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Podcasts to practise listening

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About Podcast The purpose of the show is to promote agricultural career discovery, agribusiness networking opportunities, and professional development for all interested in the agriculture industry. For more updates on this, follow us. Frequency 14 episodes / year Podcast aggradlive.libsyn.com/website
Facebook fans 7K ⋅ Twitter followers 3.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 6ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.9Kⓘ

About Podcast The Modern Acre is a community of farmers, professionals, and entrepreneurs passionate about building their agriculture businesses through modern-day innovation and technology. If you're in the agriculture industry and looking for strategies for your business and inspiration from industry leaders and disruptors, you're in the right place. Frequency 4 episodes / month Podcast themodernacre.co/the-modern-..
Facebook fans 299 ⋅ Twitter followers 1.3K ⋅ Domain Authority 18ⓘ ⋅

About Podcast Everyday, there are phenomenal advancements being made in the field of agriculture technology. Whether you're a seasoned pro in precision agriculture, or just getting started, this podcast provides the latest news and information you need for your success in the field. Frequency 2 episodes / month Podcast rdoequipment.com/more/resour..
Facebook fans 65K ⋅ Twitter followers 5K ⋅ Instagram Followers 6.4K ⋅ Domain Authority 41ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 514.9Kⓘ

Bloomington, Indiana, United States About Podcast Earth Eats is a weekly podcast and public radio program bringing you the freshest news and recipes inspired by local food and sustainable agriculture. Each week on the program they bring you food news, interviews with local farmers and other movers and shakers in the local food movement. Frequency 1 episode / week Since May 2019 Also in Organic Food Podcasts, Real Food Podcasts Podcast indianapublicmedia.org/earth..
Facebook fans 11.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 361.6K ⋅ Instagram Followers 317 ⋅ Domain Authority 76ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 215Kⓘ

About Podcast Cobs & Spikes is a new podcast from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for everything agriculture. Listen to explainers, stories, and conversations with experts innovating in the fields of agriculture, food security, and nutrition. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast soundcloud.com/cimmyt
Facebook fans 30.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 38K ⋅ Social Engagement 4ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 93ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 110ⓘ

United States About Podcast Hosted by two commercial row-crop farmers, Field Work is a podcast that provides space for frank, realistic discussions about the benefits and challenges of sustainable agriculture. Hosts Zach Johnson and Mitchell Hora explore the successes and challenges farmers experience as they adopt new practices, without greenwashing over the difficulties. Frequency 1 episode / quarter Podcast fieldworktalk.org/episodes
Facebook fans 5.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 4.1K ⋅ Domain Authority 23ⓘ ⋅

About Podcast Host Ray Bohacz is a farmer along with being a recognized technical writer and TV personality in both the agricultural machinery and automotive fields. In this podcast, he imparts knowledge about all aspects of equipment that are employed in modern production agriculture. Frequency 2 episodes / week Podcast farmruralag.com/idle-chatter
Facebook fans 904 ⋅ Twitter followers 4.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 32 ⋅

About Podcast The best agricultural podcast content around the internet. Hear from farmers, ranchers, entrepreneurs, and agribusiness influencers about the issues facing modern agriculture. Frequency 30 episodes / year Since Feb 2017 Also in Farming Podcasts Podcast farmruralag.com/category/pod..
Facebook fans 857 ⋅ Twitter followers 4.6K ⋅ Domain Authority 32 ⋅

About Podcast In the Precision Vision Podcast, hosts Craig Houin and Morgan Seger discuss the relevant precision technology in the agriculture industry as well as introduce and evaluate new tech as it arrives on the scene. With the help of industry leaders, Craig and Morgan will also walk through the best practices of these ag tech tools to help optimize growers' economic return. Podcast sunriseco-op.com/Precision/P..
Twitter followers 216 ⋅ Domain Authority 29 ⋅

About Podcast Zach Johnson, The Millennial Farmer; Becky Johnson, Mrs. Millennial Farmer; and Randy Nessman, The Master Pipe Layer; and their guests go 'OFF THE HUSK' to discuss anything and everything FARMING, AGRICULTURE, BUSHELS, and BS. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast offthehuskwiththemillennialf..
Facebook fans 179.3K ⋅ Twitter followers 20.7K ⋅ Domain Authority 13 ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.9K

Boise, Idaho, United States About Podcast This show explores the people, companies, and ideas shaping the future of agribusiness. If you are curious about innovations in AgTech, rural entrepreneurship, agricultural sustainability, and food security, this is the show for you. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Jul 2016 Also in Food Security Podcasts Podcast aggrad.libsyn.com/podcast
Facebook fans 344 ⋅ Twitter followers 6K ⋅ Instagram Followers 7.3K ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 23 ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.8K

About Podcast Bootstrap Farmer Radio is a podcast discussing how to break into the modern business of agriculture on a bootstrap budget & education. Follow to get regular updates from this podcast in your inbox. Frequency 21 episodes / year Since Mar 2018 Podcast bootstrapfarmer.libsyn.com/w..
Facebook fans 13.9K ⋅ Twitter followers 151 ⋅ Domain Authority 12 ⋅ Alexa Rank 4K

Illinois, USA About Podcast Shark farmer Podcast/ Agriculture Farm is a podcast about farming and agriculture. This show includes conversation and interview with farmers and hunters Frequency 4 episodes / month Since Jun 2016 Podcast sharkfarmer.libsyn.com/podcast
Twitter followers 27K ⋅ Social Engagement 5 ⋅ Domain Authority 27 ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.8K

About Podcast This weekly podcast dives into the agbiosciences sector in Indiana, where 21st Century agriculture, life sciences innovation and cutting-edge technology converge. Ag+Bio+Science is an in-depth conversation with leaders, innovators and entrepreneurs in the space. Learn more about the pioneering industry and where it's heading from those leading the way. Frequency 2 episodes / week Podcast agbiosciencepodcast.libsyn.c..
Facebook fans 337 ⋅ Twitter followers 2.8K ⋅ Domain Authority 14 ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.9K

London, England, United Kingdom About Podcast The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology is a monthly journal that considers original research, reviews, and personal views in gastroenterology and hepatology from around the world. In the monthly podcasts, editors of the journal discuss highlights of the current issue. Frequency 6 episodes / year Also in Crime Blogs, Gastroenterology Podcasts Podcast thelancet.com/langas/audio
Facebook fans 256.3K ⋅ Twitter followers 408K ⋅ Domain Authority 83 ⋅ Alexa Rank 9.4K

About Podcast Jim Smalley is one of Saskatchewan's most trusted names in Agriculture. Listen for the latest news and developments impacting the provincial agri-business industry, market and commodity prices and more. Frequency 1 episode / day Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/harvard..
Instagram Followers 13.7K ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 7.7K

Columbus, Ohio, United States About Podcast Hosted by The Ohio State University Extension, this podcast takes a bi-monthly dive into specific issues that impact agriculture, such as weather, land value, policies, commodity outlooks, and more. Hosts Amanda Douridas and Elizabeth Hawkins interview experts in agronomy and farm management. Frequency 1 episode / week Since May 2018 Also in Agronomy Podcasts Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/the-ohi..
Facebook fans 9K ⋅ Twitter followers 170 ⋅ Instagram Followers 13.7K ⋅ Social Engagement 2 ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

About Podcast Listen to GX on Agriculture episodes free, on-demand. Agricultural News with GX94 Ag Director Rod McDonald. For more updates on this, subscribe with us. Frequency 30 episodes / year Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/harvard..
Facebook fans 7.7K ⋅ Twitter followers 2.6K ⋅ Instagram Followers 13.7K ⋅ Social Engagement 727 ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 7.9K

Des Moines, IA About Podcast Listen as we go in-depth into the topics that affect farmers. Hear from industry leaders and experts on topics ranging from agronomy, technology, rural lifestyle, agriculture policy, and more. Frequency 4 episodes / month Podcast agriculture.com/podcast/succ..
Facebook fans 45.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 59.4K ⋅ Instagram Followers 8.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 64 ⋅ Alexa Rank 80.2K

Kentucky, United States About Podcast Fastline Fast Track features agriculture industry newsmakers discussing hot-button issues and the latest in farming equipment and trends that affect farmers from coast to coast, as reported by our Fastline, Big Ag and Pink Tractor publications.The podcast also features 'The Legends Stage,' a segment presented by the Ernest Tubb Record Shop, featuring up-and-coming and legendary country music artists. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Jan 2019 Podcast fastline.com/podcast
Facebook fans 322.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 12.2K ⋅ Instagram Followers 27.6K ⋅ Domain Authority 46 ⋅ Alexa Rank 255.6K

Columbus, Ohio About Podcast Ohio Ag Net Podcast is focused on bringing Ohio farmers the latest news in agriculture. Through our podcast, we deliver more conversational pieces, reaching more in-depth to the events and happenings in Ohio agriculture. Frequency 1 episode / day Podcast ocj.com/podcasts
Facebook fans 17.6K ⋅ Twitter followers 5.4K ⋅ Instagram Followers 780 ⋅ Domain Authority 54 ⋅ Alexa Rank 509K

About Podcast Between The Rows is a weekly podcast featuring the Glacier FarmMedia editorial team bringing you the story behind the stories in ag news and markets. The podcast discusses the top stories and latest developments in agriculture today. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast agcanada.com/podcasts/betwee..
Facebook fans 555 ⋅ Twitter followers 5.7K ⋅ Domain Authority 52 ⋅ Alexa Rank 1.3M

California, USA About Podcast Cal Ag Roots unearths stories about farming history that challenge us to think deeply about the struggles, breakthroughs, battles, and innovations that have shaped California agriculture. Tune in to learn the surprising histories behind the ways we produce food today. Frequency 2 episodes / year Since Dec 2018 Podcast agroots.org
Facebook fans 215 ⋅ Twitter followers 215 ⋅ Social Engagement 49 ⋅ Domain Authority 21 ⋅

Aptos, California, United States About Podcast Farm to Table Talk explores issues and the growing interest in the story of how and where the food on our tables is produced, processed and marketed. The show is hosted by Rodger Wasson who is a food and agriculture veteran. Frequency 2 episodes / week Podcast farmtotabletalk.com
Facebook fans 8.1K ⋅ Twitter followers 2.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 27 ⋅

About Podcast Join the Ag Central Radio Network for Inside Agriculture Monday through Friday for breaking Agriculture stories along with Agriculture lifestyle stories. For more updates on this, follow us. Frequency 20 episodes / week Since Feb 2016 Podcast agnews890.com/podcast/inside..
Facebook fans 564 ⋅ Twitter followers 254 ⋅ Domain Authority 27 ⋅

About Podcast This is a show for professional growers who want to increase quality and yield for growers and agronomists. Here one can learn about the science and principles of regenerative agriculture systems. For those who believe there are better ways to grow. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Apr 2018 Podcast regenerativeagriculturepodca..
Facebook fans 7K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.4K ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 21 ⋅

About Podcast One to Grow On is a podcast where we dig into questions about agriculture and try to understand how food production impacts us and our world. To know more on this, subscribe with us. Frequency 1 episode / day Podcast onetogrowonpod.com
Facebook fans 45 ⋅ Twitter followers 175 ⋅ Instagram Followers 115 ⋅ Domain Authority 20 ⋅

About Podcast Mike Adams discusses the day's top agriculture news on Adams on Agriculture, from the American Ag Network. For more updates on this, subscribe with us. Frequency 1 episode / day Podcast adamsonag.podbean.com
Twitter followers 909 ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast The top agriculture news plus feature interviews from the American Ag Network. A weekly recap of the latest agriculture news from North and South Dakota and the nation. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Mar 2018 Podcast americanagnetwork.podbean.com
Facebook fans 1.2K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.3K ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

Baton Rouge, LA About Podcast Host Carey Martin will bring you the latest news headlines in Louisiana agriculture and a look at the markets with commentary from the Louisiana Farm Bureau Marketing Association. We'll take you to the fields and pastures of Louisiana as we talk to one of you about current crop and livestock conditions. Frequency 14 episodes / year Podcast voiceoflouisianaagriculture...
Facebook fans 6.5K ⋅ Twitter followers 835 ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 18 ⋅

About Podcast Peter Davies and Mark Scherzer are the hosts of the show. This podcast is dedicated to sustainable agriculture and eschews the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, growth enhancers, and antibiotics. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast robinhoodradioondemand.com/?..
Facebook fans 2.4K ⋅ Domain Authority 38 ⋅

Knoxville, Tennessee, United States About Podcast Consider this. What would your life be like without agriculture's indelible footprint? Magic Moments is a movement to recognize agriculture in each moment. Join us as we uncover the magic of Tennessee agriculture in all our lives, remember our roots, and discover the future of agriculture. Frequency 11 episodes / year Podcast tnmagicmoments.com/news/213/..
Instagram Followers 1.5K ⋅ Social Engagement 8 ⋅ Domain Authority 15 ⋅

About Podcast POP Agriculture is hosted by Steve Savage, an agricultural scientist with experience in academia and industry. POP Agriculture combines Steve's love of agriculture with his penchant for pop culture for an interesting and topical listen. Frequency 6 episodes / year Podcast popagriculture.com/blog
Domain Authority 21 ⋅ Alexa Rank 6.8M

About Podcast Here on the Farm Traveler podcast, we interview farmers, ranchers, and anyone involved in supporting industries to agriculture. This show will inform consumers about how their food is made and act as an outlet for farmers Podcast buzzsprout.com/250966
Facebook fans 3K ⋅ Instagram Followers 566 ⋅ Domain Authority 72 ⋅ Alexa Rank 4.3K

About Podcast Our Farms, Our Future brings together the sustainable agriculture community for thought-provoking conversations about the state of agriculture, how we got here, and where we're headed. With each episode, we hope to share different perspectives within the sustainable agriculture community while tackling such topics as building resilient farming systems, farm profitability, and fostering community through local food systems. Podcast sare.org/Learning-Center/..
Facebook fans 11.3K ⋅ Domain Authority 55 ⋅ Alexa Rank 292.5K

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Top 35 Agriculture Podcasts You Must Follow in 2020

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About Podcast The purpose of the show is to promote agricultural career discovery, agribusiness networking opportunities, and professional development for all interested in the agriculture industry. For more updates on this, follow us.

