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To what extent has environmental injustice targeted communities of color in the US?

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To what extent has environmental injustice targeted communities of color in the US?

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environmental racism, civil rights, environmental justice, redlining, pipeline, pollution, Indigenous rights, food desert, healthcare system corruption, water rights.

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-illegal discriminatory practice
-targeted black and brown people
-federal programs established during the time only enabled redlining
-seen first in early 1900s when racial homogeneity was maintained in the suburbs and racial segregation forced by poc into inner cities and undesirable areas.
- black people did not have access to the housing programs of the 1930s
-patterns of redlining and residential segregation are still seen today
(Britannica. “redlining”)

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Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "redlining". Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 Sep. 2014, https://www.britannica.com/topic/redlining. Accessed 15 March 2022.

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Dry Wells, Dirty Water and the Deep Roots of Segregation - Secondary

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Dry Wells, Dirty Water and the Deep Roots of Segregation - Secondary

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Del Real, Jose,A. "Dry Wells, Dirty Water and the Deep Roots of Segregation." New York Times, 30 Nov 2019. SIRS Issues Researcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2344889235?accountid=73789.

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Environmental Racism: Research, Current Events, and Global Impact. 15 Nov. 2021, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/environmental-racism.

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Redlinning and Environmental Racism (Fears, Darryl. Redlinging and Environmental Racism)

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Redlinning and Environmental Racism (Fears, Darryl. Redlinging and Environmental Racism)

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-redlining was outlawed more than a half-century ago but continues to impact people who live in formerly redlined areas.
-redlined communities endure environmental injustices including excessive urban heat, few green spaces, high pollution levels, as well as food deserts and inequitable healthcare.

-“public health officials said underlying diseases suffered by people of color as a result of air pollution and other conditions in marginalized communities contributed to their disproportionate hospitalization and death from covid-19”(Fears, Darryl).

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Black Communities in DC (Fears, Darryl) - Secondary

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Black Communities in DC (Fears, Darryl) - Secondary

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Fears, Darryl. “A Black Community in Northeast D.C. Is Surrounded by Industrial Pollution.” Washington Post, 4 Aug. 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/08/04/brentwood-pollution-racism-dc/ .

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Redlining and Environmental Racism - Secondary

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Redlining and Environmental Racism - Secondary

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Fears, Darryl. “Redlining Means 45 Million Americans Are Breathing Dirtier Air, 50 Years after It Ended.” The Washington Post, 9 Mar. 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/03/09/redlining-pollution-environmental-justice/ .

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- The opposing perspective to environmental racism argues that “poor people and minorities do not necessarily attract polluters merely because they are poor or people of color or because the polluters are racists. Low-cost land attracts industry for some of the same reasons that it attracts poor people...Employers motivated by the capitalistic urge to make a profit, regardless of their personal racism or lack thereof, hired the best workers they could find at the lowest wage they could pay”(Jeffries, Kent).
-  Jeffrey argues that there are economic factors that naturally enable for the overlap of industry and marginalized communities. With the growing awareness of environmental racism comes more political controversy and opposition to the issue.

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Jeffries, Kent. Environmental Racism: A Skeptic's View. St. John’s University , 2012, https://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1484&amp;context=jcred.

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For America to Live, Europe Must Die - (Means, Russell)

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For America to Live, Europe Must Die - (Means, Russell)

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Russell Means, an outspoken Sioux leader of the 20th Century, famously wrote “For America to Live, Europe Must Die” to highlight Indigenous realities and how Westernization has completely devastated Indigenous culture, land, and humanity within America. “Pollution began to become a problem in the cities, and the earth was ripped open to provide coal whereas wood had always simply been gathered or harvested at no great expense to the environment” (Means, Russell). Some of the major reasons why environmental racism is such a controversial issue is because those most affected most often lack affordable land, political power, mobility, and wealth to address realities of injustice. Without representation or any form of mobility, their narratives are completely disregarded and those most affected by issues go unseen and unheard.

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For American to Live, Europe Must Die - Primary

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For American to Live, Europe Must Die - Primary

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Means, Russell. "For America to Live, Europe Must Die (1980)." The Native American Experience, Primary Source Media, 1999. American Journey. Gale In Context: High School, link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ2156000065/SUIC?u=san74543&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=e5093ec5. Accessed 18 Mar. 2022.

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Thorpe, Grace. "Our Homes Are Not Dumps (1996)." The Native American Experience, Primary Source Media, 1999. American Journey. Gale In Context: High School, link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ2156000072/SUICu=san74543&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=08a0e20c. Accessed 18 Mar. 2022.

