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Childhood | Social Construction of Childhood | A Level Sociology - Families

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Define what ‘Child’ and Childhood means to you? 

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Define what ‘Child’ and Childhood means to you? 

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What key theorists of Social and Emotional Development can you highlight?

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What key theorists of Social and Emotional Development can you highlight?

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Your role as an Early Years Practitioner supporting Child development

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Here is Twinkl's fantastic guide to Early Year Practitioners. Find out what they are, their roles and responsibilities and what teaching qualifications you'll need for the role.

What is an Early Years Practitioner?

Early Years Practitioners are specialists who look after the mental, social, emotional and educational development of babies and young children up to the age of five years old.

An Early Years Practitioner may work with young children in any school, nursery, or childcare environment.

They may also be referred to as nursery nurses.

What do Early Years Practitioners do?

An Early Years Practitioner has a number of different roles and responsibilities that fit their job description. 'Early Years Practitioner' might refer to a variety of particular jobs. Many of these will have their own specialised knowledge, and often there will be some overlap in the responsibilities of each role. An Early Years Practitioner might be someone who has one of the following job titles:

An early years teacher,

Nanny,

Childminder,

Preschool assistant.

Early Years Practitioners Roles and Responsibilities

An Early Years Practitioner's roles and responsibilities include a wide range of duties. Some are related to children's educational progress and the teaching of new skills following the curriculum. Others are more focused on physical and mental well-being, looking after them in day-to-day tasks.

Some of an Early Years Practitioner's roles and responsibilities will include:

Looking after the health and wellbeing of the child, such as feeding babies and changing their nappies.

Helping children to develop core skills, such as numeracy and literacy.

Providing a safe and enabling environment for children to work in.

Teaching to the curricular requirements of the Early Years Foundation Stage Framework.

Taking children on trips or outings outside of lesson time.

Encouraging physical activities to keep children active.

Supporting children's mental health, fostering an environment where children find help if they need it. This may include reaching out to children, checking in, and working with other teams to prevent or solve any issues.

Boosting life skills, such as cooking or using money in age-appropriate activities.

Supporting communication and social skills to help children interact with those around them.

Helping children with educational disabilities or needs with their studies. Some practitioners may have specific training to cater for specific needs.

What Early Years Practitioner qualifications are available?

Early Years Practitioner (Level 2)

Practitioners must demonstrate their competence in order to be included in the ratios specified in the Early Years Foundation Stage Statutory Framework.

The qualification criteria set out the skills, knowledge, and understanding that a practitioner must demonstrate to achieve an Early Years Practitioner (level 2) qualification. This allows them to be considered qualified to support young children age birth to five in the Early Years Foundation Stage.

All level 2 Early Years Practitioner qualifications will require candidates to demonstrate skills, knowledge, and understanding in the following areas:

1. Knowledge of child development

2. Safeguarding

3. Health and safety

4. Wellbeing

5. Communication

6. Support the planning of and deliver activities, purposeful play opportunities and educational programmes

7. Support children with special educational needs and disabilities

8. Own role and development

9. Working with others - parents, colleagues, other professionals

Early Years Educator (Level 3)

Practitioners must demonstrate their competence in order to be included in the ratios specified in the Early Years Statutory Framework.

The qualification criteria lay out the minimum requirements for what an Early Years Educator should know, understand, and be able to do to be considered qualified to support young children age birth to 5 in the Early Years Foundation Stage.

All Level 3 Early Years Educator qualifications will require candidates to demonstrate an in-depth understanding of early years education and care, including that they can:

1. Support and promote children's early education and development.

2. Plan and provide effective care, teaching, and learning that enables children to progress and prepares them for school.

3. Make accurate and productive use of assessment.

4. Develop effective and informed practice.

5. Safeguard and promote the health, safety and welfare of children.

6. Work in partnership with the key person, colleagues, parents, and carers or other professionals.

What are the EYFS qualification requirements?

Paragraph 3.20. of the EYFS states: 'The daily experience of children in early years settings and the overall quality of provision depends on all practitioners having appropriate qualifications, training, skills and knowledge and a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities'.

Paragraph 3.23. of the EYFS states: 'In group settings, the manager must hold at least a full and relevant level 3 qualification and at least half of all other staff must hold at least a full and relevant level 2 qualification'.

Resources for Early Years Practitioners

Now you know what an Early Years Practitioner is and how you can become one, check out some of our helpful resources tailor-made to help and guide them in their ventures.

For example, this fantastic Early Years Practitioners Guide to the ELGs is just one of the ways Twinkl can support Early Years Practitioners. It's the perfect way to get to grips with what their children are expected to learn. You can also find guides for the Development Matters 2020 along with breakdowns to help practitioners understand the EYFS Reforms for 2021.

There aren't just resources to help practitioners keep up with their paperwork. There are also plenty of activities, planning documents, and resources to help save time and stress when it comes to planning and provisions. These 'I Can' Continuous Provision Prompt Poster Pack are a brilliant enhancement for continuous provisions, and give both children and practitioners some ideas.

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Early Years Practitioner | Roles, Responsibilities & More

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Here is Twinkl's fantastic guide to Early Year Practitioners. Find out what they are, their roles and responsibilities and what teaching qualifications you'll need for the role. Early Years Practitioners are specialists who look after the mental, social, emotional and educational development of babies and young children up to the age of five years old.