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Podcasts to practise listening

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North Carolina, United States About Podcast Weekly podcast dedicated to 'tackling the toughest topics in veterinary medicine.' Hosted by veterinarian Dr. Ernie Ward and registered veterinary technician Beckie Mossor. Candid, irreverent, provocative, educational, and occasionally funny conversations about issues that impact the veterinary profession. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast drernieward.com/veterinaryvi..
Instagram Followers 3.5K ⋅ Domain Authority 47ⓘ ⋅

About Podcast Podcast A Vet is all about building a positive and supportive community by sharing the stories of all of the awesome people. The podcast shares the stories, struggles, successes, and insights of leaders across the veterinary industry. Frequency 12 episodes / year Since Jan 2018 Podcast podcastavet.com/podcast
Facebook fans 785 ⋅ Twitter followers 13 ⋅ Domain Authority 14ⓘ ⋅

About Podcast Our veterinary podcast is mostly about veterinary medicine and surgery: current news items of interest, case reports, and anecdotes. A 'topic of the week' discusses one veterinary issue of interest. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Nov 2017 Podcast vetpodcast.blubrry.net
Twitter followers 17 ⋅ Domain Authority 50ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 157.7Kⓘ

Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa About Podcast The Veterinary Rehabilitation Podcast with Dr. Megan Kelly. Listen to this popular podcast for veterinary rehab therapists. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Aug 2017 Podcast onlinepethealth-info.com/pod..
Facebook fans 3.4K ⋅ Twitter followers 264 ⋅ Instagram Followers 1.9K ⋅ Domain Authority 14ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 2.2Mⓘ

Aliso Viejo, California, United States About Podcast Hello, my name is Brandon Breshears. I created the Veterinary Marketing Podcast because I love marketing and saw the need the veterinary industry had for some up to date marketing. Frequency 2 episodes / week Since Jul 2014 Podcast veterinarymarketingpodcast.c..
Facebook fans 2.5K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 22ⓘ ⋅

Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom About Podcast As a vet student at the Royal (dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Moriah McCauley has been able to experience first hand the challenges of veterinary medicine as well as some of the excitement and adventure that it involves. Tag along as she talks with the veterinarians and professionals that inspire, encourage and challenge the veterinary community. Frequency 1 episode / week Since May 2019 Podcast anchor.fm/thatvet-life
Twitter followers 47 ⋅ Instagram Followers 3.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 1ⓘ ⋅ Domain Authority 81ⓘ ⋅ Alexa Rank 2Kⓘ

About Podcast Ask the Vets with Dr. Jeff Call-in Radio Show where you, the listeners can ask anything about your dogs or cats and other animals with Emmy-Award winning veterinarian Dr. Jeff Werber! Frequency 5 episodes / month Since Apr 2013 Podcast petliferadio.com/askthevets...
Domain Authority 47 ⋅ Alexa Rank 2M

About Podcast Hang out with Dr. Brad Miller & Angel Martin to get the Owners, Veterinarians, Registered Veterinary Technicians, and staff's perspective on current veterinary and world events and how they affect what we do in our practice. Get to know more about what we do behind the scenes and why we do it. Which boils down to the simple fact that we are passionate about our jobs. Meet the real people behind GVA and the reality about the day to day at a veterinary hospital. Frequency 1 episode / day Podcast georgiaveterinaryassociates...
Domain Authority 83 ⋅ Alexa Rank 27.4K

About Podcast The Veterinary Life Coach Podcast is the podcast for busy veterinary professionals that want to have a better, more exciting, and enjoyable life. In this podcast, Dr. Cappel brings you tools and techniques for managing your mind and discusses problems that those of us who work in veterinary medicine face daily. Frequency 1 episode / day Since Feb 2019 Podcast theveterinarylifecoach.libsy..
Social Engagement 2 ⋅ Domain Authority 8 ⋅ Alexa Rank 4.1K

About Podcast Dr. Matthew Holden of Oxford Hills Veterinary Clinic joins John Williams in the studio every week to discuss health issues and how to take care of your household pets as well as farm animals. Frequency 1 episode / month Since May 2017 Podcast animalchat.libsyn.com
Social Engagement 230 ⋅ Domain Authority 3 ⋅ Alexa Rank 4.1K

About Podcast The North American Veterinary Community (NAVC) and LifeLearn Animal Health, the two leading nonprofit associations in the veterinary industry today, are proud to present VetFolio, a joint partnership. Listen to our podcast for insights on the veterinary profession, industry news, and useful tips and information in everything from the science, business or practice management areas of the veterinary community that you can put into practice today! Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast soundcloud.com/vetfolio
Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 93 ⋅ Alexa Rank 91

About Podcast The awesome power of vet medicine will be unleashed with conversation, compassion and common sense. This podcast will empower pet owners to take the very best care of their four footed family members. Frequency 4 episodes / year Since Jul 2018 Podcast unleashedveterinarypodcast.l..
Facebook fans 4.7K ⋅ Domain Authority 3 ⋅ Alexa Rank 3.9K

About Podcast This is an awesome podcast for veterinary healthcare providers about everything feline. Famous author Dr. Susan Little and surgeon, Dr. Jolle Kirpensteijn will discuss medical en surgical issues of cats highlighting simple and practical solutions. If you like cats, you will love this podcast! Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast spreaker.com/show/purr-podcast
Social Engagement 2 ⋅ Domain Authority 88 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

About Podcast Welcome to EquiManagement's podcast Disease Du Jour, where we delve into the research and current best practices for a variety of equine health problems with industry experts. Frequency 2 episodes / month Since Mar 2019 Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/equine-..
Facebook fans 3.4K ⋅ Twitter followers 207 ⋅ Social Engagement 13 ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

USA About Podcast These pet podcasts on Pet Life Radio, are about pet health and pet care featuring preventative pet medicine, senior pet care, pet pediatrics, emergency pet first aid, pet meds, pet insurance, pet dental care, pet food and pet grooming. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/pet-lif..
Facebook fans 2.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 8.6K ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia About Podcast Dr. Lewis Kirkham & Small Animal veterinarian; Dr. Robbie Anderton, provides an informative, light-hearted podcast with veterinary, behavior & training advice for pet owners, dog trainers, cat lovers, veterinarians, veterinary technicians, and veterinary nurses. Dr. Lewis is a veterinarian with further qualifications in animal behavior and Dr. Robbie is a veterinarian with further qualifications in veterinary medicine. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast stitcher.com/podcast/two-vet..
Facebook fans 477 ⋅ Twitter followers 37 ⋅ Domain Authority 84 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

About Podcast The Pet Factor is here to help you understand your pet's health needs. From preventative care to dealing with chronic illnesses, we present information on why veterinarians recommend wellness care for your pet, how we diagnose and treat sick animals, and tips to keep your pets from developing common problems. We also showcase new products available to your veterinarian and news regarding pet health. Frequency 29 episodes / year Podcast listennotes.com/podcasts/the..
Domain Authority 61 ⋅ Alexa Rank 14.2K

About Podcast Dr. Roger Welton and Dr. Karen Louis are both experienced, practicing veterinarians that write extensively on their respective blogs. They co-host this show to discuss the topics that inspire them to blog while offering their unique experiences and training to offer listeners varied perspectives on pet issues of the day. Frequency 2 episodes / month Podcast blogtalkradio.com/rwdvm
Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 87 ⋅ Alexa Rank 20.1K

New Zealand About Podcast Presented by Veterinarian Dr. Bryan Gregor from New Zealand, join us as current cat and dog health and welfare issues are discussed by veterinarians, veterinary nurses and vet techs from around the world. If you are a pet owner, an animal lover or in the veterinary industry, there will be something of interest! Frequency 2 episodes / month Since Jun 2013 Podcast vetpodcast.podomatic.com
Twitter followers 56 ⋅ Domain Authority 83 ⋅ Alexa Rank 34.8K

About Podcast Welcome to the official free Podcast site from SAGE for Veterinary Science. It is a leading international publisher of journals, books, and electronic media for academic, educational, and professional markets with principal offices in Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, and Singapore. Frequency 2 episodes / quarter Since Nov 2013 Podcast sageveterinary.sage-publicat..
Facebook fans 12.5K ⋅ Twitter followers 8K ⋅ Instagram Followers 1.3K ⋅ Social Engagement 10 ⋅ Domain Authority 62 ⋅ Alexa Rank 312.5K

About Podcast We will provide you with an insight into the current research being undertaken and those dedicated researchers in the pursuit of answering those questions to benefit animal health and welfare, today, tomorrow and beyond. The RVC is a veterinary school in London, the UK which provides undergraduate and postgraduate teaching in veterinary medicine, science and nursing; research and scholarship; and clinical services to the veterinary profession and general public. Frequency 2 episodes / year Since Apr 2007 Podcast rvc.ac.uk/research/podcasts
Facebook fans 82.7K ⋅ Twitter followers 18.1K ⋅ Instagram Followers 24.6K ⋅ Domain Authority 64 ⋅ Alexa Rank 223K

England, United Kingdom About Podcast Welcome to the RVC veterinary clinical podcast. In these shows, Dominic Barfield, with the technical help of Brian Cox talks to a variety of different faculty/specialists/clinicians from the RVC about clinical relevant material to everyone in practice, if you are just about to start your veterinary career or you are a seasoned professional we aim to provide something for everyone. Frequency 3 episodes / month Since Mar 2013 Podcast rvc.ac.uk/small-animal-refer..
Facebook fans 82.3K ⋅ Twitter followers 18.1K ⋅ Instagram Followers 24.5K ⋅ Domain Authority 64 ⋅ Alexa Rank 341.1K

About Podcast Join Dr. Justine Lee, DVM, DACVECC, DABT, an emergency critical care veterinary specialist and toxicologist, for 'ER Vet !' This show is dedicated to all things emergency related. After all, we all dread having to go to the veterinarian at 2 A.M. In this show, Dr. Lee will help educate pet owners on what you really need to know about keeping your pets safe and protected. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast petliferadio.com/ervet.html
Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 47 ⋅ Alexa Rank 2M

USA About Podcast Vet Candy is a veterinary talk show that showcases dynamic and relatable veterinary professionals. Unfiltered and always entertaining, hosts Dr. Jenifer Chatfield, Dr. Jason Chatfield, and Dr. Jill Lopez and their guests present unique and amusing points of view on literally everything related to vet life. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast petliferadio.com/vetcandy.html
Facebook fans 2.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 8.6K ⋅ Domain Authority 47 ⋅ Alexa Rank 2.3M

Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States About Podcast With VETgirl, you can learn clinical veterinary medicine with style, passion, and efficiency! VETgirl is designed for veterinary professionals who have time poverty and are on the run. Download the podcasts you want to listen to, and get clinical tips within just a few minutes of listening! We'll help get you the facts you need in a convenient way. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast vetgirlontherun.com/?s=&sear..
Facebook fans 205K ⋅ Twitter followers 12.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 36 ⋅

About Podcast The Internal Medicine For Vet Techs Podcast is a weekly podcast hosted by veterinary technician specialists, Yvonne Brandenburg, RVT, VTS SAIM, and Jordan Porter, RVT, LVT, VTS SAIM, and is dedicated to veterinary professionals who are passionate about all things internal medicine. We'll be discussing interesting internal medicine diseases, how to work closely with pet parents, and how to be the best tech we can be. This podcast is perfect for veterinary professionals just getting into internal medicine, studying for their boards, or for those of us that relate to #IMaNerd! Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast podcast.internalmedicineforv..
Facebook fans 368 ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 12 ⋅

Brighton, England, United Kingdom About Podcast The Blunt Dissection Podcast exists because everyone has a story worth listening to. It's the original and best interview podcast in veterinary medicine where the best minds in the various subcultures of veterinary medicine are profiled/deconstructed so you can listen to their remarkable stories, and also learn the habits, routines, thought processes and anything else that makes these individuals so good at what they do. Frequency 1 episode / month Since Oct 2015 Podcast drdavenicol.com/hamster-wheel
Facebook fans 4.7K ⋅ Twitter followers 1.7K ⋅ Instagram Followers 6.5K ⋅ Social Engagement 23 ⋅ Domain Authority 26 ⋅

Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada About Podcast The Veterinary Innovation Podcast covers the most interesting, exciting, and controversial topics in the industry today. Veterinary technology entrepreneurs Shawn Wilkie and Dr. Ivan Zakharenkov chat with industry leaders and innovators about the biggest challenges they're facing - and how they're overcoming them. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Jun 2019 Podcast veterinaryinnovationpodcast...
Facebook fans 1.8K ⋅ Twitter followers 58 ⋅ Social Engagement 4 ⋅ Domain Authority 13 ⋅

About Podcast This podcast is from the Equine Veterinary Journal (EVJ). Tune in to listen to this podcast. Frequency 2 episodes / month Podcast evj.podbean.com
Social Engagement 3 ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast This podcast is from Equine Veterinary Education (EVE). Listen to this podcast now. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast equineveterinaryeducation.po..
Social Engagement 7 ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast Podcast by veterinary specialists for veterinarians, technicians, pet owners and those that love science. Tune in to listen to this podcast. Frequency 1 episode / quarter Podcast vetzone.podbean.com
Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast David, Huw, and Lucy discuss the latest news in equine veterinary medicine. Listen to this podcast for more information. Frequency 11 episodes / year Podcast beva.podbean.com
Social Engagement 4 ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast Radio Vet Nurse is a long-form interview show creating a dialogue around these questions and space where we can tell our story. Each episode you'll hear from a different vet nurse about their experiences in life and in vet nursing as host Cat Robinson asks questions about everything from how they got their start in vet nursing to mental wellness strategies that can help with difficult days and compassion fatigue. Radio Vet Nurse guests are also asked for any wisdom they can impart to the new generation of vet nurses as they navigate the challenges of work and self-paced learning. Frequency 1 episode / month Podcast radiovetnurse.com/listen
Facebook fans 1.6K ⋅ Instagram Followers 1.6K ⋅ Social Engagement 1 ⋅ Domain Authority 3 ⋅

About Podcast Veterinary Podcast station of the Ontario Animal Health Network (OAHN) in Canada. Tune in to listen to this podcast. Frequency 3 episodes / year Podcast oahn.podbean.com
Social Engagement 3 ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

Nelson, British Columbia, Canada About Podcast On Veterinary Secrets, Dr. Andrew Jones provides information on holistic dog and cat health information & advice and pet supplements. Also, natural home remedies to heal your dogs and cats. Frequency 1 episode / week Since Feb 2015 Podcast vetsecrets.podbean.com
Twitter followers 2.2K ⋅ Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast Nicole Dickerson works as a veterinary technician specialist in emergency and critical care. Lots of crazy shit happens and this is a place to talk about it. Frequency 1 episode / quarter Podcast catdisgusted.podbean.com
Domain Authority 86 ⋅

About Podcast Vetsplaining is an honest and humorous look into the medical and business aspects of veterinary medicine. In these weekly to biweekly podcasts, Dr. Lisa McFaddin alternates between medical and non-medical topics. All discussions are bound to entice pet owners, veterinarians, and pet-curious people alike. Frequency 6 episodes / year Podcast spreaker.com/show/vetsplaining
Social Engagement 5 ⋅ Domain Authority 88 ⋅ Alexa Rank 8.1K

About Podcast Listen to the personal stories, struggles, and triumphs of a variety of people working in veterinary medicine so you can learn from, and be inspired by, the experiences of others. The Voices of Veterinary Medicine podcast brings interviews, inspiration, and information on the incredible breadth of opportunities available within the field of veterinary medicine to help you proactively steer your career to happiness and fulfillment. Since Nov 2017 Podcast realize.vet/category/podcast
Social Engagement 51 ⋅ Domain Authority 16 ⋅ Alexa Rank 5.1M

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Top 40 Veterinary Podcasts You Must Follow in 2020

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North Carolina, United States About Podcast Weekly podcast dedicated to 'tackling the toughest topics in veterinary medicine.' Hosted by veterinarian Dr. Ernie Ward and registered veterinary technician Beckie Mossor. Candid, irreverent, provocative, educational, and occasionally funny conversations about issues that impact the veterinary profession. Frequency 1 episode / week Podcast drernieward.com/veterinaryvi..

