, especially in comparison with goals that are set with a positive outlook (Roney, Higgins, & Shah, 1995).

Frese et al. (1991) have developed the concept of "error management," which intends to reframe errors during the process as opportunities for the individual to learn from.

Framing mistakes and negative feedback with statements such as " Errors are a natural part of the learning process!" and " The more errors you make, the more you learn! " (Heslin, Carson and VandeWalle, 2008) are beneficial.

In short, discouraging fear-based environments encourages people to try again, rather than give up on their goals. This 'forgiving' aspect also enables individuals to expect, and not apprehend, failure as part of the growth process.

Goal-setting is not a straight-forward path to success, and it is important to feel like one can "fail" and still aim for their goal, maybe with added specificity.

As such, if framed positively, the previously mentioned goals look more like this:

Such an approach provides clear guidelines and expectations of a given goal and also trigger positive emotions. Workplaces, schools, and environments with positive goal-setting get to experience the energy, creativity, and motivation of inspiring spaces.

People like a challenge, especially when it seems difficult but possible.

How is Goal-Setting Related to Behavioral Change?

So far, we have seen what goals do, but we have omitted to mention what happens to people when they do not set goals in their lives.

Indecision, lack of focus, boredom, and not having something specific to strive for, can lead to a feeling that one is living a dulled, less meaningful version of their life. Symptoms of depression, among other mental health struggles, often appear in these perceived unchanging spaces.

This is because specifically-written goals can provide individuals with a sense of existential structure, purpose, and meaning.

As Locke argues, goals are "immediate regulators of behavior" (Latham, Ganegoda, & Locke, 2011), and they provide the self with a vision for the future and a clear direction to strive towards a specific objective.

More so, goal-directed action coupled with reasoning skills is a fundamental element of what makes us human. Even the "non-human" world thrives with goal-setting parallels.

This is not to say that plants write down their goals in pencil. But let's have Locke explain how:

"The lowest level of goal-directed action is physiologically controlled (plants). The next level, present in the lower animals, entails conscious self-regulation through sensory-perceptual mechanisms including pleasure and pain. Human beings possess a higher form of consciousness - the capacity to reason. They have the power to conceptualize goals and set long-range purposes" (Locke, 1969).

The human ability to reflect is a curse and a blessing.

It liberates us from the constraint of the absolute determinism of things but it also means that we are responsible for the choices we make and whether they will contribute to our welfare.

For instance, individuals who start exercising and feeling the numerous health benefits often end up seeing value in making additional lifestyle changes, such as a healthier routine and diet.

Thus, if a goal is perceived by the individual as something that can contribute to their sense of well-being or that of the group they are a part of, then it can also serve as a source of inspiration and esteem.

This often leads to a ricochet effect on other behaviors linked to performance and efficacy.

Can Goal-Setting Help Decision-Making?

Goal-setting and decision making are the two voluntary acts that can radically transform a person's life.

You perhaps have heard the adage, "you cannot save someone who doesn't want to be saved."

When it comes to helping others, it is not possible to do so unless they want the help, and also feel enough motivation to take the appropriate steps forward-regardless of how tiring this may prove.

Setting goals empower decision making, and the opposite is true as well. It enables people to filter through what is significant, worth pursuing and what is not.

Goal-Setting vs. Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom (1964) and looks at the mental processes which underlie motivation and choice-making.

Vroom outlines three main factors which structure how humans decide to go about their lives and the steps needed to achieve a given result: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

He argues that 'motivational force' can be calculated by means of multiplying expectancy with instrumentality and valence.

The actual formula looks like this:
Motivational force = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
Put in a literary way, Vroom's point is that motivation emerges from a person's belief that an invested effort will enable them to achieve a certain desired performance, and that the way this performance is played out, will lead to the fulfillment of a specific goal.

In turn, the extent to which the individual perceived this final goal as desirable (valence) will also shape the degree of motivation for the individual to pursue a given goal.

In other words, confidence, assessment of what is required, and the value perceived on the specific outcome equal the energy an individual may feel towards a specific goal.

Expectancy theory adds an interesting dimension to Locke's goal-setting theory. Locke provides insight into which goals are implemented in effective ways. Vroom, on the other hand, sheds light on how self-esteem, individual perception and the value system of individuals come into play.

The theories coined by Locke and Vroom do intersect in how they emphasize the importance of setting goals that are tailored to subjective needs and capacities.

To spark the necessary 'motivational force' for any given challenge, there must be momentum. With this momentum come success, especially when failure is encouraged as part of the learning process.

12 Excellent Journal Articles for Further Reading

One of the great aspects of goal-setting is that it is applicable in most domains of life.

For more detail regarding the different studies mentioned, you can find the original sources in the bibliography. It is possible to find information related to goal-setting on practically every subject.

For example, if you have specific goals to becoming a published writer, there are plenty of step-by-step guides offered on the internet.

There is also a wealth of literature documenting the benefits of goal-setting in the context of workplaces, especially since the theory began as an attempt to enhance employee motivation in the workplace.

For your convenience, we compiled a list of recently published journal articles relating to goal-setting, applied to a range of contexts.

If you don't have access to academic material and would like to consult on any of the following articles, don't hesitate to drop us a message.

Goal-setting in the Professional World:

Goal-setting with Students/Adolescents:

Goal-setting in Healthcare/ with Patients:

A Nuanced Perspective

Goals, goals, goals.

Staying informed with how to improve oneself and others is important; however, too much absorption with the topic may overlook the very value of existence.

It's not enough to be busy, so are the ants. The question is, what are we busy about?

Henry David Thoreau
Thoreau's excellent words invite us to reflect on the broader picture. Do our goals push us to pursue really matters? If so, then continue. If not, perhaps it is time to pause.

Even though goal-setting can indeed strengthen a person's sense of purpose, self-confidence, and autonomy, the habit of setting goals can lead us astray from our core values.

The current trend, unfortunately, is following this "busy route" where burnout is ingrained with modern corporate culture (Petersen, 2019). It is especially affecting the millennial generation.

As Petersen's (ibid) article shows, it can be hard enough to perform the most basic tasks, such as answering emails, doing household chores, registering to vote, calling people on their birthdays, etc.

Burnout, Petersen argues, is part of the over-involvement of baby-boomer parents in their children's lives, as well as the shifting of modern labor relations and social media technologies.

In many ways, this has blurred the line that used to exist between professional and private life, that is largely nonexistent now.

Many people feel pressure to always brand or market who they are or what they do so that they can feel connected and compete for social status, even when not in the professional world. For many, this shows as the internalization of a feeling that one should be working 'all the time.'

This pushes people to compare their lives or 'impact' with others and make goals out of social comparison and insecurity, rather than goals centered from a genuine desire to change something.

A culture of self-care has arisen, as a possible response to burnout and overwhelming times.

Self-care, however, is not a complete solution given that:

Peterson also recalls the words of the social psychologist Devon Price, who, writing on the topic of homelessness, argued that:

"Laziness, at least in the way most of us generally conceive of it, simply does not exist. If a person's behavior does not make sense to you, it is because you are missing a part of their context. It's that simple."

