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London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom.[8][9] The city stands on the River Thames in the south-east of England, at the head of its 50-mile (80 km) estuary leading to the North Sea. London has been a major settlement for two millennia, and was originally called Londinium, which was founded by the Romans.[10] The City of London, London's ancient core and financial centre-an area of just 1.12 square miles (2.9 km ²) and colloquially known as the Square Mile-retains boundaries that closely follow its medieval limits.[note 1][11][12][13][14][15] The adjacent City of Westminster has for centuries been the location of much of the national government. Thirty-one additional boroughs north and south of the river also comprise modern London. The London region is governed by the mayor of London and the London Assembly.[note 2][16][17]

London is one of the world's most important global cities.[18] It exerts considerable influence upon the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transportation.[19] It is one of the largest financial centres in the world and in 2019, London had the second highest number of ultra high-net-worth individuals in Europe, after Paris.[20] And in 2020, London had the second-highest number of billionaires of any city in Europe, after Moscow.[21] London's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe,[22] and London is home to highly ranked institutions such as Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of Economics in social sciences, as well as the comprehensive University College London.[23] In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted three modern Summer Olympic Games.[24]

London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region.[25] Its estimated mid-2018 municipal population (corresponding to Greater London) was roughly 9 million,[5] which made it the third-most populous city in Europe.[26] London accounts for 13.4% of the U.K. population.[27] Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, after Istanbul, Moscow, and Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census.[28][29] The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe, after Istanbul and the Moscow Metropolitan Area, with 14,040,163 inhabitants in 2016.[note 3][4][30]

London contains four World Heritage Sites: the Tower of London; Kew Gardens; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Abbey, and St Margaret's Church; and the historic settlement in Greenwich where the Royal Observatory, Greenwich defines the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time.[31] Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square and The Shard. London has numerous museums, galleries, libraries and sporting events. These include the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library and West End theatres.[32] The London Underground is the oldest rapid transit system in the world.

Prehistory

In 1993, the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south foreshore, upstream of Vauxhall Bridge.[41] This bridge either crossed the Thames or reached a now lost island in it. Two of those timbers were radiocarbon dated to between 1750 BC and 1285 BC.[41]

In 2010, the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to between 4800 BC and 4500 BC,[42] were found on the Thames's south foreshore, downstream of Vauxhall Bridge.[43] The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.[43]

Roman London

Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans about four years[2] after the invasion of AD 43.[44] This lasted only until around AD 61, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it, burning the settlement to the ground.[45] The next, heavily planned, incarnation of Londinium prospered, and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of around 60,000.[46]

Anglo-Saxon and Viking period London

With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century, London ceased to be a capital, and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued in the area of St Martin-in-the-Fields until around 450.[47] From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city.[48] By about 680, the city had regrown into a major port, although there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.[49]

The Vikings established Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England; its boundary stretched roughly from London to Chester. It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that Alfred "refounded" London in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until about 950, after which activity increased dramatically.[50]

By the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time on, London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: "It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital."[51][52]

Middle Ages

After winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in the newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.[53] William constructed the Tower of London, the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone, in the southeastern corner of the city, to intimidate the native inhabitants.[54] In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.[55][56]

In the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place. For most purposes this was Westminster, although the royal treasury, having been moved from Winchester, came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre, and it flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was around 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.[57] Disaster struck in the form of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.[58] London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.[59]

London was also a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[60] In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.[61]

Early modern

During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism, and much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city.[62] In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up its main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It existed until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway.[63] Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries, where it was considered indispensable.[64]

But the reach of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565, there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity.[65] The Royal Exchange was founded.[66] Mercantilism grew, and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established, with trade expanding to the New World. London became the principal North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from an estimated 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.[62]

In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre. By the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still very compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605.[67]

In 1637, the government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the area of London. The plan called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, a lack of interest in administering these additional areas, or concern by city guilds of having to share power, the Corporation refused. Later called "The Great Refusal", this decision largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the City.[68]

In the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.[69] The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647,[70] and they were levelled by Parliament the same year.[71]

London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century,[72] culminating in the Great Plague of 1665-1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population.[73]

The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings.[74] Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke[75][76][77] as Surveyor of London.[78] In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 1700s.