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The Academic Phrasebank - An Academic Writing Resource for Students & Researchers

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The Academic Phrasebank - An Academic Writing Resource for Students & Researchers

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The Academic Phrasebank - An Academic Writing Resource for Students & Researchers 4th Ed.

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Bottomley, Jane-Academic writing for international students of science

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Bottomley, Jane-Academic writing for international students of science

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Bottomley, Jane-Academic writing for international students of science-Routledge (2015)

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English for Academic Study - Science and Technology

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English for Academic Study - Science and Technology

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English for Academic Study - Science and Technology

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Example of an abstarct written by veterinarians and agricultural engineers from Rauch

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Example of an abstarct written by veterinarians and agricultural engineers from Rauch

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To be used as a model to write abstracts, to practise reading comprehension.

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Effects of inorganic selenium injection on the performance of beef cows and their subsequent calves - PubMed

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Sixty-seven pregnant Angus cows and their subsequent calves were used in a randomized design to evaluate the effect of inorganic Se injection from 80 d of gestation until weaning on cow reproductive parameters, BW and BCS evolution, milk yield and quality, calf growth and calf hematology parameters. ...

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Language focus on how to write an abstact.

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In this video for the NUST MISiS Academic Writing Center, English Language Fellow John Kotnarowski provides an overview introduction to abstract writing. It defines abstracts and explains some of the purposes that abstracts serve in today's writing/research environment. It also provides a more detailed discussion of the features of a very common type of abstract, the informative journal abstract.

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Introduction and explanation about how to start writing academis essays.

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Step 1:Research -Move from light to detailed resources -Internet, Academic databases, Library -Research paper using only internet -resources is a weak paper -Write down quotations and the source and transcribe quotations accurately -Write question or other thoughts in the margins

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How to Talk Like a Native Speaker | Marc Green | TEDxHeidelberg

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The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli

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To give students tools to develop their skills.

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How To Study Smarter, Not Harder - From How We Learn by Benedict Carey

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To practise listening comprehension, to promote critical thinking

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To provide our students with useful tools in order to deliver a successful speech 

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To provide our students with useful tools in order to deliver a successful speech 

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This video is thought for those students who have to deliver a talk, to give them ideas and to help them to organise their task.

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How to give a 5-minute speech in English

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To introduce vocabulary related to traumatology, to practise listening comprehension

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Dr. Blue Is Not Sure If This Golden Retriever's Toe Is Broken | The Vet Life

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To introduce vocabulary related to SURGERY and to improve listening comprehension

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Vet Removes Enormous 16lb Tumor From Dog's Abdomen | The Vet Life

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To practise listening and to promote debate among classmates

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Cesar Explains How To Fix Separation Anxiety With Your Dog

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To practise listening comprehension

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Fixing Doc the Horse | The Incredible Dr. Pol

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To listen to a colleague speaking and practise pronounciation.

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DISEASE RISKS FOR DOGS IN SOCIAL SETTINGS

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DISEASE RISKS FOR DOGS IN SOCIAL SETTINGS

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To practise reading and comprehension activities.
To deliver a presentation and practise speaking skills.

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The following is a list of the most common diseases to which your dog(s) may be exposed at a dog gathering. There may be specific risks in your area that are not listed. For more information about specific diseases in your area, consult your veterinarian.

People can also spread some diseases (such as mange, ringworm, kennel cough and canine influenza) from dog to dog through shared brushes, collars, bedding, etc. or by petting or handling an infected dog before petting or handling another dog.

Canine distemper

Canine distemper is caused by a very contagious virus. Puppies and dogs usually become infected through virus particles in the air or in the respiratory secretions of infected dogs. Infected dogs typically develop runny eyes, fever, snotty nose, coughing, vomiting, diarrhea, seizures, and paralysis. It is often fatal.

Fortunately, there is an effective vaccine to protect your dog from this deadly disease. The canine distemper vaccine is considered a "core" vaccine and is recommended for every dog.

Canine influenza ("canine flu" or "dog flu")

Canine influenza is caused by the canine influenza virus. It is a relatively new disease in dogs. Because most dogs have not been exposed to the virus, their immune systems are not able to fully respond to the virus and many of them will become infected when they are exposed. Canine influenza is spread through respiratory secretions, contaminated objects (including surfaces, bowls, collars and leashes). The virus can survive for up to 48 hours on surfaces, up to 24 hours on clothing, and up to 12 hours on people's hands.

Dogs can be shedding the virus before they even show signs of illness, which means an apparently healthy dog can still infect other dogs. Dogs with canine influenza develop coughing, a fever and a snotty nose, which are the same signs observed when a dog has kennel cough.

There is a vaccine for canine influenza, but at this time it is not recommended for every dog. Consult your veterinarian to determine if the canine influenza vaccine is recommended for your dog.

Canine parvovirus ("parvo")

Parvo is caused by the canine parvovirus type 2. The virus is very contagious and attacks the gastrointestinal system, causing fever, vomiting and severe, often bloody, diarrhea. It is spread by direct contact between dogs as well as by contaminated stool, surfaces, bowls, collars, leashes, equipment, and the hands and clothing of people. It can also survive in the soil for years, making the virus hard to kill. Treating parvo can be very expensive and many dogs die from parvo despite intensive treatment.

Fortunately, there is a vaccine for parvo. It is considered a "core" vaccine and is recommended for every dog.

External parasites (ticks, fleas and mange)

External parasites, such as ticks, fleas and mange, are fairly common dog problems. Ticks from the environment, fleas from other dogs and the environment, and mange from other dogs pose risks at dog gatherings. Ticks can transmit diseases (see tick-borne diseases below). Fleas can transmit some types of tapeworms as well as some diseases, and they may end up infesting your home and yard if they hitchhike home on your dog(s).

There are many approved products available to effectively prevent and treat external parasites on dogs. Consult your veterinarian about the best product for your dog.

Cheyletiella mites cause "walking dandruff" on dogs (itching and flaky skin on the dog's trunk). They are spread from dog to dog by direct contact, and may require more aggressive treatment than fleas.

Fertilizers and pesticides

Some fertilizers and pesticides can be toxic to dogs. Avoid letting your pet walk, run, play or roam in areas that have recently been treated with fertilizers or pesticides.

Fungal infections (blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, etc.)

Fungal organisms in the soil can infect dogs when they eat or sniff contaminated soil. Dogs can also be infected through the skin, especially through a skin wound. The types of fungus seen vary throughout the U.S.: histoplasmosis is more common in the Eastern and Central U.S.; blastomycosis is more common in the Southeast, Southcentral and Midwest regions; cryptococcosis is more common in the Pacific Northwest region; and coccidioidomycosis is more common in the Southwest U.S. Histoplasmosis can be spread by bird or bat droppings.

In general, the fungus infects the body through the respiratory tract and causes fever, coughing, lethargy and flu-like or pneumonia-like signs. If eaten, digestive problems (e.g., pain, diarrhea) can occur. Immunosuppressed dogs (dogs whose immune systems are weakened because of disease or certain medications) are much more likely to become infected with these fungi and develop disease.

Heartworms

Heartworms are spread by mosquitoes and can cause coughing, lethargy, difficulty breathing, heart disease and death. Fortunately, there are many approved products to prevent heartworm infection. Consult your veterinarian about the best product for your dog.

Heatstroke

Heatstroke is a big risk during warm and hot weather. Remember that your dog is always wearing a fur coat and they are usually warmer than you are. A temperature that seems only a little warm to a person can be too hot for a dog. Add to that the fact that dogs at dog gatherings are often active and playing, and the heat could become deadly for your dog. Never leave your pet in the car on warm days. Even a 70°F day can be too hot in a car. Short-nosed breeds, such as pugs, Boston Terriers, boxers, bulldogs, etc. are more prone to heatstroke and breathing problems because they don't pant as effectively as breeds with normal-length noses.

Signs of heatstroke include excessive panting and drooling, anxiousness, weakness, abnormal gum color (darker red or even purple), collapse and death.

Any dog showing signs of heatstroke should be immediately taken to a shaded area and cooled with cold, wet towels that are wrung out and rewetted every few minutes. Running cool water over the dog's body and quickly wiping it away (so the water absorbs the skin's heat and is immediately wiped away) can also help. Transport the dog to a veterinarian immediately, because heatstroke can rapidly become deadly.

Injuries

Any time unfamiliar dogs and/or dogs with different temperaments are mixed, there is a risk of conflict and injury. Bite wounds should be immediately evaluated by a veterinarian and efforts should be made to determine the rabies vaccination status of the biting dog. Overweight dogs and dogs accustomed to more sedentary lifestyles should be encouraged to become more active, but excessive activity can put them at risk of injury to joints, bones or muscles. If your dog is overweight and/or you plan to increase its activity level, consult with your veterinarian about the best plan to get your dog active with the least risk of injury.

Intestinal parasites

Intestinal parasites such as roundworms, hookworms, whipworms and tapeworms lay eggs that are passed in the dog's stool and infect other dogs when they eat contaminated soil, lick contaminated fur or paws, or drink water contaminated with the stool from infected dogs. Tapeworms are spread when dogs eat fleas, lice, or rodents infected with tapeworms.

These worms can cause malnutrition (because they steal nutrients as food is being digested) and diarrhea, and hookworms can cause blood loss. There are many products available to treat worms, and you should consult their veterinarian for the appropriate products for your pets.

Coccidia and Giardia are single-celled parasites that damage the lining of the intestine. Dogs can become infected with coccidia by eating infected soil or licking contaminated paws or fur. Puppies are at the highest risk of infection and illness.

Kennel cough

Kennel cough can be caused by a combination of viruses and bacteria. It is very contagious and your dog can become infected if it comes into contact with an infected dog. Dogs with kennel cough may not seem ill in the early stages of the disease but they can still infect other dogs. Most commonly, dogs with kennel cough will have a snotty nose and a dry, hacking cough.

There are vaccines for kennel cough, but not all dogs need to receive the vaccine. Consult your veterinarian about whether or not the kennel cough ( Bordetella) vaccine is right for your dog.

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is caused by species of the Leptospira bacteria. The bacteria are shed in the urine of infected animals, and animals and people usually become infected by drinking contaminated water or coming into contact with contaminated soil or food. Dogs infected with Leptospira may develop fever, muscle weakness, vomiting, lethargy, abdominal pain, and kidney or liver failure. There is a vaccine for leptospirosis; consult your veterinarian about whether or not the vaccine is appropriate for your dog. Some canine distemper combination vaccines include a Leptospira vaccine.

Rabies

Any mammal is capable of being infected with the virus that causes rabies. Most dog parks and organized dog gatherings require proof of rabies vaccination, but some do not. Rabies is caused by the rabies virus and is 100% fatal in animals once they start to show signs of disease. The virus is spread by saliva, either by a bite from an infected animal or by saliva contaminating a skin wound. In addition, any contact with wildlife (including bats) can introduce the risk of rabies infection. Raccoons, skunks and other wild animals can carry the rabies virus and may be present in areas where dogs gather.

Fortunately, rabies infection is preventable with vaccination. Many local and state governments require regular rabies vaccination for dogs.

Regional wildlife risks and feral animals

Wildlife mixing with dogs can increase the risk of diseases, such as rabies and plague, as well as the risk of injury. In some areas of the U.S., prairie dogs often invade dog parks. Prairie dogs carry fleas that can carry the bacteria that causes plague. Skunks, raccoons, foxes, feral cats and pigs, and other wildlife can also carry rabies and other diseases that can infect dogs. Feral dogs present disease and injury risks.

Ringworm

Although its name suggests it's a worm, ringworm is actually due to fungal infection of the skin. It can be spread by contact with an infected dog, its bedding or something that has come in contact with the infected dog. The fungus can also survive in the soil. Ringworm gets its name because it often causes circular patches of hair loss. Some dogs will excessively scratch the areas, while others may not be itchy. Many dogs will recover without treatment, but they are often treated to prevent them from spreading the infection to other dogs or to people.

Tick-borne diseases (hemobartonellosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, rickettsial diseases such as Lyme disease, and others)

A variety of diseases that can infect dogs are spread by ticks, including Lyme disease and many others. Some diseases are more common in specific areas of the U.S. These diseases can cause anemia (blood loss), lameness, weakness, lethargy, organ failure, and even death. The best way to prevent these diseases is to prevent tick bites. There are many products available that reduce tick bites and kill ticks on dogs; consult your veterinarian about the best product for your dog. Check your dog for ticks after any outside dog gatherings and remove the tick(s) as soon as possible.

Toxic plants

Toxic plants can cause a variety of illnesses. Some ornamental plants can be very toxic to animals. Cocoa mulch is also toxic to dogs. For more information about toxic plants, visit the ASPCA's Animal Poison Control Center Web site.

