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The revolution of 1848 took place in Europe in Italian cities. These cities were Milan, Venice, and Rome. Venice was promised to Italy by Prussians if they entered the war against Austria.

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In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. In March 1854 France and England intervened in support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. In 1857 Italian nationalists founded the monarchist-unionist Italian National Society, which supported the policies of Cavour.

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The role of Piedmont

In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections. The victorious Liberals installed a new cabinet under Massimo d'Azeglio, a moderate trusted by the king. D'Azeglio introduced the Siccardi law, which curtailed the power of ecclesiastical courts. In October 1850 another prominent moderate, Camillo Benso di Cavour, entered the cabinet and directed a laissez-faire economic policy. He formulated international commercial treaties and drew on foreign capital to reduce the public debt, stimulate economic growth, and develop a railroad system. Cavour's dynamism alarmed conservatives and even d'Azeglio. In 1852, through an alliance with centre-left deputies that became known as the connubio ("marriage"), Cavour displaced d'Azeglio as head of the cabinet. Despite disagreements with the king (who favoured the clerical party and occasionally displayed absolutist tendencies), Cavour introduced various ecclesiastical, judicial, and fiscal reforms.

A number of events promoted Piedmont's prestige in Italy and abroad. In March 1854 France and England intervened in support of the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. To obtain Austrian support, they were prepared to guarantee the status quo in Italy. Only Piedmont was in a position to disrupt it at that time, and Cavour negotiated an alliance with the Western powers. In May he sent to Crimea an army that performed brilliantly. As a result, Piedmont was able to assume a place among the victors at the Congress of Paris (February 1856). From this platform Cavour, achieving a diplomatic coup for Piedmont and Italy, declared that the only threat to peace in Italy, and the root cause of subversive plots, was the burdensome Austrian overlordship. Cavour's pronouncements at the congress increased the standing of Piedmont among nationalists.

Meanwhile, Mazzini's democratic and republican movement was crumbling. In February 1853 an insurrection against the Austrians failed in Milan. The discovery and execution at Belfiore (1852-53) of the leaders of a conspiracy in Mantua, as well as abortive insurrections in Cadore and Lunigiana, discredited the democratic movement and discouraged its most dedicated adherents. Mazzini faced complete isolation for his support of an expedition to the southern mainland to incite insurrection, known as the Sapri expedition (June-July 1857), in which the Neapolitan republican and socialist Carlo Pisacane and some 300 companions lost their lives. The democrats were divided and unable to carry on the revolutionary struggle; nothing was to be expected from the restored governments. In Lombardy-Venetia, Austria carried out stern repressive measures. Pius IX, now under the influence of the reactionary Giacomo Cardinal Antonelli, refused to grant any reforms in Rome. Liberal Catholicism could not remain viable without reforms in the Papal States. In Naples and the duchies, reaction became pervasive, although the grand duke of Tuscany sought to make his subjects forget that he owed his throne to Austrian military intervention. Only in Piedmont was there any hope left for the reformers.

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State

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Italy - Unification, Risorgimento, Nation-State: In Piedmont Victor Emmanuel II governed with a parliament whose democratic majority refused to ratify the peace treaty with Austria. This was an exception to the general course of reaction. The skillfully worded Proclamation of Moncalieri (November 20, 1849) favourably contrasted Victor Emmanuel's policies with those of other Italian rulers and permitted elections.

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Mexico's National day marks the start of the War of Independence against Spain on September 16th 1810. Mexico city is the oldest city in North America. Mexico introduced chocolate, corn, and chilies to the world.

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September 16th: Mexican Independence Day

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Independence Day is a Mexican holiday to celebrate the "Cry of independence" on September 16, 1810. Miguel Hidalgo made the cry of independence and was one of the nation's leaders during the War of Independence. Mexicans celebrate their country's Independence Day with fireworks, parties (fiestas), food, dance and music on September 16.

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Independence Day (Día de la Independencia) is a Mexican holiday to celebrate the "cry of independence" on September 16, 1810, which started a revolt against the Spaniards. It follows from the day of the Cry of Dolores (El Grito de Dolores), on September 15.

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In 1805, the Austrian Army was on march against Napoleon. The idea of a shared ethnic, cultural and linguistic heritage or destination is an important part of nationalism. The smaller German States felt that they were unable to protect them selves from their neighbors.

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Ten Minute History - German Unification and Empire (Short Documentary)

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German Empire, also called Second Reich was founded on January 18, 1871. In July 1867 Bismarck offered to all German states a new custom union on condition that they accepted a customs parliament. In September 1870 a conference of Prussia, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg met at Munich to discuss the terms of unification.

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German Empire | Facts, History, Flag, & Map

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The German Empire was founded in 1871, after three successful wars by the North German state of Prussia. Prussia remained the dominant force in the nation until the empire's demise at the end of another war in 1918. Learn more about the history and significance of the German Empire in this article.