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Video: Parental Involvement in Practice 

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Video: Parental Involvement in Practice 

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Remember that you should all have a main reference list at the end of your work. Ensure that any external links have been added to the list of references such as; key documents, Acts, Legislations, web pages, pod casts, video's etc.

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Public policy can have an impact on parenting behaviour and achieve positive outcomes for children, but there is currently a lack of evidence on what works - according to new research by the Social Mobility Commission.

The report says that parenting interventions can be successful - particularly those that focus on parenting styles, the creation of a supportive home learning environment, relationships within the family and parental stress and mental health.

Programmes can give parents a greater understanding of child development, develop parents' confidence in their role and support both parents to become actively involved in a child's upbringing.

The research finds that an authoritative parenting style which combines warmth with firmness in setting boundaries, secure attachment between children and parents and the provision of a supportive home learning environment can improve children's outcomes.

It finds that programmes which offer targeted support for parents, are most effective. But these should be termed 'universal' to reduce stigma for those taking part and increase parental participation. Home visits were found to have moderate to high levels of success. It also concludes that highly trained and skilled practitioners, such as nurses, social workers and teachers, are crucial to the successful delivery of parenting interventions.

However, one of the report's key findings is that there is currently a lack of long-term evidence and studies about what parenting interventions work best. The Social Mobility Commission is calling on the government to commission further research to address gaps in this area.

Figures show that, in the last decade, more than 2.5 million children in England - including over 580,000 children known to be eligible for free school meals, had not reached the government's definition of a good level of development at the age of 5.

By the time students receive their GCSE results, around 32% of the variation in performance can be predicted based on indicators observed at, or before, the age of 5.

The Rt Hon Alan Milburn, chair of the Social Mobility Commission, said:

The early years of a child's life have a lasting impact, but there are stark differences in how ready children are for school. In the last decade, over half a million poorer children were not school ready by the age of 5.

We want the government to set a clear objective that, by 2025, every child is school ready and the child development gap has been closed. This requires every low-income family having access to high-quality childcare.

Parenting programmes also have an important role to play in reducing social inequality. But it is clear that there is currently a lack of evidence in this area. The government should commission further research to address this knowledge gap and develop a robust and consistent tool for the evaluation of parenting interventions.

Dr Barbie Clarke, Managing Director of Family Kids and Youth, which carried out the research, said:

Our research shows that public policy can have a real impact on parenting behaviours and achieve positive outcomes for children. Intervention can develop parental management skills and confidence, build healthy family relationships and enhance children's social, behavioural and cognitive development and wellbeing.

Highly trained and skilled practitioners, such as nurses, social workers and teachers, are crucial to their successful delivery. Programmes also need to be universal, but targeted, to reduce stigma and encourage parents to take part.

The 'Helping parents to parent' report was commissioned by the Social Mobility Commission to bring together evidence on parenting behaviours and the extend to which public policy can support parents. It examined 28 interventions and programmes in the United Kingdom and internationally.

Successful schemes examined in the report include:

Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters ( HIPPY) runs in several countries and aims to improve the home literacy environment, as well as to enhance the parent-child relationship, to prepare children for school. Aimed at parents of 3- to 5-year-olds, it combines 30 sessions of home visiting and community-centre-based support over 2 years, with daily activities at home. HIPPY has been tested in 9 countries and studies have shown a positive impact on child adaptation and readiness for school.

Parenting Shops in Belgium aim to provide a one-stop 'shop' for a range of parenting support mechanisms. Designed to increase community cohesion and reduce parenting stress, the intervention includes parenting classes, home visits, lectures and local community initiatives such as counselling. Professional staff and some skilled volunteers offer a range of support, and the 'shops' have been shown to be successful in reducing family tension and difficulties.

The Incredible Years operates in several countries, targeting parents, children and teachers. The aim is to increase parents' confidence, competence and coping strategies, and build good parent-child relationships, while helping parents build supportive networks. Delivered through videos, role play and peer support to assist problem solving, research has shown that the programme significantly improves parenting interaction and promotes children's social and emotional wellbeing.

Key recommendations include:

1. There is a need for highly trained practitioners to implement and deliver parenting interventions.

2. There is a need for more family centres or single-access platforms that provide an umbrella of universal parenting support and services and are easily accessible for all families.

3. Home visiting programmes, or those with a home visiting element, have the potential to deliver more success in improving children's outcomes.

4. There is a lack of long-term evidence on parenting interventions and programmes. The government should commission further research on this issue and there needs to be a robust and consistent tool for evaluation.

Notes for editors

1. The Social Mobility Commission is an advisory, non-departmental public body established under the Life Chances Act 2010 as modified by the Welfare Reform and Work Act 2016. It has a duty to assess progress in improving social mobility in the United Kingdom and to promote social mobility in England. It currently consists of 4 commissioners and is supported by a small secretariat.

2. The commission board currently comprises: * Alan Milburn (chair) * Baroness Gillian Shephard (deputy chair) * Paul Gregg, Professor of Economic and Social Policy, University of Bath * David Johnston, Chief Executive of the Social Mobility Foundation

3. The functions of the commission include: * monitoring progress on improving social mobility * providing published advice to ministers on matters relating to social mobility * undertaking social mobility advocacy

4. For further information, please contact Kirsty Walker at the Social Mobility Commission by: * phoning 020 7227 5371 or 07768 446 167 * emailing kirsty.walker@education.gov.uk

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Public policy can have an impact on parenting behaviour and achieve positive outcomes for children, but there is currently a lack of evidence on what works - according to new research by the Social Mobility Commission.