In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force.[79] In total, more than 200 offences were punishable by death,[80] including petty theft.[81] Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday.[82]

The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas, with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press. Following the invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies, many financiers relocated to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world leading war fleet, acting as a serious deterrent to potential economic adversaries of the United Kingdom. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.[83][84] According to Samuel Johnson:

You find no man, at all intellectual, who is willing to leave London. No, Sir, when a man is tired of London, he is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford.

Late modern and contemporary

London was the world's largest city from c.1831 to 1925,[86] with a population density of 325 people per hectare.[87] London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics,[88] claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866.[89] Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital.

London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War,[90] and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city.[91]

The 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when London was still recovering from the war.[92] From the 1940s onwards, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan,[93] making London one of the most diverse cities worldwide. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank.[94] The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the " pea soup fogs" for which London had been notorious.[95]

Primarily starting in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London subculture[96] associated with the King's Road, Chelsea[97] and Carnaby Street.[98] The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era.[99] In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created.[100] During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army[101] for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing in 1973.[102][103] Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.[104]

Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s.[105] The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was borne out of London's ever-increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s.[106] The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.[107]

The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, which left London without a central administration until 2000 when London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the Greater London Authority.[108] To celebrate the start of the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed.[109] On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times.[110] On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.[111]

In 2008, Time named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing it as the world's three most influential global cities.[112] In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, the highest level since 1939.[113] During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but a majority of London constituencies voted to remain in the EU.[114]

Scope

London, also referred to as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top-level subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis.[note 4] The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs , causing "London" to be defined in a number of ways for different purposes.[139]

Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, within which 'LONDON' forms part of postal addresses.[140][141] The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some places just outside are included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.[142]

Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt,[143] although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.[144] Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London.[145] The city is split by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area in its interior. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W ﻿ / ﻿ 51.50722°N 0.12750°W .[146] However the geographical centre of London, on one definition, is in the London Borough of Lambeth, just 0.1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station.[147]

Status

Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies.[148] The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.[149] London's status as the capital of England, and later the United Kingdom, has never been granted or confirmed officially-by statute or in written form.[note 5]

Its position was formed through constitutional convention, making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK's uncodified constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.[153] More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.[14]

Topography

Greater London encompasses a total area of 1,583 square kilometres (611 sq mi), an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 4,542 inhabitants per square kilometre (11,760/sq mi). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 8,382 square kilometres (3,236 sq mi) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 1,510 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,900/sq mi).[154] Modern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.[155]

Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.[156] The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles (up in Scotland and Northern Ireland and down in southern parts of England, Wales and Ireland) caused by post-glacial rebound.[157][158]

In 1974 a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.[159]

Climate

London, United Kingdom

Climate chart (explanation)

Average max. and min. temperatures in °C

Precipitation totals in mm

Imperial conversion

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Average max. and min. temperatures in °F

Precipitation totals in inches

London has a temperate oceanic climate ( Köppen: Cfb ). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893.[160] The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm).[161] The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, lower than cities such as Rome, Lisbon, New York City and Sydney.[162][163][164] Nevertheless, despite its relatively low annual precipitation, London still receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually-higher than, or at least very similar to, the aforementioned cities.

Temperature extremes in London range from 38.1 °C (100.6 °F) at Kew on 10 August 2003 [165] down to −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) at Northolt on 1 January 1962.[166][167] Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.[168]

Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths.[169] There was also a previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 which also caused many heat related deaths.[170] The previous record high was 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station.[171] Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer. Most recently in Summer 2018[172] and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December.[173] However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.[174]

Winters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect,[175] making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts. This can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow, 15 miles (24 km) west of London, with the London Weather Centre.[176]

Districts

Places within London's vast urban area are identified using district names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.

Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London.[183][184] The City of London is the main financial district,[185] and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.

The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists.[186] West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.[187] The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.[188][189]

The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.[190] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.[190]

Architecture

London's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace, England's oldest surviving Tudor palace, built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c.1515.[191]

Part of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate.

The disused-but soon[when? ] to be rejuvenated-1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington.[192] The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.

The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick built, most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings.[193]

In the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London (see Tall buildings in London), including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom.

Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape,[194] the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/ Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James Stirling. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena.

Cityscape

Natural history

The London Natural History Society suggest that London is "one of the World's Greenest Cities" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish.[195] They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and 76 local nature reserves.[196]

Amphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.[197]

Among other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (2.6 square kilometres) of London. These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins, sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people's backyards. Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament, where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet. Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace, reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II's prized pink flamingos.[198] Generally, however, foxes and city folk appear to get along. A survey in 2001 by the London-based Mammal Society found that 80 per cent of 3,779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around. This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole.[199][200]

Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel.[201] In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city.[202] Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-eared, Natterer's and Leisler's.[203]

Among the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames,[204] while the BBC Two programme "Natural World: Unnatural History of London" shows feral pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city, a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market, and foxes that will "sit" if given sausages.[205]

Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained.[206] Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century, are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.[207][208]

London's gross regional product in 2018 was almost £500 billion, around a quarter of UK GDP.[256] London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m ² of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m ² of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.[257][258] London is the world's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal (2015) report.[259] As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth $2.2 trillion-the same value as that of Brazil's annual GDP.[260] The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics.[261] On average the price per square metre in central London is €24,252 (April 2014). This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 and Paris €11,229.[262]

The City of London

London's finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major business districts in London. London is one of the pre-eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance.[263][264] London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. For many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring), this was only time to move to London. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time.[83] This unique concentration of talents accelerated the transition from the Commercial Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. By the end of the 19th century, Britain was the wealthiest of all nations, and London a leading financial centre. Still, as of 2016 London tops the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI),[265] and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.[266]

London's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Around 325,000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid-2007. London has over 480 overseas banks, more than any other city in the world. It is also the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS.[267] Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007-2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance.[268] Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market.

Over half of the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London.[269]

Media and technology

Media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector.[270] The BBC is a significant employer, while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers are edited in London. London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion.[271] The Port of London is the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year.[272]

A growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In April 2014, the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD.[273][274][275] In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future[276] in the 2014/15 list by FDi Magazine.[277]

The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN[278] and UK Power Networks.[279]

Tourism

London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits.[280][281] It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015.[282] Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy.[283] The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.[284] As of 2016 London was the world top city destination as ranked by TripAdvisor users.[285]

In 2015 the top most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London. The top 10 most visited attractions were: (with visits per venue)[286]

1. The British Museum: 6,820,686

2. The National Gallery: 5,908,254

3. The Natural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023

4. The Southbank Centre: 5,102,883

5. Tate Modern: 4,712,581

6. The Victoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325

7. The Science Museum: 3,356,212

8. Somerset House: 3,235,104

9. The Tower of London: 2,785,249

10. The National Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486

The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stood at 138,769, and is expected to grow over the years.[287]

Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London,[289] however the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London. In 2007 the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL).[290]

The lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.[291]

Aviation

London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights.

London Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways.[292] In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.[293] In 2014, Dubai gained from Heathrow the leading position in terms of international passenger traffic.[294]

London Gatwick Airport,[295] south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport[296] and is the main base of easyJet,[297] the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.[298]

London Stansted Airport,[299] north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport[300] and is the main base of Ryanair,[301] the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.[302]

London Luton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines for short-haul flights.[303]

London City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.[304]

London Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines.[305] In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.[306]

Rail

Underground and DLR

The London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube, is the oldest[307] and third longest[308] metro system in the world. The system serves 270 stations[309] and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway.[310] It dates from 1863.[311]

Over four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year.[312] An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics.[313] The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.