Hence, this comes as a cautionary message against excessive goal-setting and the madness of constant self-development and improvement.

Modern society encourages us to feel that we are never "good enough." How do we balance the self-compassion that we are enough, with the desire to be better and set goals?

Perhaps one answer is to avoid goals that do not align with your core values, as well as goals that do more harm than good.

On the same note, Ordonez, Schweitzer, Galinsky, and Bazerman (2009) warn about what happens when 'goals go wild:' when goals are too narrow, too challenging, too numerous and enacted within an unrealistic timeframe, they can lead to disastrous consequences.

These consequences range from unethical behavior to psychological pitfalls linked with experiencing failure. For example, if a company boss aims to increase profits by over-working and underpaying staff, this is not a sustainable or ethical goal for anyone involved.

The authors, basing on management studies, also reveal how goal-setting may come at the expense of learning. Again, how do we avoid feeding a competitive culture, and instead, promote cultures of growth and intrinsic motivation?

To avoid this, Steve Kerr from General Electric advises managers to refrain from setting goals that are likely to increase their employees' stress levels or contain punishing failure; instead, Kerr wants to equip staff with the necessary tools to meet the challenging goals.

This approach, Ordonez et al. argue, will encourage managers to consider whether the goal-setting culture benefits the company's outputs and the well-being of their employees.

Locke & Latham (2002) also warned about the potential pitfalls of combining goals with financial rewards in the workplace; this usually brings employers to set rather easy goals as opposed to more challenging ones instead.

Before rushing to set personal or business goals, it is important to consider your motivation.

4 PowerPoints about Goal-Setting Theory (PPTs)

Hopefully, your mind is now buzzing about the ways you could share the value of this content with others. Perhaps this article could inspire your workplace, your classroom, or simply, your lazy and somewhat unmotivated friend.

Reading long articles on the internet is not accessible to everyone since not everyone has the time or interest to invest the effort.

Our role at PositivePsychology.com is to translate and synthesize academic ideas and research into easily accessible writing. Our readers play an essential role in terms of communicating these resources and ideas to the broader public.

Powerpoints can be particularly impactful tools, that can transmit crucial information concisely.

They are therefore the most effective way of getting the message across to a wider audience.

For inspiration, you may want to have a look at these powerpoints that address the topic of goal-setting theory in a range of contexts.

If you are to directly download and make use of any of these, make sure you contact their authors so that they can grant you permission for using their content.

A Take Home Message

We hope to have provided you with an in-depth view of Locke's goal-setting theory.

Hopefully, after having read this article, you will never go about setting goals in the same way.

Chances are you will be 90% more likely to succeed at them if you put into practice the different points that we have gone through such as specific goals with attainable action items.

Make it about the process of learning, not the end performance.

And remember, stay "SMART."

What do you think about the balance of goal-setting and also, "being enough?" It is a fine balance. If you have any comments, please add to our comments section below.

We'd love to keep this conversation around goal-setting open to your ideas.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don't forget to download our 3 Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free.

If you wish to learn more, our Meaning and Valued Living Masterclass© will help you understand the science behind meaning and valued living, inspire you to connect to your values on a deeper level and make you an expert in fostering a sense of meaning in the lives of your clients, students or employees.

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What is Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation? (Incl. Examples)

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Do you often find yourself struggling to change your habits, regardless of how willing you are to set objectives? If your goals rarely reach fruition, you are not alone. For many, there is the 'you' who you would like to be, and then (more consistently) the 'you' that you are.

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video explaining the theory

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Motivation 4   process Theory   Locke's Goal setting theory

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Goal setting involves the development of an action plan designed in order to motivate and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goals are more deliberate than desires and momentary intentions. Therefore, setting goals means that a person has committed thought, emotion, and behavior towards attaining the goal. In doing so, the goal setter has established a desired future state which differs from their current state, thus creating a mismatch which in turn spurs future actions. Goal setting is a major component of personal-development and management literature, and can be guided by goal-setting criteria (or rules) such as SMART criteria. Studies by Edwin A. Locke and his colleagues, most notably Gary Latham, have shown that more specific and ambitious goals lead to more performance improvement than easy or general goals. The goals should be specific, time constrained and difficult. Difficult goals should be set ideally at the 90th percentile of performance-assuming that motivation and not ability is limiting attainment of that level of performance. As long as the person accepts the goal, has the ability to attain it, and does not have conflicting goals, there is a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and task performance.

The theory of Locke and colleagues states that the simplest, most direct motivational explanation of why some people perform better than others is because they have different performance goals. The essence of the theory goes as follows:

1. Difficult specific goals lead to significantly higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or even the setting of an abstract goal such as urging people to do their best.

2. Holding ability constant, and given that there is goal commitment, the higher the goal the higher the performance.

3. Variables such as praise, feedback, or the participation of people in decision-making about the goal only influence behavior to the extent that they lead to the setting of and subsequent commitment to a specific difficult goal.

Edwin A. Locke began to examine goal setting in the mid-1960s and continued researching goal setting for more than 30 years. He found that individuals who set specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set general, easy goals. Locke derived the idea for goal-setting from Aristotle's form of final causality. Aristotle speculated that purpose can cause action; thus, Locke began researching the impact goals have on human activity. Locke developed and refined his goal-setting theory in the 1960s, publishing in 1968 his first article on the subject "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives", where he established the positive relationship between clearly identified goals and performance.

Goal setting theory was developed over 25 years based on accumulated evidence from approximately 400 studies-encompassing field and laboratory settings. This inductive approach to theory building avoids over-formalizing ideas at the early stage of theory development. In this sense, inductive theory building should be seen as going from the particular to the general-in contrast with deductive theory building which goes from the general to the particular. With specific regards to goal setting theory, this also has the further advantage of allowing negative results to be framed as an opportunity for further exploration around the theory and the development of goal setting has many examples of this process being used to develop the theory further. Recent work on benefits from domain general goals suggest both that the theory should be modified further to include this beneficial domain general effect of superordinate goals and that this inductive process of further adjustments and improvements to goal setting theory itself is ongoing (see Goal setting § In academia for more detail).

After controlling for ability, goals that are difficult to achieve and specific tend to increase performance far more than easy goals, no goals or telling people to do their best. It therefore follows that the simplest motivational explanation of why some individuals outperform others is that they have different goals. A goal can be made more specific by:

quantification (that is, making it measurable), such as by pursuing "increase productivity by 50%" instead of "increase productivity",

enumeration, such as by defining tasks that must be completed to achieve the goal instead of only defining the goal.

Setting goals can affect outcomes in four ways:

Goals may narrow someone's attention and direct their efforts toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant actions.

Goals may make someone more effortful. For example, if someone usually produces 4 widgets per hour but wants to produce 6 widgets per hour, then they may work harder to produce more widgets than without that goal.