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Video: What is Social and Emotional Development? 

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Video: What is Social and Emotional Development? 

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Men in Early Years - Why I love working in childcare!

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Reading:  What are your thoughts on the article below? 

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Reading:  What are your thoughts on the article below? 

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The Importance of the professional Early Years Practitioner in implementing the EYFS and monitoring progress of children within their setting and against the Early Learning Goals

Understanding a child's individual needs is achieved by using the observation, assessment and planning cycle from the EYFS principle. Early Years Settings use this cycle to ensure the individual needs of children are met. Early Years Practitioners work alongside the EYFS to observe, assess and plan for the learning of the children in the setting. Daily observations and evidence photos of a child are taken enabling the practitioner to gain a better understanding of the child's individuality. Many theorists have stated the importance in observing children.

The role of the professional Early Years Practitioner is vital in ensuring all children are meeting their personal developmental goals, and achieving the highest standard of learning available. Another role of the practitioner is the "key person". It is the key persons responsibility to ensure each child is observed, assessed and planned for, alongside upholding a positive relationship with both child and parent. The key person will do this by supporting the child and parent during "settling in sessions" and in their time at the setting. All about me sheets alongside registration forms will be filled in with the parent to ensure the practitioner has a good understanding of what the child requires.

Observations play a vital part in the development of the child, and they can be used in a variety of ways. Learning Journeys are kept for each child and contain that child's biggest achievements; these are personal to the child and provide a picture of the child's development.

Learning journeys are completed on a monthly basis and continue through the setting as the child moves room. In addition to observations and photos, the learning journeys also contain an "all about me" sheet. This is initially completed by parents to aid practitioners to learn about the child, and then completed by the key worker each time the child moves room. This way of sharing information helps practitioners to understand the child better.. Learning Journeys are linked to EYFS, and each observation or photo is provided with a quote from an EYFS.

Assessing children's development is an important part of the practitioner's professional role. There are several ways to assess the children in the setting; Tracking sheets and progress summaries are similar tools and both reflect the EYFS. These types of assessments are broken down into the seven areas of development, then into more specific areas. The practitioner then uses these areas to summarise where the child is developmental. Tracking sheets indicate if a child is emerging, consolidating or secure within each age bracket, whereas a progress summary is a written piece giving information on what goals the child is currently achieving in each area of the EYFS.

Once the Early Years Practitioner has information on the child's current development through observing and assessing their learning, they are able to plan appropriate activities and opportunities to further the child's learning. The children's interests play a huge part on planning the right experiences and practitioners must ensure that children play a centre role in their own development by giving children a voice and the opportunity to express their interests and opinions. According to The National Strategies (2009);

This is achieved by using the "voice of the child" on planning sheets, and using the observations taken to create next steps for that child. The weekly planning is divided into the 7 areas of learning according to the EYFS; allowing each activity or learning experience to correspond to an area of development. Each month the children will learn about a topic such as transport or the community, and the practitioner will plan a range of experiences to meet this topic. When doing this the practitioner will ensure that the experiences meet all areas of the EYFS and touch upon the development matters. This is to ensure that every child is involved, and supported in each area of their development. The learning environment is taken into consideration when planning for a child's individual needs and the practitioner ensures that each child is given the opportunity to take part; this may require the activity to be adapted to meet the individual needs of a child.

It is also important to have a balance of child led and adult initiated activities to allow children to grow and develop healthily. Having this balance allows children to express their thoughts, feelings, and ideas while being supported in developing their learning further and achieving their personal milestones. The practitioner should take this into account when planning learning experiences, allowing children to make choices to participate or enjoy free play.

The Professional Early Years Practitioner plays a vital part in the child's learning and development while working alongside the EYFS. It is practitioners responsibility to use their skills and knowledge to enhance the learning environment, creating further learning opportunities for children. Looking at children's development holistically allows practitioners to identify areas for further support, meaning the child's individual needs are being supported.

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The Importance of a professional Early Years Practitioner

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Understanding a child's individual needs is achieved by using the observation, assessment and planning cycle from the EYFS principle. Early Years Settings use this cycle to ensure the individual needs of children are met. Early Years Practitioners work alongside the EYFS to observe, assess and plan for the learning of the children in the setting.

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John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (Davidson Films, Inc.)

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What internal factor can you think of that effect a child’s development?

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Latest from the Department for Education

The Department for Education is responsible for children's services and education, including early years, schools, higher and further education policy, apprenticeships and wider skills in England.

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The Department for Education is responsible for children's services and education, including early years, schools, higher and further education policy, apprenticeships and wider skills in England. DfE is a ministerial department, supported by 18 agencies and public bodies .

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This page presents an overview of the developmental tasks involved in the social and emotional development of children and teenagers which continues into adulthood. The presentation is based on the Eight Stages of Development developed by the psychiatrist, Erik Erikson in 1956.

According to Erikson, the socialization process consists of eight phases - the "eight stages of man." His eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental work, but through wide-ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive experience with children and adolescents from low - as well as upper - and middle - social classes. Each stage is regarded by Erikson as a "psychosocial crisis," which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated. These stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to support and the second story, and so on.
[CLICK HERE for more details on how to follow and encourage your child's or teen's social development]
Erikson's Eight Stages of Development

1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful.