See also:

The AVMA would like to thank the Council on Public Health and Regulatory Veterinary Medicine, Dr. Robert Belden, Dr. Ron Schultz, the American College of Veterinary Behavior, and the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior for their roles in developing this document.

This information has been prepared as a service by the American Veterinary Medical Association. Redistribution is acceptable, but the document's original content and format must be maintained, and its source must be prominently identified.

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Disease risks for dogs in social settings

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The following is a list of the most common diseases to which your dog(s) may be exposed at a dog gathering. There may be specific risks in your area that are not listed. For more information about specific diseases in your area, consult your veterinarian.

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Course book to practise the four skills. Variety of activities, specific vocabulary, authentic content.

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Advanced biofuels show promise for replacing some fossil fuels

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Advanced biofuels show promise for replacing some fossil fuels

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up to date news for reading comprehension and further debates.

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UNIVERSITY PARK, Pa. - Plant-based biofuels can play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and growing these crops in certain landscapes offers net climate benefits compared to other land use options, according to a team of international scientists.

"For the last decade, there have been a lot of questions about whether there's an important role for bioenergy in a sustainable energy future," said Tom Richard, professor of agricultural and biological engineering and director of the Penn State Institutes of Energy and the Environment. "We've documented that if it's done right, there is a clear role for bioenergy, and we've pointed toward the places and approaches necessary for those systems to have a positive benefit."

Biofuels are a common source of renewable energy in the United States, but some scientists have questioned the environmental benefits of growing these crops compared to other land use alternatives like planting forests.

"Many ecologists are concerned that biofuels could displace forests or cause other indirect changes to areas that support food production, while not providing enough climate benefits," said Erica Smithwick, the E. Willard and Ruby S. Miller Professor in Geography at Penn State. "This study allowed us to take a full account of the impacts of biofuels from soil to tailpipe emissions and do a full accounting of the carbon flows to see how fair that criticism really is."

In the comprehensive study, a team of interdisciplinary researchers, including plant scientists, ecologists and engineers, used models to simulate switchgrass cultivation, biofuel production and carbon capture and storage, tracking the carbon and ecosystem impacts. They compared the results with other ways to store carbon on land, like growing forests or grasslands.

They found that growing switchgrass, a leading candidate for next generation biofuels, on lands transitioning away from crops or pasture has climate benefits comparable with reforestation and greater than grassland restoration. While the analysis does not support replacing mature forests with biofuels, technological advances like carbon capture and storage could result in biofuels producing several times the benefit of other land use options, the scientists said.

The findings, reported in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, offer a roadmap for how and where to pursue biofuels, and reassert the prominent role the technology can play in combating climate change, the scientists said.

"I've become quite convinced through the work on this project that there is an opportunity to integrate biofuels into some land use decisions so that we can create more sustainable solutions to the climate challenge," Smithwick said. "We are in a climate crisis. And biofuels provide sustainable energy sources that don't release excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere while providing us with the energy that we need."

Biofuels have traditionally come from food products like corn, which produces ethanol as it ferments. That can be added to fossil fuels used to power cars, airplanes and boats, curbing some carbon dioxide emissions. Next generation biofuels, or cellulosic biofuels, will be made from non-edible, fibrous parts of plants like switchgrass. As part of the study, the researchers created models to simulate how a cellulosic biofuel refinery would handle carbon capture and storage.

"What we found is that around half of the carbon in the switchgrass that comes into the refinery becomes a byproduct that would be available for carbon capture and storage," said John Field, research scientist at Colorado State University and lead author on the study. "The resulting byproduct streams of high-purity carbon dioxide would not require much separation or clean-up before being stored underground."

These cellulosic biofuels are considered carbon negative because they remove and store more carbon dioxide than they emit into the atmosphere when used as a fuel source.

"We need negative carbon systems," Richard said. "Ideally, they're going to be profitable systems that can be the foundation for a carbon negative, climate positive economy. And if we build that economy based on photosynthesis, like we've demonstrated in this case, then we have a path toward growing our economy at the same time we address climate change."

Scientists said because of the current delays in tackling climate change, it's imperative to take a more proactive stance on biofuels and other negative emissions technologies if countries like the U.S. want to limit the impacts of global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Institute of Food and Agriculture, the Department of Energy's Center for Bioenergy Innovation and the São Paulo Research Foundation in Brazil provided funding for this research.

Other researchers on the project were Lee Lynd and Mark Laser, Dartmouth College, Hao Cai, Michael Wang and Zhangcai Qin, Argonne National Laboratory, David LaBauer, University of Arizona, Stephen Long, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Keith Paustian and John Sheehan, Colorado State, and Pete Smith, University of Aberdeen.

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Advanced biofuels show promise for replacing some fossil fuels | Penn State University

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Plant-based biofuels can play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and growing these crops in certain landscapes offers net climate benefits compared to other land use options, according to a team of international scientists.

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Emergence of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 2 in China in 2020

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Emergence of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 2 in China in 2020

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Academic article to practise reading

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Fang Wang

Corresponding Author

E-mail address: rwangfang@126.com
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8808-8531
Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biologicals Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio‐Products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing, China
Correspondence
Fang Wang, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biologicals Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-Products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing 210014, China.

Email: rwangfang@126.com
Search for more papers by this author

First published:

Bo Hu, Houjun Wei and Zhiyu Fan contributed equally to this work.

Abstract

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) is an acute fatal disease caused by the Lagovirus rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), which was first reported in 1984 in China. Strains of two different genotypes (GI.1a and GI.1c) have been detected in China to date. In 2010, a new RHDV variant with a unique genetic and antigenic profile was identified in France, designated RHDV2, which rapidly spread throughout continental Europe and nearby islands. Here, we report the first outbreak of RHD induced by RHDV2 (GI.2) in rabbit farms in the Sichuan province of China. We conducted haemagglutination tests and phylogenetic analysis of the new RHDV isolate SC2020/04, which was identified as a non‐haemagglutinating strain belonging to the RHDV2 (GI.2) genogroup. Considering the serious risk of RHDV2 to the Chinese rabbit industry, the circulation of RHDV2 in the population should be carefully monitored in China.

1 INTRODUCTION

China is highly ranked in the global rabbit industry, accounting for 43% of the worldwide slaughtered rabbits with 44% of the global share of rabbit meat output (Wu, Seema, & Huang, 2016). Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) of the family Caliciviridae, genus Lagovirus, causes high morbidity and mortality in rabbits. Over 90% of RHDV‐infected adult rabbits die owing to fulminant hepatic failure within 3 days of infection (Park, Lee, & Itakura, 1995). RHDV was first reported in China in 1984. However, a new RHDV‐related virus designated RHDV2 was detected, for the first time, in France in 2010 (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2013), and subsequently spread to other countries in Europe, Australia, America and Africa (Abrantes et al., 2013; Lopes, Rouco, Esteves, & Abrantes, 2019; Mahar et al., 2018; Puggioni et al., 2013; Rouco et al., 2018).

Based on phylogenetic analyses of RHDV VP60 sequences, RHDV was divided into classical RHDV G1‐G5 and G6 or RHDVa (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2003) and the new strain named RHDV2 (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2013). In 2017, a new RHDV nomenclature was proposed that changed G1, G2, G3‐G5 and G6 to GI.1b, GI.1c, GI.1d and GI.1a, respectively, and RHDV2 was called GI.2 (Le Pendu et al., 2017). To date, only two RHDV genotypes were known to be present in China, G2 (GI.1a) and G6 (GI.1c; Hu et al., 2017). Here, we report a new RHDV isolate collected from three infected rabbits at farms in the Sichuan province of China in April 2020, representing the first report of GI.2 in China.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Haemagglutination test

Liver samples collected from three infected rabbits were frozen and stored at −70°C. Liver samples were homogenized (20% in phosphate‐buffered saline [PBS]), frozen at −70°C and thawed twice. The haemagglutination test (Hu et al., 2016) was carried out in U‐shaped microtitre plates containing 50 μl of PBS (pH 6.5). Fifty‐microlitre suspensions of homogenized liver samples were twofold serially diluted and placed in U‐shaped plates; they were then further incubated with an equal volume of 1% human O erythrocytes at 4°C, 25°C or 37°C. The haemagglutination was visually determined 30 min later. RHDV isolate WF/China/2007 (GenBank accession number: FJ794180) was used as a positive control.

2.2 Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction

The full‐length of the vp60 gene sequence was amplified by Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) using the Reverse Transcriptase XL (AMV) kit (Takara Bio) and the Ex Taq kit (Takara Bio). A specific primer pair (sense, 5'‐AAGAGAGTCGTCTCGGTAGTA‐3' and antisense 5'‐GCGCCTGCAAGTCCCAATCC‐3') was used as described previously (Duarte et al., 2014). The vp60 gene was then cloned into a pMD‐19T vector (Takara Bio). Positive clones were sequenced and analysed further.

2.3 Phylogenetic analysis

Phylogenetic analysis of vp60 gene sequences was performed using MEGA 7 (Kumar, Stecher, & Tamura, 2016) with the maximum‐likelihood approach based on the Kimura two‐parameter model. Reliability of the nodes was assessed with a bootstrap resampling procedure consisting of 1,000 replicates.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The clinical symptoms and pathological changes in the dead rabbits were similar to those of rabbit haemorrhagic disease. The mortality rate was more than 70% (approximately 1,300 rabbits died), although weaning rabbits had been immunized with a commercial inactivated RHD vaccine. Importantly, most of the unweaned rabbits died of the disease, indicating that RHDV2 might be the causal pathogen because RHDV2 is able to fatally affect a high proportion of young rabbits.

Compared with the positive control, the new isolate failed to haemagglutinate at 4, 25 and 37 (haemagglutination titres ≤ 1:20). Given that the haemagglutination test remains the routine diagnostic method for RHDV in China, this non‐haemagglutinating characteristic warrants further attention in the detection of clinical samples.

The new isolate exhibits the highest nucleotide sequence identity with the NL2016 strain from the Netherlands (98.3%; GenBank accession number: MN061492), which corresponds to RHDV2. Phylogenetic analysis was employed to determine the evolution of the new isolate. As shown in Figure 1, the new isolate is in the same branch of the other RHDV2 strains. These results support the conclusion that the isolate collected from the Sichuan province of China in 2020 belongs to the RHDV2 (GI.2) genogroup, which was designated strain SC2020/04 (GenBank accession number: MT383749). This represents the first outbreak of RHDV2‐induced RHD in rabbit farms in China. We previously classified all RHDV isolates in China collected before 2017 in GI.1 (Hu et al., 2017); therefore, the present finding indicates the potential for co‐circulation of RHDV and RHDV2 in China. Indeed, RHDV2 (GI.2) was reported to replace RHDV (GI.1) in some countries, including Portugal, Sweden and Australia (Lopes et al., 2014; Mahar et al., 2018; Neimanis et al., 2018). In addition, recombinant events between GI.2 and other genotypes have been reported (Almeida et al., 2015; Lopes et al., 2015; Silverio et al., 2018). Considering the distinct serotype from RHDV (GI.1), high risk of RHDV2 (GI.2) to the Chinese rabbit industry, and limited level of cross protection induced by RHDV/RHDVa vaccine against RHDV2, ongoing surveillance and vaccine formulation update are most imminent requirements for control of the disease induced by RHDV2 in China.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by the funds earmarked for the China Agriculture Research System (No. CARS‐43‐C‐1) and National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2018YFD0502203). We would like to thank Editage for English language editing.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION

Bo Hu: Investigation; Writing‐original draft. Houjun Wei: Investigation; Writing‐review & editing. Zhiyu Fan: Investigation; Writing‐review & editing. Yanhua Song: Writing‐review & editing. Mengmeng Chen: Writing‐review & editing. Rulong Qiu: Software. Weifeng Zhu: Writing‐review & editing. Weizhong Xu: Investigation. Jiabin Xue: Investigation. Fang Wang: Conceptualization; Resources; Writing‐review & editing.

ETHICAL APPROVAL

The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal have been adhered to. The collection of the liver samples was performed in strict accordance with the guidelines of Jiangsu Province Animal Regulations (Government Decree No. 45).

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Early View
Online Version of Record before inclusion in an issue

Abstract

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) is an acute fatal disease caused by the Lagovirus rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), which was first reported in 1984 in China. Strains of two different genotypes (GI.1a and GI.1c) have been detected in China to date. In 2010, a new RHDV variant with a unique genetic and antigenic profile was identified in France, designated RHDV2, which rapidly spread throughout continental Europe and nearby islands. Here, we report the first outbreak of RHD induced by RHDV2 (GI.2) in rabbit farms in the Sichuan province of China. We conducted haemagglutination tests and phylogenetic analysis of the new RHDV isolate SC2020/04, which was identified as a non‐haemagglutinating strain belonging to the RHDV2 (GI.2) genogroup. Considering the serious risk of RHDV2 to the Chinese rabbit industry, the circulation of RHDV2 in the population should be carefully monitored in China.

1 INTRODUCTION

China is highly ranked in the global rabbit industry, accounting for 43% of the worldwide slaughtered rabbits with 44% of the global share of rabbit meat output (Wu, Seema, & Huang, 2016). Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) of the family Caliciviridae, genus Lagovirus, causes high morbidity and mortality in rabbits. Over 90% of RHDV‐infected adult rabbits die owing to fulminant hepatic failure within 3 days of infection (Park, Lee, & Itakura, 1995). RHDV was first reported in China in 1984. However, a new RHDV‐related virus designated RHDV2 was detected, for the first time, in France in 2010 (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2013), and subsequently spread to other countries in Europe, Australia, America and Africa (Abrantes et al., 2013; Lopes, Rouco, Esteves, & Abrantes, 2019; Mahar et al., 2018; Puggioni et al., 2013; Rouco et al., 2018).