Persistence

Goals may make someone more willing to work through setbacks.

Goals may cause someone to develop and change their behavior.

1. The importance of the expected outcomes of goal attainment,

2. Self-efficacy: one's belief that they are able to achieve the goals,

3. Commitment to others: promises or engagements to others can strongly improve commitment.

Expanding the three from above, the level of commitment is influenced by external factors such as the person assigning the goal, setting the standard for the person to achieve or perform. This influences the level of commitment by how compliant the individual is with the one assigning the goal. An external factor can also be the role models of the individual. For example, if an individual looks up to their manager and cares about his or her opinion, the individual is more likely to listen to goal-setting strategies from that individual, and ultimately become more committed to their desired goal.

Internal factors can derive from their participation level in the work to achieve the goal. What they expect from themselves can either flourish their success, or destroy it. Also, the individual may want to appear superior to their peers or competitors. They want to achieve the goal the best and be known for it. The self-reward of accomplishing a goal, is usually one of the main keys that keep individuals committed. For example, if an individual was working toward becoming the president of their company, if they achieve their goal, they could reward themselves with something of importance to them.

Another route individuals can take to set their goals is to follow (STD) that is, setting their goals to be Specific, Time-bound, and difficult. Specifically, an individuals goal should be set at the 90th percentile of difficulty.

Goal-performance relationship

Locke and Latham (2006) argue that it is not sufficient to urge employees to "do their best". "Doing one's best" has no external referent, which makes it useless in eliciting specific behavior. To elicit some specific form of behavior from another person, it is important that this person has a clear view of what is expected from him/her. A goal is thereby of vital importance because it helps an individual to focus his or her efforts in a specified direction. In other words, goals canalize behavior. However, when faced with complex tasks and directions that are difficult to specify, telling someone to "do their best", with a focus on learning, can sometimes lead to the discovery of better strategies whereby specific goals can then be set. A solution to this apparent contradiction where the "do your best" condition can lead to greater task performance than a high specific performance goal under certain conditions is resolved when tax complexity is taken into account. Specifically, in a complex task where the prerequisite skills and knowledge to perform the task are not yet in place, the "do your best" condition can outperform the performance goal condition. If a high, specific learning goal is set instead then the goal-performance relationship is maintained and the (learning) goal setting condition outperforms the "do your best" condition.

Feedback and goal setting are highly interrelated and more effective when used in conjunction with each other. Goal setting can lead to creation of feedback loops, either negative or positive comparison of the output to the goal. Negative feedback loops lead to increasing the input associated with goal attainment to improve output in the next loop cycle. Positive feedback loops if not sufficiently reinforced can lead to subsequent setting of goals at a less difficult level.

Negative feedback can be reframed and errors seen as beneficial to the learning and goal achievement process and in turn increasing participant resilience. This reframing process can be taught through error management training and with clear instructions about how to engage with errors. Error management training involves participants practicing the metacognitive activities of planning, monitoring, and evaluation.

Negative feedback also interacts with goal type, perceived tension and conscientiousness. People with high conscientiousness and performance goals experience high tension following negative feedback which leads to lower performance. This is not the case with learning goals where the effect of negative feedback is less detrimental.

Without proper feedback channels it is impossible for employees to adapt or adjust to the required behavior. Managers should keep track of performance to allow employees to see how effective they have been in attaining their goals. Providing feedback on short-term objectives helps to sustain motivation and commitment to the goal. There are two forms of feedback in which the employee can receive (Outcome and Process feedback). Outcome feedback is after the goal or activity is finished, and process feedback is during the completion of a goal. Feedback should be provided on the strategies followed to achieve the goals and on the final outcomes achieved.

Locke and Latham (2004) note that goal-setting theory lacks "the issue of time perspective". Taking this into consideration, Steel and Konig (2006) utilize their temporal motivation theory (TMT) to account for goal setting's effects, and suggest new hypotheses regarding a pair of its moderators: goal difficulty and proximity. The effectiveness of goal setting can be explained by two aspects of TMT: the principle of diminishing returns and temporal discounting. Similar to the expression "the sum of the parts can be greater than the whole", a division of a project into several, immediate, subgoals appears to take advantage of these two elements.

Goal-commitment, the most influential moderator,[citation needed ] becomes especially important when dealing with difficult or complex goals. If people lack commitment to goals, they lack motivation to reach them. To commit to a goal, one must believe in its importance or significance.

Attainability: individuals must also believe that they can attain-or at least partially reach-a defined goal. If they think no chance exists of reaching a goal, they may not even try.

Self-efficacy: the higher someone's self-efficacy regarding a certain task, the more likely they will set higher goals, and the more persistence they will show in achieving them.

In business, goal setting remains a popular evidence based approach to align efforts across organizations, communicate objectives, and improve motivation as well as task performance for individuals and groups. Goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort over and above a "do your best condition". Also, because every member has defined expectations for their role, little room is left for inadequate, marginal effort to go unnoticed.

Managers cannot constantly drive motivation, or keep track of an employee's work on a continuous basis. Goals are therefore an important tool for managers, since goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that helps employees prioritize tasks.

Four mechanisms through which goal setting can affect individual performance are:

1. Goals focus attention toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.

2. Goals serve as an energizer: Higher goals induce greater effort, while low goals induce lesser effort.

3. Goals affect persistence; constraints with regard to resources affect work pace.

4. Goals activate cognitive knowledge and strategies that help employees cope with the situation at hand.

Work-life balance

Based initially on Drucker's management by objectives (MBO) model, a popular applied version of goal setting theory for business is the objectives and key results model ( OKR). Originally developed at Intel by Andy Grove, the tool was designed to set individual and team goals that are specific, concrete, challenging, ambitious and have measurable and time bound key results. OKRs were later introduced to many other companies and foundations such as Google and the Gates Foundation by Grove disciple John Doerr, whose book Measure what Matters outlines the use of OKRs across a wide range of organizational settings.

Further work with undergraduates has suggested that these broader benefits apply even if non-academic goals are set. This could imply that the original goal setting theory can be modified to include a more domain general "spread" effect from superordinate life goals and that writing about general life goals regardless of domain can improve academic performance. Developing these life goals can include linked procedures such as i) reflecting on/envisaging one's best possible life, ii) listing good quality goals relevant to achieving this best possible life, iii) strategizing on how to achieve their attainment, iv) reflect in writing about anticipated obstacles, v) developing specific plans for overcoming these anticipated obstacles.

Goal setting interventions have shown promising and scalable results in terms of closing persistent gender (ongoing male underperformance) and ethnicity achievement gaps in the areas of academic achievement and increased retention rates. In one study persistent male underperformance in tertiary education was almost entirely closed to achieve parity with females after one year of the intervention. Similar albeit slower positive impacts in closing the ethnicity achievement gap by the second year of the same goal setting intervention were reported. These findings suggest that a goal setting intervention early in students' academic careers can significantly and substantially reduce gender and ethnic minority inequalities in academic achievement at least at the tertiary level. More work remains to be done to see if similar conclusions can be drawn at the level of secondary education.