2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)

The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well - parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self - possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of "NO" rings through the house or the grocery store.

3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)

Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)

Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority.

5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of "Who am I?" But even the best - adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - doubts flood the youngster, and so on.

Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different - usually constructive - roles rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for middle - and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them.

6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)

The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.

7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)

In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively.

8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)

If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well - defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair.

These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Helping the child through the various stages and the positive learning that should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows. Search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field of child development.

Socialization, then is a learning - teaching process that, when successful, results in the human organism's moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.

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Know What To Expect! The 8 Stages Of Social Development In Children

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This page presents an overview of the developmental tasks involved in the social and emotional development of children and teenagers which continues into adulthood. The presentation is based on the Eight Stages of Development developed by the psychiatrist, Erik Erikson in 1956. According to Erikson, the socialization process consists of eight phases - the "eight stages of man."

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What  are inequalities? Give supporting examples? Think about how these inequalities could effect the child? What can we do in practice to support families and inequalities? 

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What  are inequalities? Give supporting examples? Think about how these inequalities could effect the child? What can we do in practice to support families and inequalities? 

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Statutory Guidance: Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)

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Statutory Guidance: Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS)

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Policy Guides | Childcare & early years legislation | Nursery World

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Find information about legislation, consultations & regulation of nurseries, childcare & early years education on Nursery World

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What is a child?

In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, a child is someone who has not yet reached their 18th birthday. Once they turn 18, they are legally an adult.

In most situations in Scotland, a child is defined as someone who is under 18. But in some contexts, for example in some parts of the child protection system, a child is defined as a person under 16 years of age.

There are also different laws across the UK that specify age limits for young people in different circumstances. These include leaving school; leaving care; the age of consent; and the age of criminal responsibility.
Read more about legal definitions

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In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, a child is someone who has not yet reached their 18th birthday. Once they turn 18, they are legally an adult. In most situations in Scotland, a child is defined as someone who is under 18.

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Also check out the other podcasts available by ‘Teacher Alex’, some interesting focus areas.

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Start Here! What is Childhood Evolved all About?

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Listen to this episode from Childhood Evolved on Spotify. Childhood Evolved was born out of long standing belief I have that...things can be better. In this mini-episode as I explain more about why I started the podcast, and what my vision for it is.

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Podcast: What is the meaning of the term Childhood?

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Podcast: What is the meaning of the term Childhood?

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What is CHILDHOOD? What does CHILDHOOD mean? CHILDHOOD meaning, definition & explanation

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What is the UN Convention?

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is the basis of all of our work. It is the most complete statement of children's rights ever produced and is the most widely-ratified international human rights treaty in history.

What makes the UN Convention so special?

The Convention has 54 articles that cover all aspects of a child's life and set out the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights that all children everywhere are entitled to. It also explains how adults and governments must work together to make sure all children can enjoy all their rights.

Every child has rights "without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child's or his or her parent's or legal guardian's race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status" (Article 2).

The Convention must be seen as a whole: all the rights are linked and no right is more important than another. The right to relax and play (Article 31) and the right to freedom of expression (Article 13) have equal importance as the right to be safe from violence (Article 19) and the right to education (Article 28).

We are the only organisation working for children recognised by the Convention.

The Convention is also the most widely ratified human rights treaty in the world. All UN member states except for the United States have ratified the Convention. The Convention came into force in the UK in 1992.

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UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - UNICEF UK

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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is the basis for all of UNICEF's work and upholds children's rights all over the world.

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Podcast: Theories of Cognitive Development

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Podcast: Theories of Cognitive Development

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‎The theories of cognitive development, including Piaget and Vygotsky on Apple Podcasts

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‎This podcast is split into two parts. The first is an introduction to cognitive development, focusing on Piagetian theory as well as a brief overview of Vygotsky's theory. This part also includes the opportunity to pause the video and have a discussion about how Piaget's theory may have influenced t...

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While you might think of child development as something that begins during infancy, the prenatal period is also considered an important part of the developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of remarkable change that helps set the stage for future psychological development. The brain develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it will continue to go through more changes during the early years of childhood

There are three stages of prenatal development: the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.

Germinal Stage of Prenatal Development

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta, while the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body.﻿﻿

1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems

3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will provide nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not always an automatic and sure-fire process.

Researchers estimate that approximately 60% of all natural conceptions never become properly implanted in the uterus, which results in the new life ending before the mother is ever aware she is pregnant.

When implantation is successful, hormonal changes halt the normal menstrual cycle and cause a whole host of physical changes. For some people, activities they previously enjoyed such as smoking and drinking alcohol or coffee may become less palatable, possibly part of nature's way of protecting the growing life inside them.﻿﻿

Embryonic Stage of Prenatal Development

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.﻿﻿ The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.​

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly complete sometime around the middle of pregnancy.

As neurons form, they migrate to different areas of the brain. Once they have reached the correct location, they begin to form connections with other neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural networks.

Fetal Stage of Prenatal Development

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain. This period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between neurons, also begin to develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.﻿﻿

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.﻿﻿ Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal development? The brain and central nervous system also become more responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with prenatal development occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on how the brain develops during this critical period.