Based on phylogenetic analyses of RHDV VP60 sequences, RHDV was divided into classical RHDV G1‐G5 and G6 or RHDVa (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2003) and the new strain named RHDV2 (Le Gall‐Recule et al., 2013). In 2017, a new RHDV nomenclature was proposed that changed G1, G2, G3‐G5 and G6 to GI.1b, GI.1c, GI.1d and GI.1a, respectively, and RHDV2 was called GI.2 (Le Pendu et al., 2017). To date, only two RHDV genotypes were known to be present in China, G2 (GI.1a) and G6 (GI.1c; Hu et al., 2017). Here, we report a new RHDV isolate collected from three infected rabbits at farms in the Sichuan province of China in April 2020, representing the first report of GI.2 in China.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Haemagglutination test

Liver samples collected from three infected rabbits were frozen and stored at −70°C. Liver samples were homogenized (20% in phosphate‐buffered saline [PBS]), frozen at −70°C and thawed twice. The haemagglutination test (Hu et al., 2016) was carried out in U‐shaped microtitre plates containing 50 μl of PBS (pH 6.5). Fifty‐microlitre suspensions of homogenized liver samples were twofold serially diluted and placed in U‐shaped plates; they were then further incubated with an equal volume of 1% human O erythrocytes at 4°C, 25°C or 37°C. The haemagglutination was visually determined 30 min later. RHDV isolate WF/China/2007 (GenBank accession number: FJ794180) was used as a positive control.

2.2 Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction

The full‐length of the vp60 gene sequence was amplified by Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) using the Reverse Transcriptase XL (AMV) kit (Takara Bio) and the Ex Taq kit (Takara Bio). A specific primer pair (sense, 5'‐AAGAGAGTCGTCTCGGTAGTA‐3' and antisense 5'‐GCGCCTGCAAGTCCCAATCC‐3') was used as described previously (Duarte et al., 2014). The vp60 gene was then cloned into a pMD‐19T vector (Takara Bio). Positive clones were sequenced and analysed further.

2.3 Phylogenetic analysis

Phylogenetic analysis of vp60 gene sequences was performed using MEGA 7 (Kumar, Stecher, & Tamura, 2016) with the maximum‐likelihood approach based on the Kimura two‐parameter model. Reliability of the nodes was assessed with a bootstrap resampling procedure consisting of 1,000 replicates.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The clinical symptoms and pathological changes in the dead rabbits were similar to those of rabbit haemorrhagic disease. The mortality rate was more than 70% (approximately 1,300 rabbits died), although weaning rabbits had been immunized with a commercial inactivated RHD vaccine. Importantly, most of the unweaned rabbits died of the disease, indicating that RHDV2 might be the causal pathogen because RHDV2 is able to fatally affect a high proportion of young rabbits.

Compared with the positive control, the new isolate failed to haemagglutinate at 4, 25 and 37 (haemagglutination titres ≤ 1:20). Given that the haemagglutination test remains the routine diagnostic method for RHDV in China, this non‐haemagglutinating characteristic warrants further attention in the detection of clinical samples.

The new isolate exhibits the highest nucleotide sequence identity with the NL2016 strain from the Netherlands (98.3%; GenBank accession number: MN061492), which corresponds to RHDV2. Phylogenetic analysis was employed to determine the evolution of the new isolate. As shown in Figure 1, the new isolate is in the same branch of the other RHDV2 strains. These results support the conclusion that the isolate collected from the Sichuan province of China in 2020 belongs to the RHDV2 (GI.2) genogroup, which was designated strain SC2020/04 (GenBank accession number: MT383749). This represents the first outbreak of RHDV2‐induced RHD in rabbit farms in China. We previously classified all RHDV isolates in China collected before 2017 in GI.1 (Hu et al., 2017); therefore, the present finding indicates the potential for co‐circulation of RHDV and RHDV2 in China. Indeed, RHDV2 (GI.2) was reported to replace RHDV (GI.1) in some countries, including Portugal, Sweden and Australia (Lopes et al., 2014; Mahar et al., 2018; Neimanis et al., 2018). In addition, recombinant events between GI.2 and other genotypes have been reported (Almeida et al., 2015; Lopes et al., 2015; Silverio et al., 2018). Considering the distinct serotype from RHDV (GI.1), high risk of RHDV2 (GI.2) to the Chinese rabbit industry, and limited level of cross protection induced by RHDV/RHDVa vaccine against RHDV2, ongoing surveillance and vaccine formulation update are most imminent requirements for control of the disease induced by RHDV2 in China.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by the funds earmarked for the China Agriculture Research System (No. CARS‐43‐C‐1) and National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2018YFD0502203). We would like to thank Editage for English language editing.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION

Bo Hu: Investigation; Writing‐original draft. Houjun Wei: Investigation; Writing‐review & editing. Zhiyu Fan: Investigation; Writing‐review & editing. Yanhua Song: Writing‐review & editing. Mengmeng Chen: Writing‐review & editing. Rulong Qiu: Software. Weifeng Zhu: Writing‐review & editing. Weizhong Xu: Investigation. Jiabin Xue: Investigation. Fang Wang: Conceptualization; Resources; Writing‐review & editing.

ETHICAL APPROVAL

The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal have been adhered to. The collection of the liver samples was performed in strict accordance with the guidelines of Jiangsu Province Animal Regulations (Government Decree No. 45).

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Emergence of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 2 in China in 2020

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Fang Wang Corresponding Author E-mail address: rwangfang@126.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8808-8531 Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biologicals Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio‐Products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing, China Correspondence Fang Wang, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biologicals Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-Products, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing 210014, China.

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COVID-19 from veterinary medicine and one health perspectives: What animal coronaviruses have taught us

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COVID-19 from veterinary medicine and one health perspectives: What animal coronaviruses have taught us

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Academic article to practise reading

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1. Introduction

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses displaying an exceptional genetic plasticity driven by accumulation of point mutations and recombination events. This genetic variation is responsible for continuous emergence of viral strains with increased virulence, different tissue tropism and/or expanded host range (Buonavoglia et al., 2006). CoVs are currently classified within four genera, Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus, that recognise bats, birds and likely rodents as natural reservoirs.

In December 2019, cases of undiagnosed pneumonia started being reported in Wuhan, Hubei, China. On January 9 2020, the Chinese authorities indicated that a novel CoV was associated with the severe respiratory disease. The first patient with unexplained pneumonia, identified in December 8 2019, came from Wuhan South China Seafood Market. Initially, other patients were linked to the same seafood and live animal market, suggesting an animal origin for the initial spread to humans. Subsequent investigations revealed that the crowded seafood market only boosted circulation of the novel CoV and spread it to the whole city in early December 2019, whereas based on the genome data the virus likely began spreading from person to person in early December or even as early as late November. The first documented human case has been dated back to November 17 2019.

The novel human CoV (HCoV) is a betacoronavirus genetically related to Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) CoV and only distantly related to Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV) and it was designated as SARS type 2 CoV (SARS-CoV-2). Similar to the other hypervirulent HCoVs, SARS-CoV-2 has a putative animal origin, likely descended from a related bat CoV that spilled over to humans either directly or after adaptation in another animal species, such as the Malayan pangolin (Lam et al., 2020). SARS-CoV-2 is highly related genetically (96% nt) to a SARS-like bat CoV (Zhou et al., 2020)

The SARS-CoV-2 induced disease, referred to as CoronaVirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), affects the respiratory tract, with a number of patients displaying severe pneumonia and requiring hospitalisation and admission to intermediate or intensive care units. Unlike SARS and MERS, COVID-19 is characterised by low lethality rates and high frequency of asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic infections that likely favoured the spread of this new pandemic (Lai et al., 2020). As SARS-CoV-2 started spreading globally, between February and March 2020, potential spill over exposure (viral RNA) was noted in companion animals, likely due to their strict social interactions with humans. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in two dogs and a cat without clinical signs in Hong Kong and in a cat with gastroenteric and respiratory signs in Bruxelles, all which lived in close contact with infected COVID-19 human patients., This noted analogous findings observed during the 2002-2003 spread of SARS-CoV.

2. Animal coronaviruses: the experience of veterinary medicine

Before the emergence of SARS-CoV, the first highly pathogenic HCoV, information was very scarce about HCoVs, whereas there was extensive knowledge in veterinary medicine about animal CoVs, their evolution and pathobiology. Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) of poultry and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) have been known since the early 1900, representing animal examples on how CoVs can evolve, changing their tissue tropism and virulence (Decaro and Lorusso, in press). In addition, swine CoVs are paradigmatic on how CoVs may cross the species barriers infecting new hosts. Transmissible gastroenteritis virus of swine (TGEV, alphacoronavirus), likely originated from the closely related canine coronavirus (CCoV) (Lorusso et al., 2008) and in turn TGEV gave rise to the less virulent porcine respiratory CoV (PRCoV). Also, a TGEV-like CCoV was generated by recombination in the N terminal end of the S gene (Decaro et al., 2009). Two additional swine alphacoronaviruses emerged more recently, the porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) and the severe acute diarrhoea syndrome CoV (SADS-CoV), both derived from CoVs circulating in bats. The betacoronavirus porcine haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) was a derivative of bovine CoV, which in turn is believed to have descended from a bat virus through adaptation in a rodent species. More recently, porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), the causative agent of severe diarrhoea outbreaks in North America and Asia, emerged from avian deltacoroviruses (Wang et al., 2019). The observed repeated events of inter-species transmission by animal CoVs rely on the exceptional ability of CoVs to expand their host range. This strongly supports the natural origin of SARS-CoV-2, confuting conspiracy theories of a laboratory origin (Liu et al., 2020).

Animal CoVs may also represent excellent host models for development of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, which could require much more time than initially anticipated. The majority of vaccines licensed for the veterinary market have been developed for CoVs causing enteric infections, such as BCoV and the swine CoVs TGEV and PEDV. These vaccines are intended for parenteral use in pregnant cows/sows or oral use in sows (TGEV, PEDV) to transfer maternal immunity to their offspring and protect them in the first weeks of life, when they are more susceptible to severe of disease. These vaccines take advantage of different technologies, since BCoV/TGEV vaccines are inactivated or modified-live virus (MLV) formulations that are produced according to traditional protocols. For PEDV prophylaxis, in addition to killed and MLV preparations, vector-based vaccines expressing the spike protein are commercially available (Gerdts and Zakhartchouk, 2017; ). BCoV is also responsible for respiratory disease in 2-3 month-old calves or older animals, but specific vaccines currently are not available for prevention of the respiratory disease (Decaro et al., 2008). Also, some vaccines (i.e., CCoV) have been introduced into the market, used for years and later abandoned, after cost-effectiveness evaluations. The CCoV vaccines were administered parenterally, induced good systemic but poor mucosal immunity and did not protect pups against infection with virulent virus (Pratelli et al., 2003, Pratelli et al., 2004; Decaro et al., 2011).

The only licensed animal CoV vaccines targeted to prevent respiratory CoV infections are IBV vaccines for chickens. These vaccines, administered parenterally, may not protect against the infection but they can reduce the severity of the respiratory signs and prevent involvement of the kidney and reproductive tract (). One of the main issues of parenteral vaccination against respiratory CoVs in animals is that it does not trigger strong local immunity, usually represented by mucosal immunoglobulin A (IgA). Mucosal immunity, even if not preventing the infection, is able to reduce viral shedding (in terms of duration and extent) and the severity of the respiratory disease. Also this may be the case for SARS-CoV-2, which primarily affects the respiratory tract and, to a lesser extent, the enteric tract, with limited viremia and/or systemic involvement (Wong et al., 2020). Also, the duration of immunity elicited by natural infection with SARS-CoV-2 is not known yet. For animal CoVs, immunity after infection may be of short duration. For instance, feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) may induce short-term immunity that does not confer protection from reinfections. FECV is an avirulent biotype of feline coronavirus (FCoV) and it is the precursor of the hypervirulent biotype FIPV (Addie et al., 2020b). Interestingly, FIP vaccines are paradigmatic of how difficult the development of vaccines against human CoVs may be. FIP is a sporadic but highly lethal disease of cats that originates as a consequence of the switch from FECV to FIPV due to specific mutations in the spike protein gene (Chang et al., 2012). Despite considerable efforts so far, no effective FIPV vaccine has been developed. One of the main issues is that most experimental vaccines triggered an antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) mechanism, which causes a more severe disease in immunised animals than in control cats after virus challenge (German et al., 2004). ADE is triggered by antibody-mediated virus entry into macrophages via Ig Fc receptors and might represent an obstacle to the development of SARS-CoV-2 specific vaccines (Rauch et al., 2018). An alternative mechanism for ADE has been described recently for MERS-CoV, for which neutralizing antibodies bind to the spike protein, triggering a conformational change of the spike and mediating viral entry into IgG Fc receptor-expressing cells through canonical viral-receptor-dependent pathways (Wan et al., 2020). Analogous to cats affected by FIP, in human patients with severe COVID-19, a cytokine storm syndrome is frequently observed that requires treatment of hyperinflammation to reduce fatality rates. This cytokine storm, which at the same time causes immunosuppression, is characterised by increased interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-7, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, interferon-γ inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α, and tumour necrosis factor-α (Mehta et al., 2020). Notably, a similar cytokine pattern is observed in cats with FIP (Paltrinieri, 2008). Tocilizumab, an IL-6 receptor blocker monoclonal antibody, seems to be highly effective in reducing the severity of SARS-CoV-2 induced pneumonia (Favalli et al., 2020).

A number of antivirals have been tested to control FIP. After several unsuccessful attempts, research efforts have focused on two promising antiviral classes, namely protease inhibitors and nucleoside analogues, which inhibit viral replication either by blocking viral polyprotein cleavage or terminating viral RNA transcription. Treatment of cats with naturally occurring FIP with the 3C-like protease inhibitor GC376 induced a significant remission of disease signs and regression of lesions in 19/20 animals, although only six of these animals remained in remission for a long period (Pedersen et al., 2018). In contrast, long-term and repeated treatment with nucleoside analogue GS-441524 was successful in 25/26 cats with FIP, with only one animal not responding to retreatment (Pedersen et al., 2019). In addition, the same drug was able to stop faecal shedding of FECV in naturally infected cats (Addie et al., 2020a). Interestingly, a similar compound, the adenosine nucleoside monophosphate prodrug GS-5734, is the active molecule of remdesivir, largely employed as a potential antiviral against COVID-19. This drug was shown to be more effective than lopinavir, which, similar to GC376, acts against the viral 3C-like protease (Baden and Rubin, 2020).

3. Conclusions

Considering the long-term experience gained with animal CoVs, veterinary medicine could help to forge a better understanding of the origin and spread of SARS-CoV-2 and drive future research in human medicine towards the development of immunogenic and safe vaccines and effective antiviral drugs. The successes and failures encountered with prophylaxis and treatment of animal CoV diseases, such as FIP, might be useful to address issues related to COVID-19 in a One Health approach. Likewise the atypical pneumonia evident in pigs infected with PRCV, despite mild clinical signs, and the pneumonia in cattle triggered by BCoV in complex with respiratory bacteria and the stress of transport, may provide models to understand factors that precipitate severe pneumonia in COVID-19 patients.

