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400 B.C.E - present

*Mental Discipline Theory (Plato)- mind is a muscle

*Associationism (Aristotle)- learning occurs through connections
*Unfoldment Theory (Rousseau)- learning occurs naturally through curiosity and interest
*Structuralism and Early Scientific Foundations of Reading (Wundt)- eye movements/saccades

- Provided foundation for current practice and thinking in education

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1900 - present
*Classical Conditioning Theory (Pavlov/Watson)- 4 components, responses to stimulus are expected or unexpected
*Connectionism (Thorndike)- 4 laws, focused on stimuli after behavior to create a positive or negative change
*Operant Conditioning Theory (Skinner) - continued and advanced the work of previous behavioral lenses, focused on small, sequential steps with regular rewards

- This lens is focused on observable changes on behavior

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1920s -  present
*Inquiry Learning (John Dewey)- emphasized reasoning and decision making, problem-based, collaborative and cooperative learning
*Schema Theory- individualized, knowledge structures that are constantly changing from learning and experiences
*Transitional/Reader Response Theory (Rosenblatt)- extension of Schema Theory, reading experiences are unique to the reader based non schema
*Psycholinguistic Theory and Whole Language Theory- reading is a language process that relies on cueing systems, predication is key part of reading process, natural process, child-centered
*Metacognitive Theory (Flavell/Brown, Durkin)- thinking about your thinking, use of strategies, gradual transfer to practice

-The integration of new knowledge with existing knowledge
- We are always actively constructing new knowledge

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1940s - present
*Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)- 5 levels of needs, children go go back and forth between needs, deficiency and growth needs, foundational needs must be met to facilitate academic success
*Sleep-Dependent Memory Theory- even with proper nutrition, learning will be affected if proper, stable sleep patterns are not in place, naps also help younger children, make-up sleep does not offer same benefits
*The Exercise Hypothesis- exercise can benefit physical and emotional health, some benefits include better grades, less stress, better mood, improved attention, better memory

-These theorist work related to how physiological needs (nutrition, sleep, and exercise) influences academic success

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1940s - present
*Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: The Affective Dimension
*Attachment Theory (Bowlby)- our lives revolve around our relationships with others, 3 types of attachment behaviors, child's attachment is related to academic learning
*Engagement Theory- how students go from disengaged to engaged (motivated) readers, engaged readers can overcome socioeconomic  and education deficits

-This lens looks at how emotions and feelings affect learning

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1930s - present
*Maturation Theory (Morphett and Washburne)- children should not be taught how to read until they are 6.5 years old
*Theory of Literacy Development (Holdaway)- reading is naturally occuring, parents are models, rich print environments, consistent with Whole Language Theory
*Stage Models of Reading- as reading ability develops so does the number and types of strategies used, 4 stages (Ehri's Phases)
*Emergent Literacy Theory (Marie Clay)- listening, speaking, reading and writing are interdependent, as one area increases so should the others
*Family Literacy Theory- literacy rich homes promote early success; number of words spoken, questions asked during reading, and positive feedback have positive influence on students achievement

-Theorist worked to understand child development and literacy growth

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1950s - present
*Socio-Cultural Theory - how culture affects affects learning, 4 spheres of influence
*Social Constructivism (Lev Vygotsky)- children learn through interactions with others, children need to master alphabet, words, listening, speaking, and writing, zone of proximal development
*Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)- combines behavior with social learning, people learn from watching others
*Critical Literacy Theory (built upon work of Michel Foucault)- relationship between individuals, literacy, and social transformation
*Critical Race Theory (Gloria Ladson-Billings)- shares finding/beliefs with Critical Literacy Theory but also adds race
*Multiliteracies Theory- readers need different skills to navigate and use electronic environments

-The Social Learning Lens theories discuss how social interactions affect knowledge and learning