Suburban

There are more than 360 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports.[314] London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers- Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year.[315][316] Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing.

With the need for more rail capacity in London, Crossrail is expected to open in 2021.[317] It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport.[318] It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.[319][320]

Inter-city and international

London is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London.[321] King's Cross station and Euston station, which are both in London, are the starting points of the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line-the two main raiway lines in Britain-respectively. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, linking London with the rest of Britain including Aberdeen, Birmingham, Blackpool, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Cambridge, Cardiff, Carlisle, Chester, Coventry, Crewe, Derby, Doncaster, Dover, Edinburgh, Exeter, Glasgow, Holyhead (for Dublin), Hull, Lancaster, Leeds, Liverpool, Nottingham, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Reading, Sheffield, Southampton, Sunderland, Stevenage, Swansea, Wolverhampton and York.[322]

London also has convenient rail connections with airports out of Greater London. These airports include Birmingham Airport (via Birmingham International railway station), East Midlands Airport (via East Midlands Parkway railway station), Inverness Airport (via Inverness railway station), Leeds Bradford Airport (via Bradford Interchange or Leeds railway station) and Liverpool John Lennon Airport (via Liverpool South Parkway railway station).[322]

Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains, such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Calais, Paris, Disneyland Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel.[323] The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London.[324] There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.

Freight

Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height, significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail; chiefly building materials and landfill waste. As a major hub of the British railway network, London's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions, such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports, and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.[325]

Buses, coaches and trams

London's bus network runs 24 hours a day, with about 9,300 vehicles, more than 675 bus routes and around 19,000 bus stops.[326] In 2019/20, the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per year.[327] Since 2010 and average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year.[328] London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world[329] and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.[330]

London's coach hub is Victoria Coach Station, an Art Deco building opened in 1932. The coach station was initially run by a group of coach companies under the name of London Coastal Coaches; however, in 1970 the service and station were included in the nationalisation of the country's coach services, becoming part of the National Bus Company. In 1988, the coach station was purchased by London Transport which then became Transport for London. Victoria Coach Station has weekly passenger numbers of over 200,000 and provides services across the UK and Europe.[331][failed verification ]

London has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South London. The network has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013.[332][333] Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.[334]

Cable car

London's first and to date only cable car is the Emirates Air Line, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the River Thames, and links Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city. It is integrated with London's Oyster Card ticketing system, although the Emirates Air Line fares are not included in the Oyster daily capping.[335] It cost £60 million to build and can carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times. Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme, the cable car is sponsored in a 10-year deal by the airline Emirates.[336]

Cycling

In the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike everyday,[337] meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day.[338][339] This relatively low percentage of bicycle users may be due to the poor investments for cycling in London of about £110 million per year,[340] equating to around £12 per person, which can be compared to £22 in the Netherlands.[341]

Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a bicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.[342]

Port and river boats

The Port of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009.[272] Most of this cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.[272]

London has river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services.[343] At major piers including Canary Wharf, London Bridge City, Battersea Power Station and London Eye (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times.[344] The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads.[345]

Roads

Although the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes-but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city (the Ringways Plan) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s.[346] The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 mi (188 km) long.[347] The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.

London is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h).[348]

In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London.[349] Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass.[350][351] The London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users, reduce road traffic, increase traffic speeds, and reduce queues;[352] however, the increase in private for hire vehicles has affected these expectations. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000 cars - a 35-per-cent reduction of vehicles driven per day.[353][354]

Tertiary education

London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe.[22] According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world[355][356] and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world.[357] A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education.[358]

A number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2021 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked #8 in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 10th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 31st.[359] The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[360] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the Financial Times.[361] The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings[362]): the Royal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), the Royal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th).

With students in London[363] and around 48,000 in University of London Worldwide,[364] the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK.[365] It includes five multi-faculty universities - City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL - and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies.[366] Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures, and most award their own degrees.

A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system, including Brunel University, Imperial College London,[note 6] Kingston University, London Metropolitan University,[367] University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe).[368] In addition there are three international universities in London - Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.