Goal-setting activities with final-year university students focused around self-reflective and personal growth through setting three growth goals and recording progress in reflective diaries shows that goal setting and making making progress towards the goals can have many positive impacts. These include increased self-esteem, time and improved stress management and self-monitoring skills as well as motivating, and energizing effects. These suggest that, at least with undergraduates, the setting of growth goals with a reflective diary element can be a useful addition to academic programs.

Online learning and massive open online courses (MOOCs)

1. Identify and define behavior

2. Establish a behavior monitoring plan

3. Collect baseline data

4. Set goals

5. Monitor progress towards goals

Goal-setting also works effectively either or its own or as part of a package of other behavior management interventions.

While the literature on self-regulated learning covers a broad variety of theoretical perspectives and concepts such as control theory, self-efficacy, action regulation, and resource allocation, goal-setting is a crucial component of virtually all of these approaches as the initiator of self-regulation mechanisms such as planning, monitoring, metacognition, attention, learning strategies, persistence, time management, environmental structuring, help seeking, emotion control, motivation, effort, and self-efficacy.

Common personal goals include losing weight, achieving good grades and saving money. The strategy for goal setting begins with the big picture; taking a look at the big picture before breaking it into smaller components allows one to focus on the primary goal. Once the main goal is set, breaking it up into smaller, more achievable components helps in the planning portion of setting the goal. These smaller, more obtainable objectives promote self-esteem, and provide instant feedback to keep the individual on task.

Time management is the practice of systematically finishing tasks assigned by superiors or one's self in an efficient and timely manner. Time management steps require identifying the objective and laying out a plan that maximizes efficiency and execution of the objective. There are many useful mobile apps that help with personal goal setting; some of the categories include budgeting, wellness, calendar and productivity apps.

The book What They Don't Teach You in the Harvard Business School is known for citing a study which found that written goals have a significant effect on financial success, but in 1996, Fast Company determined that this study did not occur. In 2015, a research study on goals found those who wrote them down accomplished them at a significantly higher rate than those who did not.

There is evidence that setting and reflecting on progress life goals (i.e., identifying one's needs, wants and aspirations) are an effective intervention to provide both a sense of purpose and increase well-being. In particular, setting life goals based on others leads to more positive emotions, and therefore has a more positive impact on happiness than goals focused on oneself. Further evidence for this effect is provided by the more broader personal benefits of prosocial behavior and acts of kindness towards others-rather than self care or effort focusing on oneself.

Evidence from randomised control trials show that goal setting treatments improved executive function, attention/ working memory, and learning in stroke patients. In addition to suggesting that there is a motivational element to vascular cognitive impairment caused by strokes, or at least in terms of recovering from them, goal setting does appear to be a useful, easy to implement and cost effective solution to improve cognitive outcomes in stroke patients.

Despite its benefits, goal-setting also has its limitations, and there is some evidence of potentially harmful side effects to both individuals and organizations from misuse of goals (particularly the use of performance/outcome goals).

In an organization, a goal of a manager may not align with the goals of the organization as a whole. In such cases, the goals of an individual may come into direct conflict with the employing organization. Without clearly aligning goals between the organization and the individual, overall performance may suffer.

Additionally, there is evidence that suggests that goal-setting can foster unethical behavior when people do not achieve their desired goals. Schweitzer et al. found empirical support for their hypotheses that specific goals, rather than "do your best" goals, would lead participants to overstate performance if their true performance fell short of the goal, with the overstatement frequency increasing as the performance-goal gap narrowed. Niven and Healy found that a subset of the population having a relatively high tendency to morally justify behavior was more likely to engage in the kind of cheating identified by Schweitzer et al. Particular side effects associated with goal setting include a narrow focus that neglects non-goal areas, more unethical behavior, distorted risk preferences, damage to organizational culture, and reduced intrinsic motivation. High performance goal seem particularly likely to induce unethical behaviour under certain circumstances by creating the desire to achieve the goal but also altering moral reasoning processes and in particular, moral disengagement and encourage moral motivated reasoning due to the focus on attaining the goal.

Goals may also result in overly single-minded competition within organizations if two or more people have goals that encourage competition rather than cooperation. This can include withholding information or ideas, obstructing the goal progress of others or becoming indifferent to their progress and so withdrawing completely from interaction with other organization members. A solution to some of these potential issues is to set a unifying organizational vision or superordinate goal.

Goal setting may have the drawback of inhibiting implicit learning if the required knowledge and strategic awareness are not in place: goal setting may encourage simple focus on an outcome without openness to exploration, understanding, or growth and result in lower performance than simply encouraging people to "do their best". A solution to this limitation is to set learning goals as well as performance goals, so that learning is expected as part of the process of reaching goals. The section on learning goals has more information on this effect and how to counter it. Goal setting also may impair performance in certain situations. Such situations include when an individual becomes overly focused on accomplishing a previously-set goal that they end up underperforming on current tasks.

Goal setting theory has been criticized for being too narrow in focus to be a complete theory of work motivation as goals alone are not sufficient to address all aspects of workplace motivation. In particular, it does not address why some people choose goals they dislike or how to increase intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. This raises the possibility that goal setting may in turn be subsumed within a more comprehensive theory of work motivation in time.

An important addition to goal setting theory was the incorporation of self-efficacy from Bandura's social cognitive theory. Broadly defined as task specific self-confidence, goal setting theory theory incorporates self-efficacy in the following ways:

1. People with higher self-efficacy set harder goals which as per the terms of the theory lead to higher motivation and task performance

2. People with higher self-efficacy are more committed to the goals they have set and in turn more likely to achieve them.

3. People with higher self-efficacy are more likely to response positively to negative feedback and use it productively rather than be discouraged.

4. Appropriately challenging leader assigned goals and communicating these powerfully can increase follower self-efficacy as they directly imply that the leader has confidence in the employees' ability to achieve them.

5. Leaders can also increase follower self-efficacy, and in turn goal commitment and task performance, by providing quality training and either modeling task performance themselves or providing appropriate performance models.

Self-efficacy levels can also influence how people react to not meeting specific challenging goals. People with high self-efficacy redouble their efforts whereas people with low self-efficacy expend less effort and coast along. Goal achievement also interacts with self-efficacy and goal achievement does not necessarily lead to increased efforts as after meeting challenging goals some can be reluctant to expend a similar level of effort again and will settle for the goal they have.

Self-efficacy, past performance, and various other social factors influence goal setting. Failure to meet previous goals often leads to setting lower (and more likely achievable) goals.