Progressive deforestation and anthropization of natural environments have largely compromised some ecological niches where CoVs of wildlife are usually confined. Also, human consumption of endangered wildlife, even if not demonstrated to play a role in the onset of SARS-CoV-2, should be restricted or banned, particularly in the unsanitary conditions prevalent in live animal markets. Considering that animal CoVs spilled over into humans in three different occasions in the short time span of two decades, a more reverent management of the environment will be fundamental to prevent future emergence of pandemic CoVs. Under these circumstances, veterinary medicine should support policy makers to adopt and promote sound and sustainable measures for management of the environment and of animals and advance the global 'One Health' movement.

References

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COVID-19 from veterinary medicine and one health perspectives: What animal coronaviruses have taught us

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Coronaviruses (CoVs) are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses displaying an exceptional genetic plasticity driven by accumulation of point mutations and recombination events. This genetic variation is responsible for continuous emergence of viral strains with increased virulence, different tissue tropism and/or expanded host range (Buonavoglia et al., 2006 ).

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Prospects and Potential of Green Fuel from some Non Traditional Seed Oils Used as Biodiesel

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Prospects and Potential of Green Fuel from some Non Traditional Seed Oils Used as Biodiesel

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To practise reading and further discussion

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Open access peer-reviewed chapter

DOI: 10.5772/52031

chapter and author info

Authors

Mushtaq Ahmad*

Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

Lee Keat Teong

School of Chemical Engineering, University of Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

Muhammad Zafar

Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

Shazia Sultana

Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

Haleema Sadia

Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

Mir Ajab Khan

Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan

*Address all correspondence to: mushtaqflora@hotmail.com

DOI: 10.5772/52031

From the Edited Volume

Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications

Edited by Zhen Fang

1. Introduction

Today's diesel engines require a clean-burning, stable fuel that performs well under a variety of operating conditions. Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel that can be used directly in any existing, unmodified diesel engine. Because it has similar properties to petroleum diesel fuel, biodiesel can be blended in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. Many federal and state fleet vehicles in USA are already using biodiesel blends in their existing diesel engines (Harwood, 1981). The low emissions of biodiesel make it an ideal fuel for use in marine areas, national parks and forests, and heavily polluted cities. Biodiesel has many advantages as a transport fuel. For example, biodiesel can be produced from domestically grown oilseed plants. Producing biodiesel from domestic crops reduces the dependence on foreign petroleum, increases agricultural revenue, and creates jobs.

Presently world's energy needs are met through non-renewable resources such as petrochemicals, natural gas and coal. Since the demand and cost of petroleum based fuel is growing rapidly, and if present pattern of consumption continues, these resources will be depleted in near future. It is the need of time to explore alternative sources of fuel energy. An alternative fuel must be technically feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable and easily available. Fatty acid methyl esters derived from renewable sources such as vegetable oils has gained importance as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. The edible oils such as soybean oil in USA, rapeseed oil in Europe and palm oil in countries with tropical climate such as Malaysia are being used for the production of biodiesel ( Knothe, 2002).

1.1. Historical background

Biodiesel, an alternative diesel fuel, is made from renewable biological sources such as vegetable oils and animal fats. It is biodegradable and nontoxic, has low emission profiles and so far is environmentally beneficial ( Krawczyk, 1996). Bio-diesel production is not something new, because the concept of using vegetable oil as fuel dates back to 1895. Rudolf Diesel developed the first diesel engine which was run with vegetable oil in 1900. The first engine was run using groundnut oil as fuel ( Bijalwan et al., 2006). In 1911, Rudolf Diesel stated that the diesel engine can be fed with vegetable oil and would help considerably in the agricultural development of the countries which use it. In 1912, Rudolf Diesel said, the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become in course of time as important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the present time (Babu and Devaradjany, 2003). After eight decades, the awareness about environment rose among the people to search for an alternative fuel that could burn with less pollution. Rudolf Diesel's prediction is becoming true today with more and more bio-diesel being used all over the world. With the advent of cheap petroleum, appropriate crude oil fractions were refined to serve as fuel and diesel fuels and diesel engines evolved together. In the 1930s and 1940s vegetable oils were used as diesel fuels from time to time, but usually only in emergency situations. Recently, because of increases in crude oil prices, limited resources of fossil oil and environmental concerns there has been a renewed focus on vegetable oils and animal fats to make biodiesel fuels. Continued and increasing use of petroleum will intensify local air pollution and magnify the global warming problems caused by CO ₂ ( Shay, 1993). In a particular case, such as the emission of pollutants in the closed environments of underground mines, biodiesel fuel has the potential to reduce the level of pollutants and the level of potential or probable carcinogens ( Krawczyk, 1996).

Considerable research has been done on vegetable oils as diesel fuel. That research included palm oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil and tung oil. Animal fats, although mentioned frequently, have not been studied to the same extent as vegetable oils. Some methods applicable to vegetable oils are not applicable to animal fats because of natural property differences. Oil from algae, bacteria and fungi also has been investigated ( Shay, 1993). Terpenes and latexes also were studied as diesel fuels. Microalgae have been examined as a source of methyl ester diesel fuel ( Nagel and Lemke, 1990).

1.2. Sources of biodiesel

Alternative diesel fuels are made from natural, renewable sources such as vegetable oil and fats ( Ratledge et al., 1985; Lee et al., 1995). There are more than 350 oil-bearing crops identified, among which only soybean, palm, sunflower, safflower,cottonseed, rapeseed and peanut oils are considered as potential alternative fuels for diesel engines ( Pryor et al., 1982).

Vegetable oils are promising feedstocks for biodiesel production since they are renewable in nature, and can be produced on a large scale and environmentally friendly ( Patil & Deng, 2009). Vegetable oils include edible and non-edible oils. More than 95% of biodiesel production feed stocks come from edible oils since they are mainly produced in many regions and the properties of biodiesel produced from these oils are much suitable to be used as diesel fuel substitute ( Gui et al., 2008). However, it may cause some problems such as the competition with the edible oil market, which increases both the cost of edible oils and biodiesel ( Kansedo et al., 2009).

In order to overcome these disadvantages, many researchers are interested in non-edible oils which are not suitable for human consumption because of the presence of some toxic components in the oil. Non edible oil crops can be grown in waste lands that are not suitable for food crops and the cost of cultivation is much lower because these crops can still sustain reasonably high yield without intensive care ( Kumar et al., 2007; Gui et al., 2008)

Animal fats contain higher level of saturated fatty acids therefore they are solid at room temperature that may cause problems in the production process. Its cost is also higher than vegetable oils (Singh, 2009). The source of Biodiesel usually depends on the crops amenable to the regional climate. In the United States, soybean oil is the most commonly Biodiesel feedstock, whereas the rapeseed (canola) oil and palm oil are the most common source for Biodiesel, in Europe, and in tropical countries respectively ( Knothe, 2002). A suitable source to produce Biodiesel should not competent with other applications that rise prices, for example pharmaceutical raw materials. But the demand for pharmaceutical raw material is lower than for fuel sources. As much as possible the Biodiesel source should fulfill two requirements: low production costs and large production scale. Refined oils have high production costs, but low production scale; on the other side, non-edible seeds, algae and sewerage have low production costs and are more available than refined or recycled oils. The oil percentage and the yield per hectare are important parameters to consider as Biodiesel source.

Algae can grow practically in every place where there is enough sunshine. Some algae can grow in saline water. The most significant difference of algal oil is in the yield and hence its biodiesel yield. According to some estimates, the yield (per acre) of oil from algae is over 200 times the yield from the best-performing plant/vegetable oils ( Sheehan et al., 1998b).

1.3. Biodiesel production

The seed oils usually contain free fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, water, odorants and other impurities. Because of these the oil cannot be used as fuel directly. To overcome these problem the oil requires slight chemical modification mainly pyrolysis, microemulsion, dilution and transesterification. Pyrolysis is a method of conversion of one substance into another by mean of heat or by heat with the aid of the catalyst in the absence of air or oxygen (Sonntag, 1979). The process is simple, waste less, pollution free and effective compared with other cracking processes.

The vegetable oil is diluted with petroleum diesel to run the engine. Caterpillar Brazil, in 1980, used pre-combustion chamber engines with the mixture of 10% vegetable oil to maintain total power without any alteration or adjustment to the engine. At that point it was not practical to substitute 100% vegetable oil for diesel fuel, but a blend of 20% vegetable oil and 80% diesel fuel was successful. Some short-term experiments used up to a 50/50 ratio.

A micro emulsion define as a colloidal equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic fluid microstructure with dimensions generally into 1-150 range formed spontaneously from two normally immiscible liquids and one and more ionic or more ionic amphiphiles ( Schwab et al., 1988). They can improve spray characteristics by explosive vaporization of the low boiling constituents in micelles ( Pryde, 1984). The engine performances were the same for a microemultion of 53% sunflower oil and the 25% blend of sunflower oil in diesel ( Ziejewski et al., 1983). A microemulsion prepared by blending soyabean oil, methanol, and 2-octanol and cetane improver in ratio of 52.7:13.3:33.3:1.0 also passed the 200 h EMA test (Goering, 1984).

Transesterification or alcoholysis is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another in a process similar to hydrolysis, except than alcohol is used instead of water. This process has been widely used to reduce the high viscosity of triglycerides. A catalyst is usually used to improve the reaction rate and yield. Excess alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium toward the product because of reversible nature of reaction. For this purpose primary and secondary monohybrid aliphatic alcohols having 1-8 carbon atoms are used (Sprules and Price, 1950).

The main factors affecting transesterification are the alcohol to oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature and reaction time. The methanol to oil ratio needs to be higher than stoichiometric ratio to drive the equilibrium to a maximum ester yields. The molar ratio is associated with the type of vegetable oil used. Ikwuagwu et al., 2000 stated that molar ratio was 6: 1 for rubber seed oil. It was also undertaken sunflower oil was used (Vicente et al., 2005). Catalysts are classified as alkali, acid and alkali-alcoholic. Transesterification of jojoba oil catalysed with sodium metoxide ( Canoira et al., 2006). Sodium hydroxide was also choosen to catalyse the transesterification of rubber seed oil beacause it is cheaper. Different homogeneous catalysts were used to transesterify sunflower oil to obtain 100% biodiesel yield by using sodium methoxide catalyst (Vicente et al., 2005).

Transesterification consist of a number of consecutive, reversible reactions. It is usually reaction of vegetable or waste oil respectively with a low molecular weight alcohol, such as ethanol and methanol. During this process, the triglyceride molecule from vegetable oil is removed in the form of glycerin. The triglycerides are broken step wise into diglycerides, monoglyceride and finally converted into methyl esters and glycerol (Fig: 1).

There are various types of transesterification that includes based, acid and lipase catalyzed. The petroleum and other fossil fuels contain sulfur, ring molecules & aromatics while the biodiesel molecules are very simple hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulfur, ring molecules or aromatics. Biodiesel is thus essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. Biodiesel is made up of almost 10% oxygen, making it a naturally "oxygenated" fuel (Noureddini & Zhu).

1.4. Biodiesel Scenario at Global Level

Use of bio-diesel is catching up all over the world especially in developed countries.

In Malaysia, the tropical climate encourages production of bio-diesel from palm oil ( Meher et al., 2006; Lam and Lee, 2011).

The United States is contributing 25% of the world green house gases: i.e., oil and coal. We also need to reorganize its 70% of oil consumption is in transportation. The cost of bio-diesel is $3.00 a gallon. With the tax subsidy available in the law now, it could be sold for about $1.80. It is clearly known that the future depends on bio-fuels as replacement for fossil fuels. At present, USA uses 50 million gallons and European countries use 350 million gallons of bio-diesel annually. It is mixed with 20% of bio-diesel in fossil diesel.

France is the country which uses 50% of bio-diesel mixed with diesel fuel.

In Zimbabwe, 4 million jatropha has been planted in 2000 ha by the end of 1997.

In Nicaragua, one million Jatropha curcas has been planted in 1000 ha. The harvest of pods reached 333000 tonnes in the 5th year with a seed of 5000 tonnes and the oil extracted was approximately 1600 tonnes per annum.

In Nepal, 22.5 ha of area are planted with 40,000 rooted cuttings of Jatropha curcas. The rural women co-operative have been trained to extract oil, produce soap and use 30:70 mix (oil/kerosene) of oil and kerosene in stove without smoke ( Bijalwan et al., 2006; Paramathama et al., 2007).