London is home to five major medical schools - Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London - and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city - Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe).[369] Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in White City.There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management. London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts, Central School of Ballet, LAMDA, London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, RADA, Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art and Trinity Laban.

Primary and secondary education

The majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow, St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.

Leisure and entertainment

Leisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London[370] at 25.6 events per 1000 people.[371] Globally the city is one of the big four fashion capitals of the world, and according to official statistics, it is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city,[372] and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.[373]

Within the City of Westminster in London, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements.[374] London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century.[375] The United Kingdom's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.[376]

Islington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom.[377] Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including the world-famous Selfridges flagship store.[378] Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west.

London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris, Milan, and New York City. London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown.[379]

There is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday.[380] The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors from across the country.[381]

Literature, film and television

London has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London-specifically, from the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play The Alchemist, was set in the city.[382] A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.[382]

The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire; Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people's vision of early Victorian London; and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century.[382] Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories.[382] Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon's Calendar of the London Seasons (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a "biography" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.

London has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Twickenham, Ealing, Shepperton, Pinewood, Elstree and Borehamwood,[383] and a special effects and post-production community centred in Soho. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London.[384] London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), The 101 Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), The Great Mouse Detective (1986), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V For Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2008) and The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Helen Mirren, Gary Oldman, Christopher Nolan, Jude Law, Benedict Cumberbatch, Tom Hardy, Keira Knightley and Daniel Day-Lewis. Since 2008, the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House. London is a major centre for television production, with studios including BBC Television Centre, The Fountain Studios and The London Studios. Many television programmes have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders, broadcast by the BBC since 1985.

Museums, art galleries and libraries

London is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753.[385] Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.

The British Library is the second largest library in the world, and the national library of the United Kingdom.[386][387][388] There are many other research libraries, including the Wellcome Library and Dana Centre, as well as university libraries, including the British Library of Political and Economic Science at LSE, the Central Library at Imperial, the Maughan Library at King's, and the Senate House Libraries at the University of London.[389][390]

In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as " Albertopolis", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits.[391] The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station, which was built by the Basel-based architecture firm of Herzog & de Meuron.[392]

Music

London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, as well as countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), the Southbank Centre ( London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra), Cadogan Hall ( Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall ( The Proms).[376] London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum (home to the English National Opera).[376] The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches. Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban.

London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, The O2 Arena[393] and Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire.[376] Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, South West Four, Lovebox, and Hyde Park's British Summer Time are all held in London.[394] The city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where The Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, Cliff Richard, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, The Small Faces, Iron Maiden, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, The Jam, Ultravox, Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Adam Ant, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.[395]

London was instrumental in the development of punk music, with figures such as the Sex Pistols, The Clash, and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city.[396][397] More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael's Wham!, Kate Bush, Seal, the Pet Shop Boys, Bananarama, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, McFly, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Bloc Party, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Paloma Faith, Ellie Goulding, One Direction and Florence and the Machine.[398][399][400] London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of house, hip hop, and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom.[8] [9] The city stands on the River Thames in the south-east of England, at the head of its 50-mile (80 km) estuary leading to the North Sea.

# data[].attributes.location_name
Colosseo, Piazza del Colosseo, Rome, Metropolitan City of Rome, Italy

# data[].attributes.headline
Colosseo, Piazza del Colosseo, Rome, Metropolitan City of Rome, Italy

# data[].attributes.subject
Colosseo, Piazza del Colosseo, Rome, Metropolitan City of Rome, Italy

# data[].attributes.location_name
Hachikō Memorial Statue, 2 Chome-1 道玄坂涩谷区东京都日本

# data[].attributes.headline
Hachikō Memorial Statue, 2 Chome-1 道玄坂涩谷区东京都日本

# data[].attributes.subject
Hachikō Memorial Statue, 2 Chome-1 道玄坂涩谷区东京都日本

# data[].attributes.body
In 1948, the Hachiko Memorial statue is established by Takeshi Ando at Japan. It's background is about a Akita dog named Hachiko, which is really loyal to his owner. Everyday, Hachiko will went to Shibuya Station, and wait for his owner. One day, his owner didn't return from work because he is sick. Although at last Hachiko's owner died and never return, Hachiko still went to the station everyday for the next 9 years until he died. And this story is the reason we chose this monument, because it really touch our heart! Also, this story become a movie called " Hachi : a dog's Tale", and was well known all over the world!