There are times when having specific performance goals is not a best option; this is the case when the goal requires skills or knowledge that have not yet been acquired. Tunnel vision can be a consequence of specific performance goals; if a person is too focused on attaining a specific goal, he or she may ignore the need to learn new skills or acquire new information. This concept is illustrated well by the "basketball game task" study in which observers watched a video of a group of people wearing white shirts and black shirts who are passing a basketball back and forth, and the observers were instructed to count the number of times a basketball is passed between only the players wearing white shirts. During the video, a woman carrying an open umbrella walks across the screen. Of 28 observers who were focused on counting the number of passes between only the players wearing white shirts, only 6 reported noticing the woman carrying the umbrella. When observers watched the video without focusing on a specific task, all of the observers noticed the umbrella woman. In situations where the risk of tunnel vision is high, the best option is to set a learning goal. A learning goal is a generalized goal to achieve knowledge in a certain topic or field, but it can ultimately lead to better performance in more complex tasks related to the learning goals.

Further to the above, learning goals can be more specifically operationalized as " a desired number of strategies, processes, or procedures to be developed in order to master a task'". Some specific examples of learning goals from the literature include:

"Discover and implement four shortcuts to performing a scheduling task'

"Find ten ways of developing a relationship with end-users of our products."

Learning goals are likely to help leaders of globally diverse organizations find ways to effectively manage social identity groups and minimize intolerance within a multicultural workforce.

Learning goals are likely to be effective when leaders confront a situation with a great deal of unknowns and need to make sense of problems, as the learning goals encourage employees to collaborate with others to bring multiple experiences to solve the problem.

Framing, or how goals are viewed, influences performance. When one feels threatened and or intimidated by a high goal they perform poorer than those who view the goal as a challenge. Individuals who identify situations as challenge perform better under difficult performance goal conditions. Individuals who view situations as threats get better results using learning goals focused on developing strategy to achieve the task. These results connect goal setting theory to Folkman and Lazurus' Transactional Model of Stress and Coping which focused on the subjective appraisal of stress as being crucial to performance under challenging conditions.

Realization of goals has an effect on affect -that is, feelings of success and satisfaction. Achieving goals has a positive effect, and failing to meet goals has negative consequences. However, the effect of goals is not exclusive to one realm. Success in one's job can compensate for feelings of failure in one's personal life.

The relationship between group goals and individual goals influences group performance; when goals are compatible there is a positive effect, but when goals are incompatible the effects can be detrimental to the group's performance. There is another factor at work in groups, and that is the sharing factor; a positive correlation exists between sharing information within the group and group performance. In the case of group goals, feedback needs to be related to the group, not individuals, in order for it to improve the group's performance.

Overall, the available evidence suggests that group goals can have a robust effect on group performance. Less clearly, individual goals may promote group performance if used cautiously as in interdependent groups there is a potential for goal conflict between individual and group goals which could hinder group performance. There does appear to be a need for more work in this area.

In goal setting terms, values can be defined as trans-situational goals with goals being more specific than values which are higher order and more general. In this sense goals can be defined further as the mechanism by which values lead to action. Goals can provide a vehicle for closing the value-action gap.

Goal setting theory generally, but not always, supports the use of sub-goals (also known as proximal goals), which are intermediate/stepping-stone goals on the way to goals (also known as distal goals). Proximal goals work by providing immediate incentives to maintain current performance, whereas distal goals are too far removed to have the same effect. In complex problem-solving tasks, setting subgoals increased initial self-efficacy and attaining proximal goals increased self-efficacy, performance satisfaction, and task persistence.

While generally positive, setting too many sub-goals can have negative impacts such as reduced satisfaction (as achieving easy goals might not be very satisfying). It might even send the signal that managers do not have faith in employee's ability to achieve challenging goals.

On a basic level, the two types of goals are learning goals and performance goals; each possesses different traits associated with the selected goal.

Learning goals involve tasks where skills and knowledge can be acquired, whereas performance goals involve easy-to-accomplish tasks that will make one appear successful (thus tasks where error and judgment may be possible are avoided).

A more complex trait-mediation study is the one conducted by Lee, Sheldon, and Turban (2003), which yielded the following results:

Amotivated orientation (low confidence in one's capabilities) is associated with goal-avoidance motivation, and more generally, associated with lower goals levels and lower performance.

Control orientation (extrinsic motivation) is associated with both avoidance and approach goals. Approach goals are associated with higher goal levels and higher performance.

Autonomy goals (intrinsic motivation) leads to mastery goals, enhanced focus, and therefore enhanced performance.

Whereas goal setting theory was developed in the sub-domain organizational psychology and primarily focuses on motivation and measuring task performance, the related but distinct literature around goal orientation was developed in the sub-domain of educational psychology and tends to focus on ability and trait measurement, this division has led to attempts to integrate the two literatures which in turn has led to the following conclusions:

For complex tasks a specific, challenging learning goal has a significant positive impact on performance.

In contrast, goal orientation affects performance when goals are vague rather than specific and challenging.

These conclusions have led to the following inferences:

As goal setting skills, including how to set a hard, specific goal and when to set a performance rather than a learning goal, are trainable and have greater influence than goal orientation in terms of determining performance, then it follows that the usefulness of tests of goal orientation for recruitment are limited and perhaps most suitable for solitary jobs that offer little training.

As well crafted appropriate goals mask the effect of goal orientation it seems likely that new employees assigned specific, high learning goals rather than performance goals will have better job performance regardless of goal orientation.

Macro-level goals refer to goal setting that is applied to the company as a whole. Cooperative goals reduce the negative feelings that occur as a result of alliances and the formation of groups. The most common parties involved are the company and its suppliers. The three motivators for macro-level goals are: self-efficacy, growth goals, and organizational vision.

Action goals are believed to promote the sense of action, whereas inaction goals are considered to reduce people's tendency to take actions.[citation needed ] Common action goals can be to do something, perform a certain act, or to go someplace, whereas typical inaction goals can take the form of having a rest or to stop doing something.

Goal-regulated overall activity and inactivity tendency result from both biological conditions and social-cultural environment.[page needed ] Recent research revealed that most nations hold more favorable attitude towards action rather than inaction, even though some countries value action and inaction slightly differently than others.

Recent research suggested that people tend to choose inaction goals when they are making decisions among choices where uncertainty could result in negative outcomes, but they prefer action over inaction in their daily behaviors when no deliberation is needed. Timothy D. Wilson and colleagues found that many people "preferred to administer electric shocks to themselves instead of being left alone with their thoughts".

In workplace settings employees are often expected to achieve performance outcomes at tasks that are moderately complex and require learning new things. As noted above, setting performance goals can cause difficulties and lower performance compared to a "do your best" condition when prerequisite skills, strategies and knowledge are not in place which may be due to a cognitive load effect arising from the demands of complex tasks for relative novices. For these sorts of complex task situations learning and performance goals can be used effectively in combination if logically connected. Furthermore, while learning goals do tend to be most effective for new and complex tasks requiring complex application of strategy to achieve the task this does not mean that learning goals will be motivational enough on their own to ensure that the new strategies are used and an additional performance goal could motivate employees to actually use the discovered or acquired strategies to attain the desired outcome.

