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Logical positivism: Logical positivism, a philosophical movement that arose in Vienna in the 1920s and was characterized by the view that scientific knowledge is the only kind of factual knowledge and that all traditional metaphysical doctrines are to be rejected as meaningless. A brief treatment of logical positivism

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Shortly after the end of the first World War, a group of mathematicians, scientists, and philosophers began meeting in Vienna to discuss the implications of recent developments in logic, including Wittgenstein's Tractatus. Under the leadership of Moritz Schlick, this informal gathering (the " Vienna Circle") campaigned for a systematic reduction of human knowledge to logical and scientific foundations. Because the resulting logical positivism (or "logical empiricism") allowed only for the use of logical tautologies and first-person observations from experience, it dismissed as nonsense the metaphysical and normative pretensions of the philosophical tradition. Although participants sometimes found it difficult to defend the strict principles on which their programme depended, this movement offered a powerful vision of the possibilities for modern knowledge.

During the thirties, many of the younger positivists left Europe for England and the United States, where their influence over succeeding generations was enormous. Herbert Feigl and Otto Neurath concentrated on the philosophy of science, developing and refining systematic principles for study of the natural world. Mathematician Kurt Gödel used sophisticated reasoning to explore the limits of the logicist programme. Others became interested in the philosophy of language:Gustav Bergmann continued efforts to achieve a perspicuous representation of reality through an ideal logical language, while Friedrich Waismann began to examine the analysis of ordinary language.

British philosopher A. J. Ayer presented many of the central doctrines of the positivist movement in his 1936 book, Language, Truth, and Logic. Ayer's polemical writing tried to show how the principle of verification could be used as a tool for the elimination of nonsense of every sort. In Ayer's formulation, the principle itself is a simple test:

We say that a sentence is factually significant to any given person, if and only if, [she or] he knows how to verify the proposition which it purports to express—that is, if [she or] he knows what observations would lead [her or] him, under certain conditions, to accept the proposition as being true, or reject it as being false.

Like the pragmatic theory put forward by , verificationism proposes that assertions are meaningful only when their content meets a (minimal) condition about the ways in which we would go about determining their truth. Moreover, like 's distinction between matters of fact and relations of ideas, the principle leaves no room for anything other than verifiable empirical observations of the natural world and the meaningless but useful tautologies of logic and mathematics.

Thus, much of Ayer's book was negative, emphasizing the consequences of a strict application of the positivist program to human pretensions at transcendental knowledge. Traditional metaphysics, with its abstract speculation about the supposed nature of reality, cannot be grounded on scientific observation, and is therefore devoid of significance. For the same reason, traditional religious claims are meaningless since it is impossible to state any observable circumstances under which we could be sure—one way or the other—about their truth. Even much of traditional epistemology is likely to fail the test; only the psychological study of observable human behavior regarding beliefs will remain. Mathematics and natural science are secure, but little else remains.

Although Ayer, Hempel, and other positivists spent a great deal of energy on technical refinements of the principle of verification, its basic content continued to guide the direction of the positivist movement. The major point is that much of what we try to say is meaningless blather.

On a more positive note, the positivists supposed that what remains—consistent logical and mathematical reasoning, together with cautious observation of nature—comprises a great deal of worthwhile human knowledge. Rudolf Carnap's Der logische Aufbau der Welt ( The Logical Structure of the World) (1929) outlined the world-view that is likely to result from a thorough application of the positivist program. The logical rigor of articles like "Testability and Meaning" (1936-37) illustrates both the power and the limitations of this procedure.

Carnap begins with an account of the methods and procedures by means of which we employ sensory observations to verify (or at least to confirm) the truth of scientific hypotheses about the operation of the physical universe. Using the formal methods of mathematical logic, then, the goal is to construct a strictly scientific language that perspicuously represents the structure of the world as a whole. The details are highly technical, of course, but it is only with the detailed treatment that the difficulties of the procedure become evident. The fundamental problem is that empirical generalizations are themselves incapable of direct support within such a system.