# data[].attributes.body
In 1834, the original Palace of Westminster was destroyed by a fire. At that time architects were invited to submit designs for the new palace and a commission was set up to select the best. Big Ben is the nickname for the big clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London. It is often referred to as the Big Clock and Bell Tower and was officially renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Sir Charles Barry was responsible for the design of this palace. Edward John Dent designed the clock. After his death, his son Frederick completed the clock in 1854. It was installed in April 1859.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1834, the original Palace of Westminster was destroyed by a fire. At that time architects were invited to submit designs for the new palace and a commission was set up to select the best. Big Ben is the nickname for the big clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London. It is often referred to as the Big Clock and Bell Tower and was officially renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Sir Charles Barry was responsible for the design of this palace. Edward John Dent designed the clock. After his death, his son Frederick completed the clock in 1854. It was installed in April 1859.

# data[].attributes.location_name
中国河北省承德市滦平县萬里長城·司馬台

# data[].attributes.headline
中国河北省承德市滦平县萬里長城·司馬台

# data[].attributes.subject
中国河北省承德市滦平县萬里長城·司馬台

# data[].attributes.body
The great wall of China was built during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China built the wall by using forced labor to protect their dynasty away from the northern nomad tribe. After the wall had finished, it became a line that separates farming people and the nomads. The back of the wall was equipped with a mobile army, and the wall became the frontline of defense. The nomad people were good at fighting, but they could not do anything about the wall. The wall really protected farming at that time. The wall was rebuilt in Han, Northern Qi, and particularly Ming. The wall represents the history, strength, and literary art of China. The Great Wall of China is famous all over the world and attracts 4 million tourists every year.

# data[].attributes.location_name
英国伦敦維多利亞女王紀念碑

# data[].attributes.body
Victoria Memorial was built in 1924, to commemorate Queen Victoria. It is located at the end of The Mall in London. The whole sculpture project takes nautical themes as its theme, implying British naval power. Before it was built, King Edward VII proposed the formation of a joint parliamentary committee to develop a plan for Victoria Memorial. There was a design competition, and Thomas Brock had been chosen as the designer. He said that it was devoted to "qualities which made our Queen so great and so much beloved." The top of the memorial is the gilded bronze Winged Victory. Beneath it are four marble statues, meaning enthronement, motherhood, justice, and truth of Queen Victoria. Today, Victoria Memorial is often used as a venue for important events.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1834, the original Palace of Westminster was destroyed by a fire. At that time architects were invited to submit designs for the new palace and a commission was set up to select the best. Big Ben is the nickname for the big clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London. It is often referred to as the Big Clock and Bell Tower. It was officially renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Sir Charles Barry was responsible for the design of this palace. Edward John Dent designed the clock. After his death, his son Frederick completed the clock in 1854. It was installed in April 1859.

# data[].attributes.location_name
India Gate, Rajpath, India Gate, 新德里德里印度

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India Gate, Rajpath, India Gate, 新德里德里印度

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India Gate, Rajpath, India Gate, 新德里德里印度

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The India Gate was constructed in 1921. When India was still controlled by the British Empire as a colony. New Delhi is where it is located. Delhi Memorial is its official name, and it used to be known as All-India War Memorial. From 1914 to 1919, the British Indian Army fought in World War I and the war against the Afghans. The India Gate was constructed to honor the 90 thousand soldiers who died during the wars. The 42-meter-tall gate was engraved with the names of the soldiers. This monument symbolizes the bravery of the Indian soldiers. It also represents the peace that came after the wars. It is also a popular protest spot for the civil society in New Delhi.