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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1960s - present
*Gough's Model (Gough)- lower-order to higher-order, tied to The Simple View of Reading (SVR)
*LaBerge and Samuels's Automatic Information-Processing Model (LaBerge and Samuels)- "bottom-up", 5 components, addresses how letters are seen and how memory is freed to attend to other task
*Interactive and Interactive-Compensatory Models (Rumelhart, with contributions from Posner and Snyder's Theory of Expectancy)- reading is initialed with visual input but other processors are active too, emphasizes background knowledge, processors compensate for weak processors
*Phonological-Core Variable Difference Models- used to define dyslexia, The Matthew Effect
*Parallel Distributed Processing Model (Rumelhart and McClelland)- all cognitive information is stored as connections, connections can become stronger
*Dual-Route Cascaded Model- two paths handle words, one path handles known words and one handles unknown words
*Double-Deficit Hypothesis- students that struggle reading can have difficulties with phonology, rapid naming, or both

- These theories and models seek to explain the mental processes required to read

(Tracey & Morrow, 2017)

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When we monitor reading comprehension, we are keeping track of our thinking and further our understanding. We might ask questions like:
-Does this make sense?
-Why did this happen?
-What might happen next?

Once we realize that we do not understand what the text is telling us, we use strategies to repair meaning. This requires use to know and be able to use many different strategies effectively. To monitor our comprehension we use strategies like;
-asking questions
-visualize
-background knowledge
-connections (self, text, and world)
-infer
-synthesize

Teachers need to teach students to do the following in order to monitor and repair reading comprehension.
-use and listen to their inner voice
-jot down their thinking as they read
-respond through talking and writing
-use strategies when understanding breaks down

(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge

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No matter what other strategy you use, background knowledge plays an important part. Without experiences and bringing what we already know, it is extremely difficult to understand what we hear, read, or view.
We can help students activate and connect to their background knowledge by:
-think about their experiences
-make connections
-use schema
-use new learning to to add to our background knowledge

(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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Asking question before, during, and after reading is crucial. Questions allow us to predict, wonder, and acquire new knowledge.

To be effective in asking questions while reading, we need to teach students to:
-wonder
-question the author, ideas, and concepts
- start with a question
-research and investigate to answer unanswered questions and extend learning
(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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Inferences occur when students use their background knowledge and clues from the text/images to draw conclus, determine theme, or identify the big idea. Inferring and visualizing meaning is a strategy that relies on other strategies for success. To help students successfully infer and visualize, we need to teach students to:
- use context clues, images, or other information
-visualize by creating pictures or movies in their minds drawing from the text and their background knowledge
-ask and answer questions that are not explicitly answered in the text
-make predictions
-draw conclusions

(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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Our purpose for reading and the genre of the text plays a huge part in what you determine is important as you read. For example, if you are reading for enjoyment, what you consider important will be different than if you are reading a nonfiction text to learn more about a specific topic/concept. To help students be successful using this strategy, we need to teach students to:
-determine key information
-jot down key ideas and new learning
-decide main idea and supporting details
-use text features (nonfiction text)

(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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Summerizing and synthesizing encompasesses all the strategies. It requires us to take all the small bits of information and create/see the big picture. Summarizing and synthesizing may lead to new information being stored, our thinking being changed, or our thinking being updated based on the new learning. In order for students to be successful, we need to teach them to:
-paraphrase
-monitor comprehension as they read
-revise thinking
-gain new knowledge
-merge new thoughts with background knowledge and what you already know

(Harvey & Goudvis, 2017)

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-Metacognition Theory
-Engagement Theory
-Scheme Theory
-LaBerge and Samuel's Automatic Inforamtion-Processing *can adversely affect comprehension

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge

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-Associationism
-Unfoldment Theory
-Schema Theory
-Transitional Reader Response
-Interactive and Interactive-Compensatory Models

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-Mental Discipline Theory
-Schema Theory
-Metacognitive Theory

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-Inquiry Learning

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-Unfoldment Theory
-Schema Theory

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-Schema Theory
-Metacognitive Theory

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Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2017). Lenses On Reading: An introduction to theories and models. New York, NY: GUILFORD.

Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2017). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension for understanding, engagement, and building knowledge: Grades K-8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

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Strategies that support comprehension that can be used across reading strategies

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Strategies that support comprehension that can be used across reading strategies

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*Think Aloud
*Reread
*Interactive Read Aloud
*Annotating
*Anchor Charts
*Guiding Discussion

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Model Text: National Geographic Reader: Caterpillar to Butterfly
Student Texts: I'm a Caterpillar by Jean Marzollo and A Butterfly is Patient by Dianna Hutts Aston
Strategy: Leave Tracks of Thinking
Directions:
- using sticky notes, the teacher will model leaving notes about his/her thinking as she reads
-teacher will ask students to leave tracks of their thinking with sticky notes in one of the two student texts

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge Strategy

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Activate and Connect to Background Knowledge Strategy

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Text: Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst
Secondary Text (if needed): Owen by Kevin Hicks
Strategy: Connecting Text to Our Own Experiences: Relating the Characters to Ourselves
Method: interactive read aloud
Directions:
-The teacher will show the cover of the book and read the title
-the teacher will ask the students to think of a time that they had a bad day. And then ask them what happend? (students will turn and talk and then share with class)
-as the teacher reads the book, he/she will stop to ask students if they can relate to/understand how Alexander feels and why.
-After reading the book, the teacher will ask students to write about/list 3 things that might ruin their day.

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Text: A Bad Case of the Stripes by David Shannon
Alternate text: Giggle, Giggle, Quack by Doreen Cronin
Strategy: Some Questions are Answered, Others Are Not
Method: Interactive Read Aloud and Group Discussion
Directions:
- Teacher- Asking questions before, during, and after reading is very important. Readers wonder as they read. They might wonder about characters, problems, settings, or factual information. Our wonders often led to questions.
-The teacher will ask students to write down questions they have as the story is read.
-The teacher will pause throughout the text to allow time for questions to be written down and placed on the provided chart paper
-After reading the book, the teacher will lead a class discussion where:
1. questions that are similar are  arranged together
2. students discuss questions and decide if they are:
A= answered in the text
NAT= not answered in text
-teacher and students will discuss if NAT questions could be answered with background knowledge or by inferring

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Model Text: The Sea Creature from the Deep (poem) **attached at bottom**
Alternate Text: Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak
Strategy: Visualizing with Wordless Picture Books
Method: whole group
Directions:
-Teacher will say- Good readers visualize while they read. That means they they create pictures or movies in their mind of what is happening based on the words in the book. Today we are going to practice visualizing.
-Students have paper, pencil, and crayons. Teacher will read the poem (several times if needed) and students will draw what they visualize
-Students share illustrations
- Teacher will facilitate discussion on how illustrations are similar and different

**If teacher uses Where the Wild Things Are, practice visualizing what Harry's bedroom looks like (page 10) and what the wild things look like (page 32). Have students draw their picture before showing the illustrations from the book

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Text: Planets by Elizabeth Carney
Strategy: Becoming Familiar with the Characteristics of Nonfiction Trade Books
Method: Whole group read aloud with independent practice
Directions:
--Teacher will remind students that we read nonfiction text differently than fiction text. The teacher will also remind students that text features in nonfiction text help us learn more information. The teacher will lead a discussion with students reviewing the anchor chart on nonfiction text features.
- Students will be asked to jot down important facts and information as they listen to the book
-The teacher will read the book giving students time to write down important information
-Students will be asked to design a page that about a planet or planets that looks like a page from a nonfiction book with text features. Students will have the anchor chart to refer back to for examples of text features.
- teacher will facilitate a discussion with students about the different text features used and why they were chosen.

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Text: The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats
Strategy: Retelling to Summarize Information
Method: Whole group read aloud
Directions:
-Teacher will say- We are going to practice retelling or summarizing the story, A Snowy Day. When retelling/summarizing a text it is important to retell the story in the order that it happened. To help us today, we are going to use a graphic organizer to record with a picture or words the order that things happen in the story.
- Teacher will read the story. While reading, he/she will stop and ask students what happened first, next, then, after that, then, last to support them as they compete their graphic organizer.
-Students will use their graphic organizer to retell the story to a partner. Teacher will walk around and monitor.
-Students will be asked to share their summary/retell with the class.