Stretch or extremely hard to reach goals remain a subject of considerable debate with arguments both for and against their use. Among the potential negative side effects of stretch goals include them being dismissed as absurd or ignored by employees. Even if taken seriously, stretch goals can lead to employee burn out attempting to achieve them. Caveats aside, there are some ways that stretch goals can be valuable in spurring creative solutions to problems and new directions especially if used alongside more normal goals and without the need to achieve them but instead measure how much progress was made towards them.

Controversies, responses and resolutions

As a theory developed through induction there have been, and continue to be, circumstances where goal setting theory has been challenged and/or conflicting results have been reported. Specific examples of these controversies and resolutions to them are discussed below.

The question of whether or not participatively set goals are more motivating than supervisor set goals arose due to differences in findings between Erez and her colleagues and those of Latham and colleagues. Erez and her colleagues found evidence that under certain circumstances Latham's earlier conclusion that performance was the same regardless of whether or not goals were set by supervisors or participatively, was wrong. This disagreement was resolved by the following findings:

1. Supervisor set goals are equally as motivating if they are accompanied by a reason for the goal.

2. Participation in goal setting and decision making improves employee performance through increasing self-efficacy and aiding the discovery of suitable task strategies to achieve goals.

A controversy offer the connection between goal setting leading to increased potential for unethical practices at work began after the publication of the " Goals Gone Wild" article by Ordonez et al. The article triggered a response from Locke and Latham which, among other points, stated that the original article had not stuck to the principles of good scholarship. A further reply from Ordonez et al rejected Locke and Latham's points. Further and more recent publications from both parties have continued the discussion, with more recent work from other scholars building on the points raised by both parties including suggesting that learning goals have the potential to circumvent potential ethical issues arising from the use of performance goals.

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Goal setting involves the development of an action plan designed in order to motivate and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goals are more deliberate than desires and momentary intentions. Therefore, setting goals means that a person has committed thought, emotion, and behavior towards attaining the goal.

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pros and cons of goal setting

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detailed article about this theory

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In 1960's, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.

In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in.

The important features of goal-setting theory are as follows:

The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.

Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids misunderstanding.

Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride and triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal. The more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for achieving it.

Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behaviour and contributes to higher performance than absence of feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.

Employees' participation in goal is not always desirable.

Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable and leads to more involvement.

Goal setting theory has certain eventualities such as:

1. Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual's self-confidence and faith that he has potential of performing the task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by the individual when they face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of self-efficiency, less will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while meeting challenges.

2. Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:

1. Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.

2. Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated.

3. Individual's set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and vision.

Advantages of Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work quickly and effectively.

Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also through increasing and improving the feedback quality.

Limitations of Goal Setting Theory

At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.

Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.

If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.

There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

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In 1960's, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.

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this video gives an example of a goal

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Motivation Goal Setting Theory | Bakery - Chef Alfredo & Boss Romero (re-edited)

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this article shows different examples of goal setting

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Goal-Setting Theory

The basis of goal-setting theory is that specific, difficult goals engender higher performance than does merely urging individuals to do their best (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goals drive this higher performance through four mechanisms. First, goals focus attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from other activities. Second, goals energize individuals to exert greater effort on more challenging goals. Third, goals increase the level of persistence that an individual will display in order to achieve the goal. Finally, goals indirectly are the arousal, discovery, and/or use of knowledge relevant to the task.

Goal-setting is an implicit component of most reward systems (Latham & Pinder, 2005). Through the above mechanisms, goals combine with the extrinsic motivation of the reward to increase performance. Creativity however, is often viewed as being maximized when the employee is under minimal constraints. In an investigation of the effect of goal-setting on creative performance, Shalley (1995) demonstrated that the assignment of a creativity goal increases performance, but actually decreases production in a quantity sense. However, another study combining productivity and creativity goals found performance levels of both were maximized when a difficult productivity goal was combined with either a do-your-best creativity goal or a difficult productivity goal (Shalley, 1991). In addition, feedback on creativity goals increases creative performance beyond the effect of mere goal-setting (Carson & Carson, 1993). Creativity is minimized when no creativity goal is provided. In a further investigation into feedback and creativity, the most creative ideas were generated from a combination of feedback style and valence and task autonomy (Zhou, 1998). This empirical support of creativity and goal-setting lends support to the idea that reward systems should incorporate strong creativity goals and feedback mechanisms in order to maximize their effectiveness at increasing creative performance.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123747143000240

Goal setting in sport

Buoyed by support for goal-setting theory in organizational settings, and acting upon a lack of goal-setting research in sport, Locke and Latham (1985) challenged researchers to test the theory in relation to sports-based tasks. Highlighting anecdotal support for sports goals and the comparable nature of organizational and sports-based tasks, Locke and Latham asserted that their theory should be generalizable across both contexts. Furthermore, it was proposed that goal effectiveness should be more evident in sport as performance is more measurable than in work settings.

Prompted by this challenge, and a concurrent interest in performance-enhancing strategies, an increase in goal-setting research was clearly evident throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Such work evidenced existing widespread use of goal setting (Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson, 1997; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993) and provided initial support for the effectiveness of setting goals (see Burton & Weiss, 2008, for review). Furthermore, findings echoed Locke and Latham's (1990) endorsement of specific and difficult goals.

Early support for the effectiveness of goals fueled further promotion of goal setting as a fundamental strategy for sport (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). However, while the general outlook was positive, the findings were less convincing than expected. In their analysis of 36 studies, Kyllo and Landers (1995) reported an effect size of 0.34, notably lower than Locke and Latham (1990) and contradicting expectations that goal effectiveness should be more evident in sport. Furthermore, many researchers failed to provide evidence for the distinct benefits and optimal characteristics of sport-specific goals, with coaches similarly reporting difficulties with using goals effectively (Burton et al., 1998).

Unconvinced that these findings reflected poor applicability of goal-setting theory to sport, Locke (1991) contended that inconsistent results could be attributed to flaws in experimental methodology, including a lack of controls preventing participants from setting their own goals and failure to measure personal goals. While agreeing with the need for rigorous research, sports researchers were more hesitant to attribute findings to methodological problems alone. Instead, in their response to Locke, Weinberg and Weigand (1993) suggested that the highlighted causes of inconsistent findings (eg, spontaneous goal setting among participants) should be considered in terms of the difference between work and sport settings that they may reflect. Instead of preventing sports participants from setting their own goals, perhaps the tendency to set our own goals in sport should be examined in itself.

While the goal-setting debate may have hampered the provision of clear guidelines for sports-based goal setting, the debate may also have revealed a key factor in the pursuit of sports goals, namely the role of personal motivation. While Locke (1991) sought to control motivation through strict experimental conditions, Hall and Kerr (2001) argue that full understanding of sports goals requires consideration of the underlying motivation. This is due to a relevant difference between Locke's organizational settings and sport. In work settings, goal setting acts to ensure task completion in the absence of workers' own motivation. In contrast, sport is characterized by individuals who participate through their own volition. This inherent quantity of motivation can mask the distinct contribution of goals. Consequently, an understanding of sports-based goals requires an understanding of both the goals themselves and their underlying motives.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128036341000194

5 How to Pursue Goals That Are (Still) Unknown

Activities at work in general are goal oriented. Often, goals are specific and difficult, leading to high performance. Goal-setting theory offers evidence for understanding these effects. But nowadays, more and more work activities are no longer related to clear and specific goals because the specific goals are not yet known when the activities are started. One classic example is given with design tasks. They are characterized by the fact that outcomes are not at all clear for a long time during work on the tasks. They are similar to the learning tasks mentioned earlier in the article. In design tasks, people cannot do the following:

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Analyze the conditions of action necessary for reaching the goals exactly.