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The Little Mermaid, Langelinie, København Ø, 丹麦

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The Little Mermaid, Langelinie, København Ø, 丹麦

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The Little Mermaid, Langelinie, København Ø, 丹麦

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The Little Mermaid was commissioned by Carl Jacobsen in 1909. He liked a ballet about the Little Mermaid, so he asked a ballerina who had played the role of the little mermaid, called Ellen Price, to be the model of the statue. However, Ellen Price did not agree to be the model of the naked body, therefore, the body of the Little Mermaid was modeled by the sculptor's wife: Eline Eriksen.  The sculptor of the statue was Edvard Eriksen, and the statue  was finished in 1913. The statue was destroyed for a lot of times. Sometimes its head was gone, sometimes its hands were gone. Also, when people have things to say, for example when people were protesting for Hong- Kong's freedom, people would harm it or dress it, to earn attentions of the government or the world.

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Camino Vaitea Anakena, Isla de Pascua, Valparaíso, 智利

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Camino Vaitea Anakena, Isla de Pascua, Valparaíso, 智利

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Camino Vaitea Anakena, Isla de Pascua, Valparaíso, 智利

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Moais were built by the natives of the Easter Island-Rapa Nui people in about 1400-1650 A.D. the word “Moai” means “statue” in their language, They are made of a kind of soft volcanic rock on Easter Island called Tuff. They were built with full-body, but many of them were buried to their shoulders. Moais were build to honor the chieftain or other important people who passed away. They were placed on a stone platform called ahu, which are the tombs for the people statues presented. There are many different sizes of moais, the average size is 4 meters tall and weighs 13 tonnes, the largest one is unfinished, it’s 21 meters and 270 tonnes, but no one knows why it was not completed.

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Peter Pan Statue is located in London, it is made by  Sir George Frampton. He donated this statue to the city of London, and put this in Kensington Gardens secretly in the midnight, Kensington Gardens is the place where Peter Pan lands in Barrie's 1902 book The Little White Bird after flying out of his nursery, and then he published a notice in the next day, it said, '' There is a surprise in store for the children who go to Kensington Gardens to feed the ducks in the Serpentine this morning...'', but somehow there was somebody who objected his works by erecting a sculpture in a public park without permission, but It still became a Grade II listed building in 1970.

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Colosseo, Piazza del Colosseo, Rome, Metropolitan City of Rome, Italy

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Colosseum is a monument that full of historical stories.

Since the 6th century, the Colosseum has go through lootings, earthquakes, and even bombings during WWII. It had been used for decades as a store, church, cemetery, and even castle for nobility.

Nowadays, Piazza del Colosseo is Rome's best tourist attraction. There are over 6 million people who visit it every year. There is an interesting fact: Every Good Friday. The Pope will lead the Way of the Cross procession in the Colosseum. On this day, people will

commemorate the early Christians that died in the arena.

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法国巴黎戴高乐广场凯旋门

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The arc was commissioned by Napoleon  in 1806 and it took 30 years to finish the Arc de Triomphe. The size of the monument is about three huge elephants. In addition, at 164 feet high by 148 feet wide, it's the second largest triumphal arc standing today, while North Korea has the largest one in the world. The arc is based on four huge pillars which stands for the four victories and war scenes. The top of the arch has the names of major successes during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. One interesting fact is that Napoleon never got to see this monument because the construction was completed after 15 years he died.

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Sphinx is a statue from Giza, The Sphinx  was believed to be highly intelligent and wise.The head of the human represents wisdom, the body of the lion represents strength. The Egyptians built sphinx statues to guard important areas such as tombs and temples such as the pyramids .The Great Sphinx of Giza is a 4,500-year-old statue near the Great Pyramid in Giza. about 73 meters long and 20 meters high, the Sphinx is one of the world’s largest monuments. There is a story about the Sphinx’s broken nose.The Egyptians used to make offerings to the Sphinx in order to retain the flood cycle. There was an emperor who broke the Sphinx’s nose and they had droughts for a long time.