This was a crucial part of the insight of Karl Popper, another Viennese philosopher of science. Popper proposed abandonment of the quest for verification, noting that the key feature of scientific hypotheses is precisely their falsifiability rather than their confirmation. We best know what we mean when we carefully state the conditions under which we would be forced to give up what we have supposed.

The central tenets of logical positivism clearly have serious consequences when applied to moral philosophy. Attributions of value are not easily verifiable, so moral judgments may be neither true nor false, but as meaningless as those of metaphysics. Among the original members of the Vienna Circle, only Moritz Schlick devoted any attention to ethics at all, and he regarded it as the descriptive task of cataloging the ways in which members of a society express their feelings about human behavior of various sorts.

It was the American philosopher C.L. Stevenson who worked out the full implications of postivistic theories for expressions of moral praise or blame. The most vital issue to be considered is the meta-ethical question of what moral terms mean. Although Moore had correctly noted that good cannot be defined simply in terms of the approval of human beings, Stevenson made the even more radical suggestion that moral judgments have no factual content at all. Analysis of moral language should focus instead on its unique function as a guide to human behavior, what Stevenson called the "magnetism" of moral terms.

In "The Emotive Meaning of Ethical Terms" (1937) Stevenson argued that we must distinguish clearly between the descriptive or cognitive content of a term and its non-descriptive or emotive meaning. At a purely literal descriptive level, statements about moral value are indeed unverifiable and therefore meaningless, but considered as appeals to human emotions, they may have powerful dynamic effects. Saying "Murder is wrong," may have no factual significance, but it does succinctly convey a host of expressive suggestions, including (at least) "I don't like murder," "You shouldn't like murder," and "We should disapprove of murderers." Stevenson's ethical emotivism, further developed in Ethics and Language (1944), quickly became an influential twentieth-century noncognitivist theory about the meaning of moral language.

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Shortly after the end of the first World War, a group of mathematicians, scientists, and philosophers began meeting in Vienna to discuss the implications of recent developments in logic, including Wittgenstein 's Tractatus. Under the leadership of Moritz Schlick, this informal gathering (the " Vienna Circle") campaigned for a systematic reduction of human knowledge to logical and scientific foundations.

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Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions and emerging confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Landscape of Qualitative Research (3rd ed., pp. 191-215). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

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[PDF] Constructivism Learning Theory : A Paradigm for Teaching and Learning | Semantic Scholar

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Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. Its implications for how teachers teach and learn to teach are enormous. If our efforts in reforming education for all students are to succeed, then we must focus on students. To date, a focus on student-centered learning may well be the most important contribution of constructivism.

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Taylor's Scientific Management Theory - Simplest explanation Ever

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In 1909, Taylor published " The Principles of Scientific Management." [1] In this, he proposed that by optimizing and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase. He also advanced the idea that workers and managers needed to cooperate with one another. This was very different from the way work was typically done in businesses beforehand. A factory manager at that time had very little contact with the workers, and he left them on their own to produce the necessary product. There was no standardization, and a worker's main motivation was often continued employment, so there was no incentive to work as quickly or as efficiently as possible.

Taylor believed that all workers were motivated by money, so he promoted the idea of "a fair day's pay for a fair day's work." In other words, if a worker didn't achieve enough in a day, he didn't deserve to be paid as much as another worker who was highly productive.

With a background in mechanical engineering, Taylor was very interested in efficiency. While advancing his career at a U.S. steel manufacturer, he designed workplace experiments to determine optimal performance levels. In one, he experimented with shovel design until he had a design that would allow workers to shovel for several hours straight. With bricklayers, he experimented with the various motions required and developed an efficient way to lay bricks. And he applied the scientific method to study the optimal way to do any type of workplace task. As such, he found that by calculating the time needed for the various elements of a task, he could develop the "best" way to complete that task.

These "time and motion" studies also led Taylor to conclude that certain people could work more efficiently than others. These were the people whom managers should seek to hire where possible. Therefore, selecting the right people for the job was another important part of workplace efficiency. Taking what he learned from these workplace experiments, Taylor developed four principles of scientific management. These principles are also known simply as "Taylorism".

Four Principles of Scientific Management

Taylor's four principles are as follows:

1. Replace working by "rule of thumb," or simple habit and common sense, and instead use the scientific method to study work and determine the most efficient way to perform specific tasks.