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Run trial actions.

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Form language terms to describe actions.

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Coordinate component goals toward ultimate goals.

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Compare outcomes with goals stored in memory.

Although these activities cannot be regulated by specific goals as anticipated outcomes, design actions are not without direction given that the outcomes must be developed first. During activities of this kind, people must do the following:

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Follow up more than one problem-solving alternative.

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Build up evaluation criteria to be used in iterative processes of error correction.

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Look for similar cases to be used as models for the current ones.

The practical consequences of these considerations are easy to describe. Although it is known that high specific and concrete outcome goals lead to high performance, it is not always possible to set such goals, especially when the outcome of work is not quite clear at the beginning. In such a case the chances for success will increase through setting learning goals such as the following:

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Discover a number of strategies to learn how to perform the task.

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Develop systematic testing of task-relevant strategies.

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Identify evaluation criteria.

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Use information from similar cases.

After having learned about strategies to solve the task, it could be helpful to again relate goals to outcomes.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103003007

3.2 Cross-Cultural Differences in How Employees Are Motivated at Work: Process Theories

Process theories deal with the ways in which employees are motivated at work. There are four major process theories of motivation: goal-setting theory, job enrichment theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory. Among the four, goal-setting theory of Locke and Latham has received the most attention from cross-cultural researchers. The theory asserts that the existence of goals is motivating and that goals with particular characteristics (e.g., challenging, specific, accepted) are more motivating than others. Participation and joint decision making are considered to be a key factor in motivation. Participation enhances motivation in that it provides greater autonomy and control over work outcomes and reduces anxiety and uncertainties. The Industrial Democracy in Europe (IDE) International Research Group compared the participative decision-making practices in 12 European countries in 1981 and repeated the study 10 years later in 10 of the original 12 countries as well as in Japan and Poland. This was a major undertaking to show that participation had different meanings and practices across cultures. These studies show that in the most collectivist cultural contexts, group participation is more motivating and effective in improving work outcomes than is individual participation. Individual and face-to-face involvement in decision making (i.e., the North American model) is, in fact, not desired in all cultural contexts. In cultures that Hofstede identified as high in power distance and uncertainty avoidance, participation may even result in demotivation because subordinates seek guidance from their superiors to reduce uncertainties. Research suggests that for participative goal setting to be motivating in developing countries, organizations should enhance employees' self-efficacy beliefs through empowerment, coaching, and mentoring.

The job enrichment theory of Hackman and Oldham suggests that workers are motivated to the extent that they experience meaningfulness in their jobs. This can be achieved through more autonomy and discretion in one's job, feedback on performance, opportunity to use multiple skills (i.e., skill variety), identification of the contribution of one's job to the overall work context (i.e., task identity), and knowledge of the significant contribution of one's job to others' lives (i.e., task significance). Jobs that are designed to have high autonomy, feedback, skill variety, task identity, and task significance are referred to as "enriched jobs." This theory is based on individualist assumptions of employees' desire for independence, freedom, and challenge. Thus, it is argued that job enrichment might not be as effective in countries with power hierarchies and avoidance of uncertainties. Increasing discretion and responsibility elevate anxiety and uncertainty, and worker autonomy defies the role of the authority. In more collectivist European countries, job design takes the form of "autonomous work groups" in which job enrichment principles are implemented at the group level (e.g., team autonomy, team-based feedback). However, this system is reported to have limitations in developing countries due to uncertainty avoidance and resource scarcity that is endemic to the majority of developing countries.

The equity theory of Adams purports that employee motivation is achieved by invoking the perception of fairness. One way in which to increase fairness is to establish an equitable relationship between "inputs" and "outputs" among workers. Inputs represent everything that employees perceive as their contribution to the job (e.g., training, skills, time, effort, loyalty, commitment to the organization), whereas outputs represent everything that employees perceive as received in return for their contribution (e.g., pay, promotion, praise, recognition and awards). Equity theory has not attracted much cross-cultural research attention, but the available evidence suggests that what constitutes inputs and outputs varies across cultures. In collectivist cultures, loyalty, commitment, seniority, and tenure are more important inputs for promotion and rewards than is job performance. Also, in cultures where there are status hierarchies, the social class or caste to which one belongs is considered an input. Similarly, there are cultural variations in the perception of outcomes. Challenge and autonomy in the job and salary increases are considered to be valued outcomes in individualist cultures, whereas praise from supervisors can be an important outcome in collectivist cultures. There are ways in which to restore equity such as changing inputs (e.g., working less), changing the comparison group, changing the outcomes (e.g., asking for a salary increase), and leaving the organization. There is not enough research to indicate cross-cultural variations in the ways in which to restore equity. However, there is a large body of cross-cultural research in the area of organizational justice. Reward allocation based on an equity principle is not endorsed in all cultural contexts.

The final process theory of motivation is the expectancy theory of Vroom. According to the theory, employees are motivated to the extent that their expectations are met in the following ways. First, if they exert enough effort, their job performance will be at the desired level. Second, if they perform at the desired level, it will lead to some outcomes. Third, the outcomes will have high valence or attractiveness. Although there is no systematic research testing the validity of the theory across cultures, it seems to have more applicability in individualist cultures than in collectivist ones. In individualist cultures, employees are motivated if there is a high likelihood of meeting their own expectations, whereas in collectivist cultures, motivation is related to the probability of meeting the expectations of "significant others" (e.g., family, organization, superiors). "Face saving" is also an important motivator in collectivist cultures. Another cross-cultural variation may exist in people's beliefs in the controllability of events. In fatalistic cultures, employees do not believe that control of events is in their hands; that is, they have an "external locus of control." Thus, expectancy theory might not be useful in such cultural contexts.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103006905

4.2 Anteceding Conditions

A performance-related pay system requires a careful phase of preparation. At least the following four conditions should be met.

4.2.1 Study of Work

Through analyzing work processes within a unit or department, it should become clear whether work activities are adequately tuned to each other, work methods are well chosen, and the workforce is sufficiently trained. Within this context, critical performance factors may be set.

4.2.2 Norm Setting

For each performance factor, a specific target ought to be set. Research on goal-setting theory has revealed that difficult and specific goals (for individual tasks with single goals) lead to high performance as employees accept these targets and are provided with frequent feedback.