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Our Homes Are Not Dumps - (Thorpe, Grace)

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Our Homes Are Not Dumps - (Thorpe, Grace)

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-Two-thirds of the uranium reserves of the United States are located on Indigenous land, and roughly 90 percent of the mining and milling of this mineral has occurred on or adjacent to reservations
-Numerous deaths and illnesses have been linked to these operations, most of which have been on the lands of the Navajo and the Laguna Pueblo in the Southwest
-In Washington, the Hanford weapons facility released 440 billion gallons of irradiated water thirty miles upstream from the Yakima Reservation from 1945-1989
-Grace Thorpe is a leading Native American antinuclear activist who discussions this anti-nuclear initiative in this article
-“For this reason it is both painful and disturbing that the United States government and the nuclear power industry seem intent on forever ruining some of the little land we have remaining”
-in 1973,Prairie Island, home to Sioux people, was used to place two nuclear power faculties. Residents were exposed to six times the cancer risk deemed acceptable by the Minnesota Department of Health. By 1986 the problem of nuclear waste disposal had become serious. The U.S. Department of Energy began to explore the possibility of locating a permanent nuclear  repository. Among the sites considered was the White Earth Reservation in the northwestern part of the state. The Anishinaabe who live there took the government's interest seriously enough to commission a study of the potential impact. The Minnesota legislature responded by passing the Radioactive Waste Management Act, stating that no such facility could be located within the state without the express authorization of the legislature.  A year later, congress voted to place a repository in Shoshone land.

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What is Environmental Racism (Environmental Racism)

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What is Environmental Racism (Environmental Racism)

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The proximity of Communities of Color to hazardous environments is a systemic issue that affects civil rights. This is because it is easier and cheaper for policies and practices to place industrial facilities in communities where there are fewer resources to fight back with.

• To an extent, wealth also contributes to exposure to pollutants, with low income families of various backgrounds at greater risk than higher income families. However, research suggests that the association between environmental hazards and race is stronger than that between environmental hazards and wealth. This makes environmental inequality primarily a racial issue.

• The research found that the burden was 35% higher for people living in poverty in general and 28% higher for People of Color. Black people, specifically, had a burden level 54% greater than that of the overall population (Environmental Racism).

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Black Communities in D.C (Fears, Darryl)

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Black Communities in D.C (Fears, Darryl)

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-Highlighting everyday applications of environmental racism
-Nearly half the land zoned for industrial use in D.C. is within Brentwood, a historically black community.
-Mayor Muriel E. Bowser (D) and the office of the District's superintendent of education pushed to construct the $20 million bus terminal without studying the health and air-quality impact of industrial sites already in the area.
-"This is the dumping ground for the District," Slabyj said. "Why are three of OSSE's four bus terminals in Ward 5?"
-For decades, federal and municipal zoning regulations have set polluting industries at the doorsteps of marginalized groups. This practice is environmental racism.

-While these communities produce far less pollution than White Americans, they suffer from its effects disproportionately. The particulate-matter pollution they face has been linked to health impacts such as asthma, respiratory illness, lung disease and heart ailments that have made people of color more at risk of hospitalization and death during the coronavirus pandemic (Fears, Darryl).

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Dry Wells, Dirty Water and the Deep Roots of Segregation

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Dry Wells, Dirty Water and the Deep Roots of Segregation

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-Today, the legacy of segregation in California’s Central Valley reverberates underground through old pipes, dry wells and soil tainted by shoddy septic systems.
-access to clean drinking water is an issue all over the country and marginalized communities are disproportionately affected.
-Many labor settlements and rural communities that formed as nonwhite communites are just miles away from more reliable water systems, and yet continue to remain without access.
-This is true for numerous commuties that one provided refuge for black and brown farmworkers - from Lanare in Fresno County to Matheny Tract in Tulare County to Fairmead in Madera County. These communities are now predominantly Latino and are among the very first to lose water in droughts. When water does flow, it is often tainted by arsenic or other chemicals.
- "The United States is home to some of the most reliable water and wastewater systems on earth, and many Americans believe access is universal," the authors wrote. "But in fact, millions of the most vulnerable people in the country -- low-income people in rural areas, people of color, tribal communities, immigrants -- have fallen through the cracks."
-Currently, a process called "selective annexation" enables many low-income communities to be excluded from the city limits of expanding towns, resukting in their access to clean water systems to also be denied.
-In 2016, the starte of CA was forced to intervene when the City of Tulare reneged on a binding legal commitment to provide drinking water to Matheny Tract, a small farmworker community of 1,500 that was once predominantly black. Matheny, just one mile away from Tulare, was plagued with unsafe levels of arsenic in its drinking water, according to health inspections and local news reports. The community's septic systems began to fail as well, resulting in toxic soil and a sour smell throughout town. Tulare refused to connect the systems even after the state made nearly $5 million available to build the project. The city was repeatedly warned it was violating state and federal civil rights laws protecting communities of color. The city's leaders, who did not respond to requests for comment, said at the time they did not have jurisdiction over Matheny and could not take its residents on as customers.