2. Rather than simply assign workers to just any job, match workers to their jobs based on capability and motivation, and train them to work at maximum efficiency.

3. Monitor worker performance, and provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they're using the most efficient ways of working.

4. Allocate the work between managers and workers so that the managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks efficiently.

Critiques of Taylorism

Taylor's Scientific Management Theory promotes the idea that there is "one right way" to do something. As such, it is at odds with current approaches such as MBO (Management By Objectives), Continuous Improvement initiatives, BPR (Business Process Reengineering), and other tools like them. These promote individual responsibility, and seek to push decision making through all levels of the organization.

The idea here is that workers are given as much autonomy as practically possible, so that they can use the most appropriate approaches for the situation at hand. (Reflect here on your own experience - are you happier and more motivated when you're following tightly controlled procedures, or when you're working using your own judgment?) What's more, front line workers need to show this sort of flexibility in a rapidly-changing environment. Rigid, rules-driven organizations really struggle to adapt in these situations.

Teamwork is another area where pure Taylorism is in opposition to current practice. Essentially, Taylorism breaks tasks down into tiny steps, and focuses on how each person can do his or her specific series of steps best. Modern methodologies prefer to examine work systems more holistically in order to evaluate efficiency and maximize productivity. The extreme specialization that Taylorism promotes is contrary to modern ideals of how to provide a motivating and satisfying workplace.

Where Taylorism separates manual from mental work, modern productivity enhancement practices seek to incorporate worker's ideas, experience and knowledge into best practice. Scientific management in its pure form focuses too much on the mechanics, and fails to value the people side of work, whereby motivation and workplace satisfaction are key elements in an efficient and productive organization.

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Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management - Understanding Taylorism and Early Management Theory

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In 1909, Taylor published " The Principles of Scientific Management." [1] In this, he proposed that by optimizing and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase. He also advanced the idea that workers and managers needed to cooperate with one another. This was very different from the way work was typically done in businesses beforehand.

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The Scientific Management theory or concept is about the progress of science to substitute the approximation principal or hypothesis of the awareness and education of workers.

Scientific information always methodical, standardized and authorized knowledge; as scientific knowledge is logical and rational.

The main intention of scientific management theory is to enhance economic efficiency, specifically labor productivity. This theory considered one of the best and initial efforts where science applied to management and engineering of process.

Scientific management theory by Fredrick Taylor was a technique that was developed to enhance the efficiency of a work process.

Scientific Management Theory by Taylor :

The theory centered on the systematic study of people, behavior, and tasks. The core of Taylor's theory that they followed the technique of breaking the work process into sub-tasks or least possible units to regulate the most efficient method for accomplishing a particular task.

Also mentioned as classical management theory, scientific management theory made its entry in the early 1900s to enhance worker productivity.

Functions of Scientific Management Theory:

Though the scientific theory of management provided tools for workers to enhance their output and efficiency, employees did only menial work and hence the theory criticism of the classical theory of management faced critics for developing an assembly-line atmosphere. With this as a reason, the theory falls out of favor by various companies but still consider as a valuable tool in many companies for its principles.

A good example where techniques of classical and scientific management theory can apply is in factories where repetitive tasks achieved. The importance of scientific management theory and principles are,

Employees must be selected based on their skills and abilities related to the job.

Incentives and wages provide to employees should base on encouraging them and enhancing their output.

The leadership within the organization should be one that develops a standard method for doing a certain job with the assistance of scientific management theory.

There should be attention to eradicating interruptions while planning work.

Rule of thumb work methods replaced with other methods which are based on the scientific study of tasks.

6 Main Principles of Scientific Management

1. Science, not Rule of Thumb

2. Scientific Selection, Training, and Development of Workers

3. Harmony, not Discord (Conflict)

4. Cooperation, not Individualism

5. Maximum, not Restricted Output

6. Equal Division of Responsibility between Management and Workers

Advantages and Disadvantages of Scientific Management Theory:

Advantages of Scientific Management Theory:

Let us discuss the scientific management theory's advantages or benefits.