1.5. Non traditional seed oils

Various plant resources either edible or non-edible are used for biodiesel production. While in this study three oil seed plants i.e. wild safflower, safflower and milk thistle belonging to family Asteraceae were selected as non edible oil feed stocks for biodiesel production. These oil seeds are considered as nontraditional energy crops as these are un commonly cultivated and mainly found as weed. The raw material (crude oil) from these oil seeds can be used as a feed stock for biodiesel production.
Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb.
Carthamus oxyacantha M. B. ( Figure 9) is a spiny-leaved annual herb up to 1.5 m tall commonly known as Wild Safflower. It is a hardy and xerophytic noxious weed of winter crops. Like other spiny plants in the genus Carthamus, this species is not eaten by livestock, enabling it to spread on grazing lands. It also competes with and reduces the yield of cereal crops. It is a valuable source of non edible and drying oil (28-29% oil content) from waste lands ( Deshpande, 1952). However, it was almost eradicated through regular campaigns due to noxious weedy nature. Fruit an achene, obovate or elliptic, 3-5.5 mm long, 2-3.5 mm wide, 1.5-2 mm thick, truncate at apex, marginal notch at base, cross sectional outline broadly elliptic to slightly 4-sided. Glabrous, smooth and glossy, bone-white to ivory, less frequently beige, with densely distributed blotches and speckles in shades of brown. Scar subbasal, an outlined, diamond-shaped cavity containing a rough, vertical ridge. Pappus early deciduous, absent. Apex a round, rough, flat to uneven area, surrounded by irregularly edged black ring; style base deciduous. Embryo spatulate, cotyledons broad; endosperm absent. It is widely distributed in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, India, Iran, Iraq, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan. Carthamus oxycantha seeds yields two types of oils: oleic oil and linoleic oil. Fatty acid oil composition of oleic oil is, palmitic acid 5-6%, stearic acid 1.5 -2%, oleic acid 74-80%, linoleic acid 13-18% and traces of linoleic acid and longer chain fatty acids. The fatty acid composition of linoleic oil, palmitic acid 5-8%, stearic acid 2-3%, oleic acid 8-30%, linoleic acid 67-89% and also traces of linoleic acid and longer chain fatty acids. Carthamus oxycantha fruit also contains proteins 20-25%, hull 60%, residual fat 2-15%. Flowers of Carthamus oxycantha contain two major pigments, the water soluble, yellow carthamidin and the formally important dye carthamin, flavonone which is orange red ( Fernandez-Martinez et al., 1993; Anjani, 2005). Flowers also contain 0.3-0.6% carthamin. Flavonoids, glycosides, sterols and serotonin derivatives have been identified from flowers and seeds ( Figure 10) ( Firestone, 1999). Two new glycosides, 2-O-methylglucopyranosyl-carthamoside and beta-D-fructofuranosyl carthamoside, along with the known compound 3', 4', 5, 7-tetrahydroxyflavanone have been isolated from Carthamus oxyacantha using recycling preparative HPLC. The structures of these compounds were established by mass spectrometric and extensive spectroscopic analysis ( Hassan et al., 2010). This oil seed plant is commonly found as noxious weed after harvesting of cash crop wheat. Throughout the world due to its weedy nature it is generally burnt after wheat harvesting, while in this study it is targeted as energy crop for biodiesel production.
Carthamus tinctorious L. (Safflower)
Safflower is cultivated nontraditional seed oil crop which contains a higher percentage of essential unsaturated fatty acids and a lower percentage of saturated fatty acids than other vegetable seed oils. The oil, light colored and easily clarified, is used in liqueurs, candles, and as a drying oil in paints, linoleum, varnishes, and wax cloths. The flowers ( Figure 11) have been the source of yellow and red dyes, largely replaced by synthetics, but still used in rouge. Annual thistle-like herb, branching above with a strong central stem to 1-2 m tall; leaves spiny, oblong or lanceolate, the upper ones clasping, minutely spinose-toothed; flowers in 1-6 heads per plant, 3-4.5 cm across, each head developing 20-60 seeds; corollas yellow, orange, white or red, surrounded by a cluster of leafy spiny bracts, which pass over gradually into the bracts of the involucre; achenes (fruits or seeds) ( Figure 12) white, 7-9 mm long, shining. Many cultivars have been developed differing in flower color, degree of spininess, head size, oil content, resistance to disease and ease of harvest. Most common varieties have yellow or orange flowers, but red and white flowered varieties are known. Reported from the Central Asian and Near Eastern Center of Diversity, safflower thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, drought, frost, fungus, high pH, phage, salt, sand, rust, virus, wind, and wild. Wu and Jain (1977) discuss germplasm diversity in the World Collections of Safflower. (2 n = 24, 32). Believed to have originated in southern Asia and is known to have been cultivated in China, India, Pakistan, Persia and Egypt almost from prehistoric times. During Middle Ages it was cultivated in Italy, France, and Spain, and soon after discovery of America, the Spanish took it to Mexico and then to Venezuela and Colombia. It was introduced into United States in 1925 from the Mediterranean region and is now grown in all parts west of 100th meridian. Safflower grows in the temperate zone in areas where wheat and barley do well, and grows slowly during periods of cool short days in early part of season. Seedlings can withstand temperatures lower than many species; however, varieties differ greatly in their tolerance to frost; in general, frost damages budding and flowering thus reducing yields and quality. It thrives in heavy clays with good waterholding capacity, but will grow satisfactorily in deep sandy or clay loams with good drainage, and needs soil moisture from planting through flowering, Soils approaching neutral pH are best ( Duke, 1978, 1979). Propagation is by seed, which are usually pretreated with insecticides and fungicides. Same machinery used for small grains may be used for planting, cultivation and harvesting. Seed should be planted in a soil prepared and completely free of seeds, when the soil temperature is about 4.4°C and the upper 10 cm of soil is moist. Seed germinates quickly at 15.5°C. Safflower matures in from 110-160 days from planting to harvest as a spring crop, as most of it is grown, and from 200 or more days as fall crop. It should be harvested when the plant is thoroughly dried. Since the seeds do not shatter easily, it may be harvested by direct combining. The crop is allowed to dry in the fields before threshing. Its average yields are 1,900 kg/ha, but yields above 4,500 kg/ha are not uncommon; in the Great Plains yields run about 850 kg/ha (C.S.I.R., 1948-1976). The world low production yield was 244 kg/ha in Israel, the international production yield was 789 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was 1,900 kg/ha in U.S.A. Yields higher than 4,000 kg/ha have been attained. Oil yields approach 50%, leaving a meal with ca 21% protein, 35% fiber, and 1-3% fat. Safflower is self-pollinated with some cross-pollination. Pollen and nectaries are abundant with insect working the flowers. Safflower is attacked by many fungi: Alternaria carthami (leaf spot and bud rot), A. zinniae, Bremia lactucae, Cercospora carthami, Cercosporella carthami, Carthamus tinctorious is only cultivated species of genus Carthamus commonly known as Safflower. It is cultivated since ancient times for not only the dye obtained from its flowers and medicinal uses but also for its seed oil and ornamental purposes.
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner
Milk thistle ( Silybum marianum Gaertn.) ( Figure 7) is a winter annual or a biennial. Its current distribution includes most temperate areas of the world. It is a broad-leaved species belonging to Asteraceae that reaches a height of 200-250 cm. Milk thistle is grown commercially as a medicinal plant in Europe, Egypt, China, and Argentina but it has been reported as a noxious weed in many other countries. Stems glabrous or slightly tomentose. Leaves: basal wing-petioled, blades 15-60 cm, margins coarsely lobed; cauline leaves clasping, progressively smaller and less divided, bases spiny, coiled, auriculate. Phyllary appendages spreading, ovate, 1-4 cm including long-tapered spine tips. Corollas 26-35 mm; tubes 13-25 mm, throats campanulate, 2-3 mm, lobes 5-9 mm. Cypselae brown and black spotted, 6-8 mm; pappus scales 15-20 mm. 2 n = 34. Silybum marianum is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental, a minor vegetable, or as a medicinal herb. Young shoots can be boiled and eaten like cabbage and young leaves can be added to salads. The seeds ( Figure 8) can be used as a coffee substitute. Extracts of S. marianum are used as an herbal treatment for liver ailments. Milk thistle is toxic to livestock when consumed in large quantities, and it forms dense stands in pastures and rangelands. California reports up to 4 tons per acre in heavily infested areas. The leaves are very distinctive, with white marbling on the shiny green leaves. An annual or biennial, found in rough pasture, on grassy banks, in hedgerows and on waste ground. It is locally well-established and persistent, especially in coastal habitats in S. England, but is also a widespread casual. Lowland. Native of the Mediterranean region; naturalised or casual throughout much of Europe and in N. America and Australia. The plant grows wild in Egypt on canal banks and in wet ground regions in the Nile Valley. The soil supporting this plant is fine-textured and moist. It occurs in two types, the most abundant has purple flowers while the least abundant has white flowers ( Ahmad et al., 2008). Milk thistle is commonly found as a noxious weed in waste land and in along with cultivated filed of traditional crops. In this project this energy crop was first time reported as a feed stock for biodiesel production at global perspectives.

In this project these species were selected for biodiesel potential at global interest as renewable energy because of their oil which is non edible and species found as weeds on waste and marginal lands. The study conducted with aims to extract the seed oils from these resources for production of biodiesel through base catalyzed transesterification. Study may also confined to quality standards of biodiesel obtained from these species according to ASTM standards.

2. Methodology

The oil from these three resources was extracted by two methods;

1. Chemical method (Soxhlet Apparatus)

2. Mechanical method (Electric oil expeller) ( Figure 1-2)

The oil seeds were oven-dried at 40°C over night and then ground with blender. 250ml of petroleum ether was poured into round bottom flask. Five gram of the sample was placed in the thimble and inserted in the centre of the extractor. The Soxhlet was heated at 60 oC. When the solvent was boiling, the vapour rises through the vertical tube into the condenser at the top. The condensed liquid drips into the filter paper thimble in the centre, which contains the solid sample to be extracted. The extract seeps through the pores of the thimble and fills the siphon tube, where it flows back down into the round bottom flask. This process was allowed to continue for 3-4 hrs. Distinct layers of oil and petroleum ether appeared in round bottom flask. In this process of oil extraction, the solvent was recovered and reused. The resulting mixture containing oil was heated to evaporate solvent and weighed again to determine the amount of oil extracted. ( AOAC, 1990). While in electric oil expelling method oil was extracted mechanically from seeds by using electric oil expeller (KEK P0015, 10127) and crude oil was collected in beakers for further processing. After an average of 5-6 turns, the oil is fully extracted from seeds.

2.1. Determination of free fatty acid number of seed oils

Free fatty acid content of oil seeds was determined by aqueous acid-base titration (Trajkovic et al., 1983). Two types of titration were performed i.e. blank titration and sample titration. In case of blank titration 0.14 g KOH was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water to prepare 0.025M KOH solution and this solution was poured in burette. 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol and 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein were mixed in a conical flask and titrate it against 0.025 M KOH from burette until the color of solution became pink. Note the volume of KOH used. This was repeated three times to calculate mean volume of KOH used for blank titration. While in sample titration 9 ml isopropyl alcohol, 1 ml of wild safflower oil and 2-3 drops of phenolphathalein were taken in conical flask and titrate against 0.025M KOH from birette until end point i.e pink color appeared. Note the volume of KOH used and three readings were taken by repeating the same experiment to calculate the mean volume of KOH used to titrate the sample.

A = Volume used in Sample/Actual titration, B = Volume used in Blank titration

C = Mass of Catalyst in g/l, D = Volume of oil used

2.2. Biodiesel synthesis

The method used for synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters (Biodiesel) from crude oil was alkali catalyzed transesterificaton ( Ahmad et al., 2010) ( Figure 3,4,5 &6). There are numerous transesterification citations in the scientific and patent literature (Bradshaw and Meuly, 1944; Freedman et al., 1984; Freedman et al., 1986; Schwab et al., 1987; Allen et al., 1945; Trent, 1945; Tanaka et al., 1981; Wimmer, 1992b; Ma et al., 1998a; Ma et al 1 998b; and Ma et al. 1999 ). Crude oil contains impurties which could affect the quality, yield and process of transesterification. The filtration of crude oil was done by using whattmann paper NO: 42 (See Plate 1). The filtered oil was heated up to 125 oC on hot plate (VELP Scientifica F20520166) in order to decompose triglycerides into monoglycerides and diglycerides. Transesterification of one liter oil (Plate 2) was carried out for the production of methyl esters by using different alkali catalysts ( Ahmad et al., 2011). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) were used as catalyst. A specific amount of each alkali hydroxide (6.3 g for one liter oil) was added to methanol (200 ml) to make alkali methoxide which was used as a catalyst in reaction. The prepared methoxide was added to oil at 65 o C and stirred for 35-40 min at 600 rpm.

After stirring the reaction mixture was kept overnight at room temperature to settle down distinct layers i.e. upper thin layer of soap, middle layer of FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) and the bottom dense layer of glycerin. These layers were then separated through separating glass funnel. Biodiesel washing is done with ordinary tap water in order to remove impurities and suspended particles. 3-4 washings were performed for complete clearance of biodiesel. Few drops of acetic acid were also added. The residual water was eliminated by treatment with anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na ₂SO ₄₎ followed by filtration.

3. Results and discussion

The major share of all energy consumed worldwide comes from fossil sources (petroleum, coal and natural gas). However these sources are limited, and will be exhausted by the near future. Thus looking for alternative sources of new and renewable energy such as biomass is of vital importance. Alternative and renewable fuels have the potential to solve many of the current social problems and concerns, from air pollution to global warming to other environmental improvements and sustainability issues ( MacLeana and Laveb, 2003).

During the decade of 1930s and 1940s, neat vegetable oils were used in diesel engines under an emergency situation ( Ma and Hanna, 1999 ). Currently, most of the biodiesel is produced from the edible or vegetable oils using methanol and an alkaline catalyst such as sunflower (Vicente et al., 2004), canola ( Singh et al., 2006), palm ( Darnoko and Cheryman, 2000; Cheng et al., 2004), soybean oil ( Encinar et al., 2005) and waste vegetable oils ( Felizardo et al., 2006; Dorado et al., 2002; Cetinkaya and Karaosmanolu, 2004). However, large amount of non-edible oils and fats are available such as safflower ( Meka et al., 2007), Pongame ( Ahmad et al., 2009), Sesame ( Ahmad et al., 2011), and tigernut oil ( Ugheoke et al., 2007) have been intensively investigated as potential low priced biodiesel sources. This study supports the production of biodiesel from non edible seed oils i.e. (wild safflower, safflower and milk thistle oil biodiesl as a viable sources of alternative to the diesel fuel.

3.1. FAMEs production

The percentage conversion of oil to biodiesel with NaOH and KOH at 65 ⁰C is given in table 2. The results illustrated the greater oil to FAMEs conversion with NaOH as compared to KOH. The most common way to produce biodiesel is transesterification reaction in which triglycerides react with an alcohol to produce fatty acid mono-alkyl esters (Biodiesel) and glycerol. Methanol is the most common alcohol because of its low price compared to other alcohols. This reaction is referred as methanolysis. Generally transesterification is catalysed by a basic or an acid catalyst. However, the basic catalysts are the most commonly used in industry, because the process proves faster and the reaction conditions are moderated ( Freedman et al., 1984; Reid, 1911). In this project biodiesel was synthesized from wild safflower, safflower and milk thistle oil by base (NaOH and KOH) catalyzed transesterification with methanol. Most studies of the basic-catalysed transesterification of vegetable oils involve the calculations of the triglyceride conversion rate and the changes in product composition during reaction ( Feuge and Gros, 1949; Freedman et al., 1984, 1986; Schwab et al., 1987; Peterson et al., 1991; Mittelbach and Trathnigg, 1990; Chang et al., 1996; Mittelbach, 1996; Coteron et al., 1997; Boocock et al., 1998; Noureddini et al., 1998; Vicente et al., 1998; Darnoko and Cheryan, 2000).