4.2.3 Performance-Pay Link

Performance-related pay may be awarded when a target has just been met, is clearly within reach, or has been surpassed. The performance-pay link may be proportional or either less or more than proportional. Expectancy theory would recommend rewarding achieved results as frequently as possible.

4.2.4 Control by Employees

Mutual trust appears to be one of the cornerstones for getting performance-related pay under way. Employees (and managers) concerned should be involved in implementing a new system-in its design, in its introduction, and/or in its daily administration. The more employees believe that they are in control of a system, the more they tend to evaluate the system as fair.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103003299

3 Additional Considerations and Future Directions

In the view of Hall and Kerr (2001), the attractiveness of the achievement goal framework is that it enables researchers and practitioners "... to understand considerably more about the direction of behavior and about why athletes make particular motivational choices than is possible from considering Locke and Latham's (1990) goal-setting theory alone ... [which] limits us to understanding changes in intensity and persistence once discrete goals are set" (pp. 230-231).

Systematic research that attempts to integrate the constructs and tenets of achievement goal theory with the hypothesized goal-setting process is needed. In essence, the aim of such work would be to better inform us about when and why goal setting would be effective or ineffective, and what might be the best ways to implement goal setting in the sport domain. With respect to the potential mechanisms involved, one research direction would be to test variations in the proposed direct and indirect effects of goals on performance as proffered in Locke's goal-setting theory as a function of the achievement goals manifested. In terms of differences in achievement goal emphases, it would be interesting to consider people's goal orientations and the motivational climate in which they are operating as well as the interaction between these two factors. It would also be conceptually intriguing and practically important to examine the relationship of achievement goals to the nature and motivational implications of the process, performance, and outcomes goals set by athletes in both training and competition. While pursuing such lines of inquiry, the impact of variability in athletes' perceived ability on the interdependence between achievement goals and the goal-setting process should be determined.

In the discussion of achievement goals in this article, the emphasis has been placed on what have recently been termed dichotomous goal models. Such models distinguish competence-based striving in terms of a task (or mastery) and ego (or performance) focus. This approach was adopted for several reasons. First, the two-goal approach to achievement motivation has laid the foundation to date for the large majority of achievement goal research in sport. Second, existing discussions in the literature concerning distinctions between the constructs of achievement goals and discrete goals have been grounded in dichotomous conceptualizations. Finally, space constraints precluded the possibility of fully describing and developing the recently proposed trichotomous goal models and "2 × 2" achievement goal framework in terms of the present discourse. These latter frameworks differentiate approach achievement goals [goals directed toward the attainment of favorable judgments of competence, whether that competence is self-referenced or task-based (i.e., approach task) or normatively referenced (i.e., approach ego)] from avoidance goal perspectives [goals centered on avoiding unfavorable judgments of ability, whether those perceptions of ability are self-referenced or task-based (i.e., avoidance task) or normatively referenced (i.e., avoidance ego)]. As these multiple goals have been found to differentially link to motivation-related responses such as intrinsic interest, anxiety, and performance, incorporating the approach-avoidance distinction in forthcoming studies of achievement goals and goal setting should prove informative.

Duda made a distinction between the quantity and quality of athletes' motivation. The former refers to an athlete being energized at that point in time and performing adequately. The latter relates to whether (1) the athlete wants to and does invest over time, (2) the activity contributes to the athlete's physical, psychological, emotional, and moral growth and well-being, (3) the athlete usually is able to perform up to her or his ability, and (4) the athlete enjoys the activity and is self-determined. At best, goal-setting theory alone can provide an appreciation of whether motivation is high or low from a quantity perspective. Integrating goal setting within an achievement goal framework, however, promises insight into both aspects. In so doing, we emphasize other achievement behaviors (e.g., perseverance) along with performance. Most critically, though, we consider other motivational outcomes of significance besides achievement (e.g., the athletes' welfare). Finally, as pointed out by Hall and Kerr, we become cognizant of the fact that (and the reasons why) goal setting can help promote quality sport engagement or be maladaptive (i.e., contributing to the quantity of motivation but compromising the quality and/or eventually leading to an erosion of quantitatively high motivation as well). All in all, based on the tenets of AGT and related research, it seems that more task-involving goal setting is what will reap the greatest motivational gain in sport or any other achievement domain.

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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0126574103008047

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The basis of goal-setting theory is that specific, difficult goals engender higher performance than does merely urging individuals to do their best (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goals drive this higher performance through four mechanisms. First, goals focus attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from other activities.

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this video breaks down the goal setting theory

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Locke's Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

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this is a more in-depth article about the theory

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This article breaks down the theory

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In the 1960s, Edwin Locke came up with the goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is linked to task performance. It says that specific and challenging goals, along with appropriate feedback, contribute to higher and better task performance.

In simple words, goals describe what needs to be done and how much effort must be put in.

The essential elements of the goal-setting theory are as follows:

The willingness to work towards the goal is the primary source of job motivation. Clear, particular and challenging goals are more significant motivating factors than simple, general and vague goals.

Specific and clear goals lead to better performance. Clear and measurable goals followed by a deadline will avoid misunderstanding.

Goals should be realistic and challenging as it gives one a feeling of pride when once achieved, and sets up for accomplishment of next goal. The harder the goal, the bigger the reward and the more the enthusiasm for achieving it.

Better feedback influences employee behaviour and contributes to better performance than the lack of feedback. Feedback is a means of growing reputation, making clarifications and adjusting goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with more engagement and leads to higher job satisfaction.

Employees' participation in setting a goal makes it more acceptable and leads to more involvement from them.

Setting vague goals will not lead to increased motivation. Examples of vague goals include:

"Do your best."

"Be better at your job than the rest of the crew."

"Finish your assignment to the best of your ability."

The 5 Elements of Goal Setting. Source: Expert Program Management

Goal-setting theory has several possible outcomes, such as:

Self-efficiency: The individual's self-confidence that they have the potential of performing the task. The higher the level of self-efficiency, the greater the efforts put in by the person when they face challenging tasks.

Goal commitment: Goal-setting theory implies that the individual is committed to the goal and won't leave the goal. The goal commitment depends on these factors:

Goals are made open, known and announced.

Goals should be set-self by the person rather than delegated.

The person's set goals should be compatible with the organisational goals and vision.

The pros of goal-setting theory

The cons of goal-setting theory

Sometimes, the organisational goals conflict with organisational goals. Goal conflict harms the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.

Challenging and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.

Suppose the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal. In that case, the goal-setting can fail and lead to the undermining of performance.

There is no data to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

The main takeaway from the Goal-Setting Theory is that goal-setting when done right can be an impactful tool for improving motivation and productivity.

This applies when you are setting personal goals, as well as team goals. By using the Goal-Setting Theory you can keep your team, and yourself, productive and motivated.
Learn more about AJobThing and our services!
Sources: Expert Program Management & Management Study Guide
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Management Guide: Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

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In the 1960s, Edwin Locke came up with the goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is linked to task performance. It says that specific and challenging goals, along with appropriate feedback, contribute to higher and better task performance.