1. Enhanced production:

The scientific management theory is responsible for enhanced production as it concentrates on steady improvements in business operations. There is fruitful cooperation between managers and workers and hence enhanced teamwork achieved. The harmonious relationship between the management and workers assists in production in the organization.

2. Ability to control:

The best part of scientific management theorists is that the managers can have good control overproduction. Employees become specialists in their field as they do the same task repeatedly; this makes it easy for the manager to have control over employees.

3. Decreases inaccuracy:

Inaccuracy decreased as the theory based on experiment and observation for context-specific solutions. With better planning and improved decision making, the accuracy achieved.

4. Decreased autocracy:

The theory stimulates the management to adopt a positive relationship with leadership. Cooperation amongst employees and managers enhances democracy in the workplace. Hence there decreased autocracy by following scientific management theory.

5. Cost of production reduced:

The mechanization and the latest use of technology in the production of goods enhance productivity. Since there is enhanced large scale production, there is a decrease in per unit cost of production.

6. Pay system:

With the theory piecework pay system follow, where payment is monitored based on piecework. Here incentives considered to enhance productivity and provide high wages for employees. With higher productivity, there is an increase in wages for employees. The differential incentive plan provides higher wages to efficient workers. In this way, the standard of living of the employees made better.

7. Quick decision making:

Planning ahead of time and prompt decision making are few good aspects of scientific management theory.

8. A benefit to customers:

With the help of scientific management theory, there are triple benefits for the consumers. Consumers pay fewer prices and can get the best quality products. They are also able to attain better living standards.

9. Efficiency increased:

They follow early working methods and control where a management methodology developed for training, selecting and supervising them in a close manner. Since scientific selection and training methods follow, it leads to a workforce that is best and enhances efficiency.

Efficiency also increased with the standardization of techniques, tools, equipment, and materials. The workers also benefit with development and scientific training as they can enhance their competency and knowledge.

10. Best use of resources and development:

With the scientific techniques followed, there is better utilization of resources this, in turn, leads to increased productivity. Wastage and inefficiency of all means eradicated with the theory. Also with the help of scientific investigation, it leads to technological development. They also follow other quantitative techniques and modern studies are based.

11. Beneficial to the nation:

With the help of scientific management theory, there enhanced beneficial aspects for the nation. Some of them increase production and less cost of production, industrial harmony, and peace, every phase of society meet the high standard of living, the national income enhanced, and there is also quick industrial development with this theory. The role of Scientific management theory plays a crucial part in developing the nation.

12. Less production time:

Work in lesser time achieves with scientific management theory. The operations regarding productions pre-established and lead to fewer production delays.

13. Worker instructions:

With the assistance of this theory, work carried out regularly according to pre-determined plans. Complete guidance and instructions provided to workers to carry on with work as planned.

14. Good working conditions:

A proper atmosphere for working and conditions are developed with scientific management theory. Proper working schedules follow with ventilation; adequate lighting, rest pauses, proper safety, and other facilities provided to patients.

15. Owners and investors benefitted:

Large scale production and enhanced productivity leads to enhanced turnovers and more profit for investors. High profits can reap for self-financing so that the concern has a sound financial base.

16. Avoids labor and management disputes:

Since there are a healthy relationship and cooperation between management and labors, hence they have a cordial and harmonious relationship with one another. In this way, industrial disputes reduce and peace in an industry achieved.

The mental revolution is a concept evolving by Taylor for the development of mutual trust, understanding, and confidence between management and labor.

Disadvantages of Scientific Management Theory:

The following mentioned are a few limitations or disadvantages of scientific management.

1. Requires huge capital:

The theory requires an investment of huge capital and consider as a costly system. The establishment of work study, planning department, training of workers, and standardization requires more money.

2. Management takes control:

The management takes complete responsibility related to the control and planning of workplace activities. Since the managers take up control of the employees, they lack creativity, another reason for this is that since they repeat the same task, their chore is meaningless, monotonous, and tedious which reduces employee motivation.

3. Planning reduces productivity:

Though the capability to plan is an advantage, the downside of planning is that it makes work inflexible and rigid and may lead to carelessness and dissatisfaction. This directed to less productivity.