A Word From Verywell

Brain development does not end at birth. A considerable amount of brain development takes place postnatally, including growing in size and volume while changing in structure. The brain quadruples in size between birth and preschool. As children learn and have new experiences, some networks in the brain are strengthened while other connections are pruned.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the most critical weeks of fetal development?

The first 13 weeks of pregnancy are considered the most critical in prenatal development. It is during this period that the embryo forms organs. It is also the period when most miscarriages occur.

What are the stages of embryonic development in order?

The main stages of the embryonic period encompass gastrulation (the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm form), neurulation (formation of neural tissue), organogenesis (development of the organs).

What are the major milestones in fetal development?

Important fetal development milestones at each stage of prenatal development include:

Germinal stage: The division of cells and implantation of the blastocyst.

Embryonic stage: The development of the neural tube and organs.

Fetal stage: Continued growth of organs and physical development in preparation for birth.

Additional Reading

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How a Baby Develops During the Prenatal Period

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The stages of prenatal development represent a tremendous amount of change from conception to birth. Learn about what happens during the prenatal development stages.

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Article: Social and Emotional Development 

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Article: Social and Emotional Development 

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Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health

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Home Mental health is the foundation of early childhood development. Babies come into this world ready and wired to form relationships. From the moment of birth, children are forming connections, developing social responses and learning about themselves and the world around them.

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Article: Theories of Physical Development 

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Article: Theories of Physical Development 

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Have a read of the article below.

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In this article you will find the answer to the question "What is physical development in early childhood?" As well as you will learn about the main stages of physical development, that, in infancy, is mainly associated with mastering body, postures, movements.

So, physical development is the process of changing forms and functions of the human body under the influence of life and upbringing conditions.

In the narrow sense of the word, physical development means anthropometric measures (height, weight, circumference and volume of the chest, foot size, etc.).

A newborn baby is not able to regulate his movements, he is not even able to hold his head upright. A newborn usually sleeps in the position of the embryo: bent and pressed legs and arms against his tummy. While being awake his limbs move involuntarily.

You can cause some his innate reflex actions. Until recently it was believed that innate reflexes are the signs of an atavism, that will soon die off. But nowadays scientists have found that if you support and train these reflexes, the child can start moving around (crawling, walking) much earlier. This is particularly important for children with musculoskeletal system disorders. The earlier you start training it, the more successful the defect will be overcome.

And of course babies, whose parents train their movements, develop faster than those who lie swaddled in the crib most of the time.

Babies also feel freer in the water than in the crib. But if you beware of teaching your baby to swim, bathe him every day and not just because of hygiene, but also to develop his movements. Moreover, let your baby lie naked, put him on a surface, but not go away if he lies on the swaddling table. He can crawl a sufficient distance to fall down. From the very first days of his life, do gymnastics and massage but having consulted an expert first.

Try to let your baby spend time in the crib dressed in a romper suit and not swaddled in nappies, this also contributes to an earlier and successful mastery of movements.

Now let's consider the baby' physical development month by month

1 month

By the end of the first month, a baby can hold his head upright.
In response to stimulation he performs reflex movements of arms and legs.

2 months

Baby's voluntary movements start developing.

Can already lift his head in a prone and supine positions.

Turns the head towards the source of sound and light.

The hand movements are activated; the baby can bring them to his mouth.

3 months

Baby's hand-eye coordination begins to develop: he controls the movement of the hand toward an object with his eyes.

4 months

The baby raises his head in a supine position.

When supported in an upright position, he firmly rests against the surface with his feet.

Rolls over freely from back to tummy.

When lying in a prone position, the baby rises resting against the palms and keeps his eyes on the moving objects.

Grabs and holds small objects in his hands, plays with the toys hanging over the crib or stroller, takes them into his hands, touches and pulls them into his mouth.

5 months

The baby can sit with the support of the adult.

When supported under the arms, he stands on the straight legs.

Tries to roll over from the tummy to the back.

Holds the grasped objects for a long time.

He knows his mother well and does not go to the hands of strangers.

Distinguishes the tone of the voice used for educational purposes.

Does not understand the words, but understands their meaning by the tone.

Makes his first attempts to crawl (but remember that every baby is unique, there are cases when babies started crawling at 3 months of age).

6 months

The baby's main achievements are considered to be the first attempts to sit up, but back muscles are not yet strong enough to keep the body, so the baby rests against his hands thus trying to remain in a sitting position.

When lying on his tummy, the baby can lift his body up with the help of straightened arms leaning against his hands.

When being intrigued by any object, he takes it in his hands.

Arch of the feet start developing: the baby stands on the full feet more often and bounces in one place with great pleasure. It is therefore necessary to maintain the baby under the armpits.

7 months

The baby stands on all fours, crawls forward and backward freely.

Sits confidently without any support, straightens his body.

He reaches for his reflection in the mirror, looks around and finds large objects when asked.

Starts banging with a toy on everything he sees around.

Often throws a toy intentionally to watch it falling down.

With each passing day he becomes more agile, owns his body more confidently.

8 months

Baby gets up and sits down while holding the crib.

Tries to clap.

Tries to walk when supported by arms.

His facial expressions become diverse: interest and surprise appear when he sees a new toy or unfamiliar faces.

Looks for a necessary object and persistently tries to reach it.

Plays with the toys much time: examines them, taps one against another, tries to throw them down, etc.

9 months

Tries to stand without support.

Walks independently while holding a support, stands up out of any position.