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Taj Mahal, Dharmapuri, Forest Colony, Tajganj, 阿格拉北方邦印度

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Taj Mahal, Dharmapuri, Forest Colony, Tajganj, 阿格拉北方邦印度

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Taj Mahal, Dharmapuri, Forest Colony, Tajganj, 阿格拉北方邦印度

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Taj Mahal was built in 1632 by Mahal Emperor Shah Jahan in order to commemorate his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, and it was finished in 1653. Taj Mahal became a world heritage site in 1983, some special things about the monument is that because the weather there often rains, when fog appears, it will just be like a floating cloud, the river in front symbolizes that his religion and love will last forever. The last feature the builder is proud about is that the monument obliques about ten degrees, this makes this monument impossible to fall apart when an earthquake occurs.

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Mount Rushmore National Memorial, South Dakota 244, Keystone, SD, USA

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Mount Rushmore National Memorial, South Dakota 244, Keystone, SD, USA

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Mount Rushmore National Memorial, South Dakota 244, Keystone, SD, USA

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There are four presidents sculpted on Mount Rushmore: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt. Each president symbolizes different stages of America. For example, George Washington symbolizes birth；Thomas Jefferson symbolizes growth.

However, not everyone agreed to have this monument on the Black Hills. Native Americans and the original residents were opposed to the idea since the Black Hills were holy. Also, the U.S. government had promised the tribes that they would not occupy the Black Hills, but they didn't keep their promise. The tribes and the residents protested to the governments, demanding the return of their territory, but unfortunately, they failed.

There are a few interesting facts about Mount Rushmore. First of all, no one died during construction. Second, there is a secret room behind Lincon's head that tourists cannot enter. Last, sculptor Gutzon Borglum intended to carve the bodies of presidents, but the government didn't provide enough funding so that he couldn't have the bodies finished.
However, not everyone agreed to have this monument on the Black Hills. Native Americans and the original residents were opposed to the idea since the Black Hills were holy. Also, the U.S. government had promised the residents and tribes that they would not occupy the Black Hills, but they didn't keep their promise. The tribes and the residents protested to the governments, demanding the return of their territory, but they failed.

There are a few interesting facts about Mount Rushmore. First of all, no one died during construction. Second, there is a secret room behind Lincon's head that tourists cannot enter. Last, sculptor Gutzon Borglum intended to carve the bodies of presidents, but the government didn't provide enough funding so that he couldn't have the bodies finished.

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Gustave Eiffel and several other builders built the Eiffel tower to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. A French official held a competition for the 100-year building. Gustave Eiffel won the competition, , and they built it at Champ de Mars in Paris. Eiffel tower took 2 years to build, and it finished in 1889. Eiffel tower was made of wrought iron and the height of it was 1063ft tall. At first, many people don't really like this building, but nowadays Eiffel tower has already become a symbol of France, Eiffel Tower has symbolized the liberation of Paris. Also, the shape of the Eiffel Tower is spectacular, but it's a simple physics effect designed to balance the maximum torque created by the wind.

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Washington Monument, 15th Street Northwest, Washington, DC, USA

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Washington Monument, 15th Street Northwest, Washington, DC, USA

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Washington Monument, 15th Street Northwest, Washington, DC, USA

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-- Joe
The reason for building this monument is to honor George Washington, the first president of the United States. In the first phase, it was designed by Robert Mills and eventually completed by Thomas Casey at the second phase. Unlike other monuments that have a large statue or giant and complex structure, Washington Monument is pretty straightforward. It has a clear Egyptian obelisk shape. However, it was the highest building in the world when it was built. At that time, it was hard to build such a high building, so it also has a lot of technological breakthroughs.

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Background information. Please write about 120 words.  Make sure to NOT copy or "borrow" text from the source.  Write your own paragraph.
Information can include:
1. Origin
2. Story
3. Reason
4. Meaning
5. important people
6. other