4. Demotivating approach:

With the application of the scientific approach of management, the employees focused on how well they perform their job and their statistics and results produced along with a time frame. With this result, the employees may feel underestimated and also feel alienated which may direct them to absenteeism.

5. Overly bureaucratic:

Over bureaucratic activity may be a major disadvantage in any organization. A bureaucratic and strict organization may make the employees feel dissatisfied and this may lead to high staff turnover rates and may affect productivity.

New staff must be trained to adapt to new changes in the sector which leads to wastage of productivity time.

6. Mechanistic:

The theory follows a specific approach for organizations and the employers gain control over the workers. This activity makes work mechanistic and treats workers like machines.

The theory focuses on efficiency, where workers viewed as robots to speed up work. The workers lose skill level and autonomy work level; they aren't beneficial for state of the art working conditions.

7. Not suitable for teams:

Scientific management theory doesn't work fruitful for teams and groups as they have the capability to abuse and exploit human beings which may lead to conflicts. There is no scope for individual preference with this theory.

Functional foremanship followed by Taylor, where the workers required to report to eight bosses. In this way, the unity of command broken, where the worker needs to report to just one boss. When there is no unity of command, there is confusion and disorder in the organization.

8. Work division:

By applying scientific management theory there is a separation of work such as in planning any function and executing them. Since management takes complete responsibility, there is a reduction in workers' role in rigid and adherence procedures where the workers have no idea.

9. Avoids bargaining:

Since the scientific approach follows the piece work pay system, there is no chance for any realistic bargaining regarding the wage rates, as the tasks timed, measured and rated scientifically.

There are more chances for financial loss as there are more changes that take place within the organization.

11. Unemployment:

With the application of this theory, men replaced by machines which in turn lead to unemployment. In this way, fewer employees required and many chucked out from work.

12. Adverse effects:

The scientific management theory pushes workers to rush to complete their work and complete work within the stipulated time. In this way, there is an adverse effect on the health of the workers.

With managerial decisions, there is strictness and stress for managers as they need to take responsibility for having complete control over the workplace. In this way, there is pressure influenced in the workplace for the workers too.

Productivity and profitability give importance which leads to exploitation of employees and they associated in trade unions. This led to the mistrust amongst employees and management.

14. Wrong assumption:

According to Frederick Winslow Taylor's theory of motivation, employees do not naturally enjoy work and they require close observation and control. Taylor's assumed that workers focus and motivated by employing financial gains. But the real truth is that the employees not motivated by finance aspects but by non-finance incentives such as social needs and more.

15. Follows narrow application:

The scientific management theory focuses on a narrow application. They are applied only at times when there is a quantitative measuring of the employees. The theory applies only to certain factories where the performance measure quantitatively. The theory not adopted in the service sector as here the performance not measured quantitatively.

16. Time-consuming:

The scientific management theory is considered time-consuming as it requires complete reorganizing and mental revision of the organization. The theory when adopted needs more time for standardization, study, and specialization, or else at the time of overhauling, the workers suffer.

These are considered a few advantages and disadvantages of scientific management theory. Hence it is suggested to make a complete research about the theory and review if it would be suitable for the organization and later adopt it.

" The principles of scientific management" was published in 1911 by Frederick Winslow Taylor, where this theory was applied to the management of workers.

This theory was adopted mainly by many organizations to improve productivity.

To simplify jobs, tasks are optimized and the employees are trained to perform such tasks in the best way.

Scientific management theories have worked in many concerns and made them beneficial, though it had minimal disadvantages.

There are many sources that best explains the good aspects of the theory. The experimentation was followed for some years and was concluded with classical scientific approach principles, advantages, and disadvantages.

Scientific Management Theory Pdf

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Scientific Management Theory: Advantages and Disadvantages - Wisestep

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The Scientific Management theory or concept is about the progress of science to substitute the approximation principal or hypothesis of the awareness and education of workers. Scientific information always methodical, standardized and authorized knowledge; as scientific knowledge is logical and rational. The main intention of scientific management theory is to enhance economic efficiency, specifically labor productivity.