When crawling along a flat surface, he gets on the pillows, cushions, etc.

Performs quite complex actions: manipulates the building blocks, collects small items, performs a simple request: "Give me a hand", " Wave with the hand ", "Wave goodbye", etc.

Prefers to play with the toys in a sitting position.

Looks for a fallen or hidden object, finds the things located in different places, remembers their names.

Remembers his own name, turns his face to the person who is calling him.

Understands the word "no".

Captures not only the tone, but also the meaning of individual words ("give", "throw", "take", "go", etc.).

Distinguishes size, color and shape of the objects.

10 months

The baby gets up by himself and stands without any support.

He is able to walk holding a hand.

Does not gives back the toy he likes.

Imitates well the movements of adults.

Begins to pronounce the simple words and utters separate syllables when talking about the animals and objects around him.

11 months

The baby already orients well himself in space (stands up, sits down, bends down, walks while holding a hand).

He knows the names of many objects and shows a certain toy, parts of his body, etc.

Performs many requirements, shakes his head when denying something.

The coordination of his finger movements is significantly increased (firmly holds a toy, tears and scrunches the paper.)

12 months

The baby walks by himself already, comes when hearing his name.

Sits down and stands up without being supported; can bend down to take an object.

Gives a toy when asked to.

Performs relatively complex tasks: opens a door, brings items and toys.

He likes to watch the movements of people, animals, pulls hands to the moving objects, toys.

You should remember that all children develop at their own pace and way. These terms can vary, some skills appear earlier or later. The main thing is that the amount of his skills and abilities increase all the time. If you do not notice the changes in motor behavior of your six month old baby within a month, you should consult your doctor then.

Table of average anthropometric data (height, weight, circumference of head and chest) of babies from birth to one year of age.

These data are average. Do not forget that all children are unique. And gain of weight and increase of height depend on many factors - on the initial height and weight, on the genetic predisposition, etc.

How does or did your baby develop within his first year of life? What skills and abilities does or did he gain in a certain period of time? Was there something unusual in his behavior and movements? Share your experience with the rest of us!

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What Is Physical Development in Early Childhood? | BEBEZCLUB

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In this article you will find the answer to the question "What is physical development in early childhood?" As well as you will learn about the main stages of physical development, that, in infancy, is mainly associated with mastering body, postures, movements.

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Video: Let’s look at what we understand in terms of pre and post-natal development.

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Video: Let’s look at what we understand in terms of pre and post-natal development.

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Check out this article on Identity and Self-Esteem.  (You will also find links to many other articles at the bottom that may help with your assessment).

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Check out this article on Identity and Self-Esteem.  (You will also find links to many other articles at the bottom that may help with your assessment).

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Angela Oswalt, MSW

During early childhood, children start to develop a "self-concept," the attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that they believe define them. By age 3, (between 18 and 30 months), children have developed their Categorical Self, which is concrete way of viewing themselves in "this or that" labels. For example, young children label themselves in terms of age "child or adult", gender "boy or girl", physical characteristics "short or tall", and value, "good or bad." The labels are used to explain children's self-concept in very concrete, observable terms. For example, Seth may describe himself this way: "I'm 4. I have blue eyes. I'm shorter than Mommy. I can help Grandma set the table!" When asked, young children can also describe their self-concept in simple emotional and attitude descriptions. Seth may go on to say, "Today, I'm happy. I like to play with Amy." However, preschoolers typically do not link their separate self-descriptions into an integrated self-portrait. In addition, many 3-5 year olds are not aware that a person can have opposing characteristics. For example, they don't yet recognize that a person can be both "good" and "bad".

As long-term memory develops, children also gain the Remembered Self. The Remembered Self incorporates memories (and information recounted by adults about personal events) that become part of an individual's life story (sometimes referred to as autobiographical memory). In addition, young children develop an Inner Self, private thoughts, feelings, and desires that nobody else knows about unless a child chooses to share this information.

Because early self-concepts are based on easily defined and observed variables, and because many young children are given lots of encouragement, Preoperational children often have relatively high self-esteem (a judgment about one's worth). Young children are also generally optimistic that they have the ability to learn a new skill, succeed, and finish a task if they keep trying, a belief called "Achievement-Related Attribution", or sometimes "self-efficacy". Self-esteem comes from several sources, such as school ability, athletic ability, friendships, relationships with caregivers, and other helping and playing tasks.

As with emotional development, both internal and external variables can affect young children's self-concept. For example, a child's temperament can affect how they view themselves and their ability to successfully complete tasks. Children with easy temperaments are typically willing to try things repeatedly and are better able to handle frustrations and challenges. In contrast, children with more difficult temperaments may become more easily frustrated and discouraged by challenges or changes in the situation.

Children who can better cope with frustrations and challenges are more likely to think of themselves as successful, valuable, and good, which will lead to a higher self-esteem. In contrast, children who become easily frustrated and discouraged, often quit or need extra assistance to complete a task. These children may have lower self-esteem if they start to believe that they can't be successful and aren't valuable.

External factors, such as messages from other people, also color how children view themselves. Young children with parents, caregivers, and teachers providing them with positive feedback about their abilities and attempts to succeed (even if they aren't successful the first time) usually have higher self-esteem. On the contrary, when parents, caregivers, or teachers are regularly negative or punitive toward children's attempts to succeed, or regularly ignore or downplay those achievements, young children will have a poor self-image and a lower self-esteem.