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Turning Tide: Addressing Water Rights in Indigenous Communities - Secondary

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Turning Tide: Addressing Water Rights in Indigenous Communities - Secondary

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"Turning Tide: Addressing Water Rights in Indigenous Communities." US Fed News Service, 24 Nov 2020. SIRS Issues Researcher, https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2470093186?accountid=73789.

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Turning Tide: Addressing Water Rights in Indigenous Communities

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Turning Tide: Addressing Water Rights in Indigenous Communities

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"In the second half of the 19th century, the federal government pursued a policy of confining Indian tribes to reservations. These reservations were either a portion of a tribe's aboriginal land or an area of land taken out of the public domain and set aside for a tribe. The federal statutes and treaties reserving such land for Indian reservations typically did not address the water needs of these reservations, a fact that has given rise to questions and disputes regarding Indian reserved water rights." The water rights issue still remains and the US Department of Interior has not addressed the issue.

-Tsinnajinnie has seen the extent of these issues and the impact consistent water access can have on Tribal communities. She was born and raised in New Mexico and her home community is part of the Navajo Nation:

"One thing the Navajo Nation has done is that it's worked collaboratively with different entities like nonprofits, other universities and some government agencies," she said (Turning Tide).

Those collabs were increased quickly during the COVID-19 pandemic, which impacted Native American communities at rates nearly 19 percent higher than other racial and ethnic groups. Although the efforts are a good start, they are the tip of the iceberg when comes to addressing environmental injustices in Native communities.

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-http://www.ejnet.org/ej/ - compiles sources on environmental justice

-http://www.energyjustice.net/files/coal/Air_of_Injustice.pdf -air of injustice (secondary) - published report and compilation of accounts that several black environmental justice groups and scientists collaborated on to highlight realities of environmental racism

-https://tcf.org/content/commentary/environmental-racism-left-black-communities-especially-vulnerable-covid-19/?session=1 (secondary)

-Environmental Racism Has Left Black Communities Especially Vulnerable to COVID-19

-https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/environmental-racism (tertiary)

• The proximity of Communities of Color to hazardous environments is a systemic issue that affects civil rights. This is because it is easier and cheaper for policies and practices to place industrial facilities in communities where there are fewer resources to fight back with.

• To an extent, wealth also contributes to exposure to pollutants, with low income families of any ethnicity at greater risk than higher income families. However, research suggests that the association between environmental hazards and race is stronger than that between environmental hazards and wealth. This makes environmental inequality primarily a racial issue.

• The research found that the burden was 35% higher for people living in poverty in general and 28% higher for People of Color. Black people, specifically, had a burden level 54% greater than that of the overall population

-https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.2017.304297 (secondary)

-study on disparities of emissions based on poverty and race

-https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/environmental-justice-timeline (secondary)

- how did the environmental justice movement emerge?

-timeline of environmental justice

-https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/climate-change.html (tertiary)

-impacts of climate injustice on Indigenous communities - the UN

https://www.jstor.org/stable/3132626 - published 2001 (secondary)

-Environmental Justice in the 21st Century: Race Still Matters

https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2017/nrs_2017_grove_001.pdf

-Redlining and Environmental Justice:

https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/08/24/climate/racism-redlining-cities-global-warming.html (secondary)

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/past-racist-redlining-practices-increased-climate-burden-on-minority-neighborhoods/ (secondary)

-https://www.npr.org/2017/05/03/526655831/a-forgotten-history-of-how-the-u-s-government-segregated-america

the color of law - book -redlining

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How has decades of redlining left inner-city areas vulnerable to pollution, food deserts, and unjust conditions?

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How has decades of redlining left inner-city areas vulnerable to pollution, food deserts, and unjust conditions?

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 How have Indigneous communities been targeted by environmental injustice in
the US? 

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 How have Indigneous communities been targeted by environmental injustice in
the US? 