3.2. Fuel properties

Biodiesel is characterized by their viscosity, density, cetane number, cloud and pour points, calorific value, distillation range, flash point, ash content, sulfur content, acid value, and phosphorus contents. These parameters are specified through the ASTM (American Standard Testing Methods) standards. This standard identifies the parameters the pure biodiesel (B100) must meet before being used as a pure fuel or being blended with petroleum-based diesel fuel. The properties of these oils methyl esters (B100) are given in table 3. These values are in the close range and comparable with high speed diesel (HSD).

The viscosity difference forms the basis of an analytical method, i.e. viscometry, applied to determine the conversion of vegetable oil to methyl ester. The viscosity difference between the componential triacylglycerols of vegetable oils and their corresponding methyl esters resulting from transesterification is approximately one digit ( Knothe, 2001). Kinematic viscosity has been included in biodiesel standards (1.9-6.0 mm2/s in ASTM D6751 and 3.5-5.0 mm2/s in EN 14214) ( Knothe, 2005). The viscosity of these oil biodiesel were near to ASTM standards. Biodiesels have a viscosity close to that of diesel fuels. As the oil temperature increases its viscosity decreases ( Sarin & Sharma, 2007). The lower the viscosity of the biodiesel, the easier it is to pump and atomize and achieve finer droplets (Goodrum, 2007). The calorific value of edible and non-edible methyl ester was lower than that of diesel because of their oxygen content. The presence of oxygen in the biodiesel helps for a complete combustion of the fuels in the engine ( Pramanik, 2003). Calorific value of these oil biodiesel were comparable to ASTM standard. The cetane number is one of the most commonly cited indicators of diesel fuel quality. It measures the readiness of the fuel to auto-ignite when injected into the engine. It is generally dependent on the composition of the fuel and can impact the engine's startability, noise level, and exhaust emissions. Cetane index of these three species were also in accordance with ASTM standards. The higher the cetane number, the more efficient the ignition is. Because of the higher oxygen content, biodiesel has a higher cetane number as compared to petroleum diesel. ( Arjun et al., 2008). Flash point is the important temperature specified for safety during transport, storage, and handling (Krisnangkura, 1992). Flash point of these oil methyl esters were found to be higher as compared to HSD. The flash point of bio-diesel is higher than the petro-diesel, which is safe for transport purpose. The ASTM standard for total acid number for pure biodiesel is 0.8 mg KOH/g. The TAN or acid value is the total amount of potassium hydroxide necessary to neutralize the free acids in biodiesel sample ( Arjun et al., 2008). Higher acid number could also cause degradation of rubber parts in older engines resulting in filter clogging The test result for the total acid number of these oil biodiesel were found to be ideal ( Guo & Leung, 2003). Two important parameters for low-temperature applications of a fuel are cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP). The CP is the temperature at which wax first becomes visible when the fuel is cooled. The cloud point of methyl ester produced from these oils were found to be in accordance with ASTM standards. The PP is the temperature at which the amount of wax from solution is sufficient to gel the fuel; thus it is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can flow. The pour point of methyl ester produced from these oil were near to HSD. Biodiesel has a higher CP and PP compared to conventional diesel. The cloud points were affected by the presence of monoglycerides, however, the pour points were not affected. Moreover, the cis double bond present in the erucic acid of rapeseed oil hampered the lowering of the pour point of esters. The type of fatty acid branched chain available in the original oil has an impact on the pour point ( Lee et al., 1995). Biodiesel contains virtually trace amount of sulfur, so SO ₂ emissions are reduced in direct proportion to the petrodiesel replacement (Demirbas, 2007). Sulpur contents in these three oil yielding plants were very low as compared to HSD.

4. Conclusion and recommendations

Based on above findings these three species of family Asteraceae have higher potential as a raw material source for biodiesel production at global interest and application. Following are some key recommendations which might be useful for production of raw material availability, production and consumption of biodiesel at global perspective;

1. In all developed countries, research and development has always played a vital role in profitable development of industry. In developed and some developing countries more and more R & D activities are being sponsored by the private sector and their Governments are assisting them and taking part in these activities by way of tax incentives and award schemes.

2. It is recommended that policies should be designed and incentives be offered by government to develop biodiesel companies and industries in the country.

3. Serious consideration should be given to establish a mega tree plantation for production of oil seeds in biodiesel application.

4. It is recommended that production of biodiesel to final use by consumer, quality should be given priority. Number of strategies should be given importance such as collection of seeds, extractions, processing, handling, storage and marketing. Therefore positive inspection system for all these sectors including agriculture, private sector and farming system.

5. In view of the present study as presented in this issue about the economic importance of national plants resources used for biodiesel production, research, development and cultivation efforts should be focused on these plants and identified other resources.

6. These three species are fast growing but cultivated on a small scale by rural farmers, could be produced on large scale for consumption and to be used as fuel. These species are more economical and need minimal quantity of water, fertilizer and pesticides. Such type of study on plant resources will make their data readily available for identifying promising species for future consideration for cultivation of biodiesel yielding crops.

7. It is proposed to further extend the project of bio-diesel. There is need to establish pilot projects to commercialize bio-diesel and set up its supply chain. The project may be extended step wise like conversion of vehicle fleets of designated departments on bio-diesel.

List of abbreviations

ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials

FA = Fatty Acid

FAME = Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

FFA = Free Fatty Acid

EM = Engine Manufacturing Association

Mushtaq Ahmad, Lee Keat Teong, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, Haleema Sadia and Mir Ajab Khan (December 3rd 2012). Prospects and Potential of Green Fuel from some Non Traditional Seed Oils Used as Biodiesel, Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications, Zhen Fang, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/52031. Available from:

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Prospects and Potential of Green Fuel from some Non Traditional Seed Oils Used as Biodiesel | IntechOpen

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Open access peer-reviewed chapter DOI: 10.5772/52031 Mushtaq Ahmad* Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan Lee Keat Teong School of Chemical Engineering, University of Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Muhammad Zafar Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan Shazia Sultana Biofuel Lab., Department of Plant Sciences,

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 Jonathan Drori:Why we're storing billions of seeds? 

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 Jonathan Drori:Why we're storing billions of seeds? 

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Ted talk to practise listening

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Jonathan Drori: Why we're storing billions of seeds

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In this brief talk from TED U 2009, Jonathan Drori encourages us to save biodiversity -- one seed at a time. Reminding us that plants support human life, he shares the vision of the Millennium Seed Bank, which has stored over 3 billion seeds to date from dwindling yet essential plant species.

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Cary Fowler: Una semilla cada vez para proteger el futuro de los alimentos

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Cary Fowler: Una semilla cada vez para proteger el futuro de los alimentos

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Ted Talk to practise listening

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Cary Fowler: Cary Fowler: Una semilla cada vez para proteger el futuro de los alimentos

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Las variedades de trigo, maíz y arroz que crecen hoy en día no puede prosperar en un futuro amenazado por el cambio climático. Cary Fowler nos adentra en un gran banco de semillas mundial, enterrado en una montaña helada en Noruega, que almacena un grupo diverso de alimentos de cultivo para lo que nos depare el mañana.

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To practise reading and listening

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By jennifer duggan / spitsbergen

Deep in the bowels of an icy mountain on an island above the Arctic Circle between Norway and the North Pole lies a resource of vital importance for the future of humankind. It's not coal, oil or precious minerals, but seeds.

Millions of these tiny brown specks, from more than 930,000 varieties of food crops, are stored in the Global Seed Vault on Spitsbergen, part of Norway's Svalbard archipelago. It is essentially a huge safety deposit box, holding the world's largest collection of agricultural biodiversity. "Inside this building is 13,000 years of agricultural history," says Brian Lainoff, lead partnerships coordinator of the Crop Trust, which manages the vault, as he hauls open the huge steel door leading inside the mountain.

It would be difficult to find a place more remote than the icy wilderness of Svalbard. It is the farthest north you can fly on a commercial airline, and apart from the nearby town of Longyearbyen, it is a vast white expanse of frozen emptiness.

The Global Seed Vault has been dubbed the "doomsday" vault, which conjures up an image of a reserve of seeds for use in case of an apocalyptic event or a global catastrophe. But it is the much smaller, localized destruction and threats facing gene banks all over the world that the vault was designed to protect against-and it's why the vault was opened in February, when TIME visited.

On this occasion, samples from India, Pakistan and Mexico were being deposited alongside seeds from Syria, many of whose citizens are living through their own apocalypse. "There are big and small doomsdays going on around the world every day. Genetic material is being lost all over the globe," says Marie Haga, executive director of the Crop Trust. This past winter offered the gene bank a chance to redress the balance.

Near the entrance to the facility, a rectangular wedge of concrete that juts out starkly against the snowy landscape, the doomsday nickname seems eerily apt. It was precisely for its remoteness that Svalbard was chosen as the location of the vault. "It is away from the places on earth where you have war and terror, everything maybe you are afraid of in other places. It is situated in a safe place," says Bente Naeverdal, a property manager who oversees the day-to-day operation of the vault.

Its only neighbor is a similar repository buried away from the dangers of the world: the Arctic World Archive, which aims to preserve data for the world's governments and private institutions, opened deep in a nearby mine on March 27.

The entrance leads to a small tunnel-like room filled with the loud whirring noise of electricity and cooling systems required to keep the temperature within the vault consistent. Through one door is a wide concrete tunnel illuminated by strip lighting leading 430 ft. down into the mountain. At the end of this corridor is a chamber, an added layer of security to protect the vaults containing the seeds.

There are three vaults leading off from the chamber, but only one is currently in use, and its door is covered in a thick layer of ice, hinting at the subzero temperatures inside. In here, the seeds are stored in vacuum-packed silver packets and test tubes in large boxes that are neatly stacked on floor-to-ceiling shelves. They have very little monetary value, but the boxes potentially hold the keys to the future of global food security.

Over the past 50 years, agricultural practices have changed dramatically, with technological advances allowing large-scale crop production. But while crop yields have increased, biodiversity has decreased to the point that now only about 30 crops provide 95% of human food-energy needs. Only 10% of the rice varieties that China used in the 1950s are still used today, for example. The U.S. has lost over 90% of its fruit and vegetable varieties since the 1900s. This monoculture nature of agriculture leaves food supplies more susceptible to threats such as diseases and drought.

The seeds lying in the deep freeze of the vault include wild and old varieties, many of which are not in general use anymore. And many don't exist outside of the seed collections they came from. But the genetic diversity contained in the vault could provide the DNA traits needed to develop new strains for whatever challenges the world or a particular region will face in the future.One of the 200,000 varieties of rice within the vault could have the trait needed to adapt rice to higher temperatures, for example, or to find resistance to a new pest or disease. This is particularly important with the challenges of climate change. "Not too many think about crop diversity as being so fundamentally important, but it is. It is almost as important as water and air," says Haga. "Seeds generally are the basis for everything. Not only what we eat, but what we wear, nature all about us."

There are as many as 1,700 versions of the vault, called gene banks, all over the world. This global network collects, preserves and shares seeds to further agricultural research and develop new varieties. The Svalbard vault was opened in 2008, effectively as a backup storage unit for all those hundreds of thousands of varieties. The idea was conceived in the 1980s by Cary Fowler, a former executive director of the Crop Trust, but only started to become reality after an International Seed Treaty negotiated by the U.N. was signed in 2001. Construction was funded by the Norwegian government, which operates the vault in partnership with the Crop Trust. The goal is to find and house a copy of every unique seed that exists in the global gene banks; soon the vault will make room for its millionth variety. It also works in tandem with those gene banks when their material is lost or destroyed.

At the end of one of the long rows of seeds inside the vault, a large and symbolic gap has only just been refilled. The black boxes there look like all the others in the vault, but they have had a long journey. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) is a global agricultural-research organization that had been based in Syria but was forced to flee its headquarters, just outside of Aleppo, because of the civil war. The organization evacuated its international staff in 2012, but some Syrian researchers stayed behind to rescue equipment and even animals.

But as the fighting intensified, they were forced to leave behind their gene bank, one of the world's most valuable collections of seeds, containing some of the oldest varieties of wheat and barley. ICARDA re-established its headquarters in Morocco and Lebanon, and restarted the gene bank in 2015 using seeds from the Svalbard vault-the first-ever withdrawal there. Woken from their icy slumber, the seeds were planted in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley and in Morocco, and their offspring were carefully collected and processed to return to the vault. In late February, ICARDA returned the varieties of seeds it had taken out. "These seeds have come full circle," Lainoff explains.

The gene bank in Aleppo was not the first to be threatened by war. Gene banks in Afghanistan and Iraq have been destroyed, along with them genetic material that wasn't backed up in Svalbard. But it is not just armed conflict that threatens these valuable resources. Some have been hit by natural disasters, like the Philippine national gene bank, which was damaged by flooding from a typhoon and later a fire. But a lack of resources is probably the biggest threat facing the world's gene banks.

Woefully underfunded, many lack the resources to properly store or protect the seeds they hold. The Crop Trust is now raising money for an endowment fund to ensure that the world's 1,700 gene-bank facilities are able to continue acting as guarantors of global biodiversity.

You don't need to look far to discover the sacrifices made to keep these kernels of reproduction safe. One of the most historically significant deposits of seeds inside the vault comes from a collection in St. Petersburg's Vavilov Research Institute, which originates from one of the first collections in the world. During the siege of Leningrad, about a dozen scientists barricaded themselves in the room containing the seeds in order to protect them from hungry citizens and the surrounding German army.

As the siege dragged on, a number of them eventually died from starvation. Despite being surrounded by seeds and plant material, they steadfastly refused to save themselves by eating any of it, such was their conviction about the importance of the seeds to aid Russia's recovery after war and to help protect the future of humankind. One of the scientists, Dmitri Ivanov, is said to have died surrounded by bags of rice.

In an age of heightened geopolitical tensions and uncertainty, the Svalbard vault is an unusual and hopeful exercise in international cooperation for the good of humankind. Any organization or country can send seeds to it, and there are no restrictions because of politics or the requirements of diplomacy. Red wooden boxes from North Korea sit alongside black boxes from the U.S. Over on the next aisle, boxes of seeds from Ukraine sit atop seeds from Russia. "The seeds don't care that there are North Korean seeds and South Korean seeds in the same aisle," Lainoff says. "They are cold and safe up there, and that's all that really matters."
Reporting for this article was supported by a grant from the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting

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The 'Doomsday' Vault Where the World's Seeds Are Kept Safe

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Inside the vault that holds the largest collection of agricultural biodiversity

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