Peers also have an impact on young children's self-concept. Young children who have playmates and classmates that are usually nice and apt to include the child in activities will develop a positive self-image. However, a young child who is regularly left out, teased, or bullied by same-age or older peers can develop low self-esteem.

As mentioned repeatedly throughout this document, each child is unique, and he or she may respond to different environments in different ways. Some young children are naturally emotionally "resilient" in certain situations. Resilient children experience or witness something seemingly negative or harmful, without experiencing damage to their self-esteem or emotional development. Resilience not only enables such individuals to withstand life stress, but quite often these children became high achievers. This ability also helps resilient children to maintain good health and to resist mental and physical illnesses. For example, many young children who are severely physically and/or emotionally bullied perform poorly in school, become aggressive or withdrawn, or depressed or anxious. Resilient children experience that same bullying and show no signs or symptoms that the experience has negatively impacted them.

For more on how to positively impact a young child's emotional and self-identity development, please see the article on Parenting Skills for the Preoperational Stage.

Another more complex but highly important part of a child's self-identity is formed by their cultural identity. While ideas about ancestry and how their family's culture fits into the larger society are too abstract for most young people to understand, it's never too early to teach children about cultural and religious traditions. Including young people in important meals, celebrations, religious services, etc, and explaining what's going on in simple terms is very important in passing on a sense of that child's cultural background. Ideas such as, "My family goes to the synagogue on Saturdays," or "Grandma's traditional soul food is yummy," become part of the child's self-concept. As time goes by and children's capacities to understand what it means when someone says "I am Jewish", or "I am an African American," these experiences will continue to add to and to enrich their self-concept.

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Early Childhood Emotional and Social Development: Identity and Self-Esteem

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Angela Oswalt, MSW During early childhood, children start to develop a "self-concept," the attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that they believe define them. By age 3, (between 18 and 30 months), children have developed their Categorical Self, which is concrete way of viewing themselves in "this or that" labels.

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When you are introducing your work ensure you discuss the aspect of the learning outcomes alongside the set task. Also think about what you already know? key information? what key documents are you going to support your work with. You may want to revisit your introduction and add to at the end.

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List of books and articles about Child Development 

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List of books and articles about Child Development 

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List of books and articles about Child Development | Online Research Library: Questia

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Discover librarian-selected research resources on Child Development from the Questia online library, including full-text online books, academic journals, magazines, newspapers and more.

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Document and Links to Government Website: Early Years Foundation Stage

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Document and Links to Government Website: Early Years Foundation Stage

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The early years foundation stage ( EYFS) sets standards for the learning, development and care of your child from birth to 5 years old.

All schools and Ofsted-registered early years providers must follow the EYFS, including childminders, preschools, nurseries and school reception classes.

Areas of learning

Your child will mostly be taught through games and play.

The areas of learning are:

communication and language

personal, social and emotional development

physical development

literacy

mathematics

understanding the world

expressive arts and design

Assessments

Your child's progress will be reviewed when they're between 2 and 3 by an early years practitioner or health visitor.

Their class teacher will assess them at the end of the school year when they turn 5.

The assessment is based on classroom observation - your child will not be tested. It uses the early learning goals, which can be found in the early years framework.

If an area of learning conflicts with your beliefs

Talk to your child's early years provider if you think one or more areas of the EYFS conflict with your religious or philosophical beliefs. They'll tell you if you need to ask for an 'exemption'.

If you get an exemption, your child will not have to take part in a specific area of learning for 12 months.

Ask for an exemption

Write to your early years provider if you decide to ask for an exemption. You must explain how your religious or philosophical beliefs conflict with:

an area of learning

a learning goal or assessment

Your early years provider will decide if you can get an exemption. If you get one, you'll need to apply again after 12 months.

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The early years foundation stage (EYFS) sets standards for the learning, development and care of children from birth to 5

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Reading: Influential Theories about How Children Grow and Develop 

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Reading: Influential Theories about How Children Grow and Develop 

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Child development theories focus on explaining how children change and grow over the course of childhood. These developmental theories center on various aspects of growth, including social, emotional, and cognitive development.

The study of human development is a rich and varied subject. We all have personal experience with development, but it is sometimes difficult to understand how and why people grow, learn, and act as they do.

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behavior related to their age, family relationships, or individual temperaments? Developmental psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to understand, explain, and predict behaviors that occur throughout the lifespan.

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of child development have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth.

History of Developmental Theories

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of human history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occur during childhood and adolescence.

Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th century, but it tended to focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development.

More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.

Why Developmental Theories are Important

Developmental theories provide a framework for thinking about human growth and learning. But why do we study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.

An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

Why is it important to study how children grow, learn, and change? An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood.

7 Best-Known Developmental Theories

There are many child development theories that have been proposed by theorists and researchers. Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development such as cognitive or social growth.

Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced behavior.

According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and behavior. Freud proposed one of the best-known grand theories of child development.

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. During each stage, the child encounters conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development.

His theory suggested that the energy of the libido was focused on different erogenous zones at specific stages. Failure to progress through a stage can result in fixation at that point in development, which Freud believed could have an influence on adult behavior.

So what happens as children complete each stage? And what might result if a child does poorly during a particular point in development? Successfully completing each stage leads to the development of a healthy adult personality.

Failing to resolve the conflicts of a particular stage can result in fixations that can then have an influence on adult behavior.

While some other child development theories suggest that personality continues to change and grow over the entire lifetime, Freud believed that it was early experiences that played the greatest role in shaping development. According to Freud, personality is largely set in stone by the age of five.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half of the twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known.

Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes growth and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that arise during different stages of development.

While Erikson's theory of psychosocial development shared some similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed that social interaction and experience played decisive roles.

His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth.

Unlike many other developmental theories, Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory focuses on development across the entire lifespan. At each stage, children and adults face a developmental crisis that serves as a major turning point.

Successfully managing the challenges of each stage leads to the emergence of a lifelong psychological virtue.

Behavioral Child Development Theories

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviorism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviorists believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable behaviors in order to become a more scientific discipline.

According to the behavioral perspective, all human behavior can be described in terms of environmental influences. Some behaviorists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to modify behaviors.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world.

Theorist Jean Piaget proposed one of the most influential theories of cognitive development.

Piaget proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.﻿﻿

His cognitive theory seeks to describe and explain the development of thought processes and mental states. It also looks at how these thought processes influence the way we understand and interact with the world.

Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.

Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

Pre-Operational Stage: A period between ages 2 and 6 during which a child learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people.

Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages 7 and 11 during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Formal Operational Stage: A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.

Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an innate need to form attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and protection. Not only that but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and motivational patterns.

In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed to ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in turn provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration.

Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that a number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support and care are more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning.

For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviors that have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned through observation and modeling.

By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.

Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live model.﻿﻿

Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a behavior as well as through observing either real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books or films.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.

His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. In Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process. Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world.

This child development theory also introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, which is the gap between what a person can do with help and what they can do on their own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others that people are able to progressively learn and increase their skills and scope of understanding.

A Word From Verywell

As you can see, some of psychology's best-known thinkers have developed theories to help explore and explain different aspects of child development. While not all of these theories are fully accepted today, they all had an important influence on our understanding of child development.

Today, contemporary psychologists often draw on a variety of theories and perspectives in order to understand how kids grow, behave, and think. These theories represent just a few of the different ways of thinking about child development.

In reality, fully understanding how children change and grow over the course of childhood requires looking at many different factors that influence physical and psychological growth. Genes, the environment, and the interactions between these two forces determine how kids grow physically as well as mentally.

Additional Reading

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Influential Theories About How Children Grow and Develop

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There are many development theories. Learn some of the best-known child development theories as offered by Freud, Erickson, Piaget, and other famous psychologists.

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What external factor can you think of that effect a child’s pre and post natal development?

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Reading - Inequalities in early childhood

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Reading - Inequalities in early childhood

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Let me know your thoughts below?

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Inequality in Early Childhood Education and Care: What Do We Know? | RSF

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This review examines several dimensions of ECEC in relation to the recent growth in income inequality. Part I briefly reviews trends in income inequality and the wage, labor supply, and family composition factors that have interacted to increase inequality in recent decades.

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What theories of Cognitive and Physical Development are you aware of?

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What theories of Cognitive and Physical Development are you aware of?

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Most women ovulate once a month, about two weeks after their last menstrual cycle. Ovulation is the release of an egg. If you have sexual relations before, during, or within 24 hours of ovulation, sperm can travel from the vagina into your fallopian tubes and fertilize the egg. Sperm can live in the body for up to five days, so your chances of conceiving are higher if you have intercourse in the days leading up to ovulation.

The first trimester is the first 12 weeks of your pregnancy. This is also the embryonic stage, which continues through the 10th week of your first trimester. Your baby is called an embryo at this stage. Since you're early in the pregnancy, you may experience early pregnancy symptoms, such as:

morning sickness

increased urination

swollen breasts

fatigue

It's during the embryonic stage that embryo cells begin to multiply and form your baby's body.

The embryo's gastrointestinal tract, spinal cord, heart, and brain are the first organs to develop. This starts about one week after conception.

The placenta also develops in the embryonic stage and it plays a vital role in pregnancy because it carries nutrients, oxygen, and water to your baby. This development takes place about two or three weeks after conception.

Your baby's body also begins to form. This includes development of:

These developments continue up to week 10, which is the end of the embryonic stage. Your baby's sex organs will have formed by the end of this stage, although it's too early to determine the baby's sex on an ultrasound.

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Prenatal Development: A Look Across Three Trimesters

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Prenatal development starts at conception and ends with the birth of your baby. It takes about 40 weeks or nine months to create a new life.

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Reading: What factors effect child development?

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Reading: What factors effect child development?

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A child's development is affected by environment, genetics, experiences and relationships. Because there are many factors involved, child development is complex.

Environmental factors, such as income and education, all affect a child's development. A safe community offers a chance to explore. Income affects nutrition, housing, clothing, toys and access to resources and programs. A parent's education may affect how often they read to the child.

Biological factors, including gender and health, affect development. Females and males develop at different rates. Children with health or mental issues develop differently. Nutrition and physical activity affect a child's growth and health.

A child's relationships are important. Children bond strongly with their parents and play and learn with siblings and peers at school. Some children are involved in Sunday school, daycare or other social groups.

Early sensory experiences affect development. All five senses are involved in a child developing an understanding of the world.

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A child's development is affected by environment, genetics, experiences and relationships. Because there are many factors involved, child development is complex. Environmental factors, such as income and education, all affect a child's development. A safe community offers a chance to explore.