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Annual Energy Outlook 2001: With Projections to 2020

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TO ACCOMPANY A MAJOR ITV DOCUMENTARY We are poisoning our planet and destroying the lives of our children. In the west arguments rage over how much nuclear radiation and toxic dumping is safe, while children continue to breath filthy air and eat food full of pesticides.

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Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.
Researchers suspect that acid rain may cause the slower growth of these forests. But acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other air pollutants, insects, diseases and drought are some other causes that harm plants. Also, some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. However, after many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.
Acid Rain on the Forest Floor
A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some of the water soaks into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river or lake. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability of the soil to resist some pH change is called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Since there are many natural sources of acid in forest soils, soils in these areas are more susceptible to effects from acid rain.
How Acid Rain Harms Trees
Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken the trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Scientists believe that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before the trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, the acid rain causes the release of toxic substances such as aluminum into the soil. These are very harmful to trees and plants, even if contact is limited. Toxic substances also wash away in the runoff that carries the substances into streams, rivers, and lakes. Less of these toxic substances are released when the rainfall is cleaner. Even if the soil is well buffered, there can be damage from acid rain. Forests in high mountain regions receive additional acid from the acidic clouds and fog that often surround them. These clouds and fog are often more acidic than rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of the coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. Leaves turn the energy in sunlight into food for growth. This process is called photosynthesis. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the tree to remain healthy. Once trees are weak, they can be more easily attacked by diseases or insects that ultimately kill them. Weakened trees may also become injured more easily by cold weather.Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Food crops are not usually seriously affected, however, because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is a basic material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

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Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.
Researchers suspect that acid rain may cause the slower growth of these forests. But acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other air pollutants, insects, diseases and drought are some other causes that harm plants. Also, some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. However, after many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.
Acid Rain on the Forest Floor
A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some of the water soaks into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river or lake. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability of the soil to resist some pH change is called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Since there are many natural sources of acid in forest soils, soils in these areas are more susceptible to effects from acid rain.
How Acid Rain Harms Trees
Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken the trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Scientists believe that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before the trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, the acid rain causes the release of toxic substances such as aluminum into the soil. These are very harmful to trees and plants, even if contact is limited. Toxic substances also wash away in the runoff that carries the substances into streams, rivers, and lakes. Less of these toxic substances are released when the rainfall is cleaner. Even if the soil is well buffered, there can be damage from acid rain. Forests in high mountain regions receive additional acid from the acidic clouds and fog that often surround them. These clouds and fog are often more acidic than rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of the coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. Leaves turn the energy in sunlight into food for growth. This process is called photosynthesis. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the tree to remain healthy. Once trees are weak, they can be more easily attacked by diseases or insects that ultimately kill them. Weakened trees may also become injured more easily by cold weather.Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Food crops are not usually seriously affected, however, because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is a basic material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.
Researchers suspect that acid rain may cause the slower growth of these forests. But acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other air pollutants, insects, diseases and drought are some other causes that harm plants. Also, some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. However, after many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.
Acid Rain on the Forest Floor
A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some of the water soaks into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river or lake. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability of the soil to resist some pH change is called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Since there are many natural sources of acid in forest soils, soils in these areas are more susceptible to effects from acid rain.
How Acid Rain Harms Trees
Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken the trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Scientists believe that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before the trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, the acid rain causes the release of toxic substances such as aluminum into the soil. These are very harmful to trees and plants, even if contact is limited. Toxic substances also wash away in the runoff that carries the substances into streams, rivers, and lakes. Less of these toxic substances are released when the rainfall is cleaner. Even if the soil is well buffered, there can be damage from acid rain. Forests in high mountain regions receive additional acid from the acidic clouds and fog that often surround them. These clouds and fog are often more acidic than rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of the coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. Leaves turn the energy in sunlight into food for growth. This process is called photosynthesis. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the tree to remain healthy. Once trees are weak, they can be more easily attacked by diseases or insects that ultimately kill them. Weakened trees may also become injured more easily by cold weather.Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Food crops are not usually seriously affected, however, because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is a basic material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.
Researchers suspect that acid rain may cause the slower growth of these forests. But acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other air pollutants, insects, diseases and drought are some other causes that harm plants. Also, some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. However, after many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.
Acid Rain on the Forest Floor
A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some of the water soaks into the soil. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river or lake. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability of the soil to resist some pH change is called buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in pH. Without buffering capacity, soil pH would change rapidly. Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack Mountains, have soils that are less able to buffer acids. Since there are many natural sources of acid in forest soils, soils in these areas are more susceptible to effects from acid rain.
How Acid Rain Harms Trees
Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken the trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or poisoning them with toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Scientists believe that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before the trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, the acid rain causes the release of toxic substances such as aluminum into the soil. These are very harmful to trees and plants, even if contact is limited. Toxic substances also wash away in the runoff that carries the substances into streams, rivers, and lakes. Less of these toxic substances are released when the rainfall is cleaner. Even if the soil is well buffered, there can be damage from acid rain. Forests in high mountain regions receive additional acid from the acidic clouds and fog that often surround them. These clouds and fog are often more acidic than rainfall. When leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, their protective waxy coating can wear away. The loss of the coating damages the leaves and creates brown spots. Leaves turn the energy in sunlight into food for growth. This process is called photosynthesis. When leaves are damaged, they cannot produce enough food energy for the tree to remain healthy. Once trees are weak, they can be more easily attacked by diseases or insects that ultimately kill them. Weakened trees may also become injured more easily by cold weather.Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Food crops are not usually seriously affected, however, because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is a basic material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity.

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Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly as usual. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy.

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Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth. Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6, while acid rain generally has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain is a product of human activities. The biggest sources are coal-burning power plants, factories, and automobiles.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO ₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) are released into the atmosphere. Those air pollutants react with water, oxygen, and other substances to form airborne sulfuric and nitric acid. Winds may spread these acidic compounds through the atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are not primary greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, one of the main effects of climate change; in fact, sulfur dioxide has a cooling effect on the atmosphere. But nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major pollutant that can be harmful to people. Both gases cause environmental and health concerns because they can spread easily via air pollution and acid rain.

Acid rain has many ecological effects, especially on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other aquatic environments. Acid rain makes such waters more acidic, which results in more aluminum absorption from soil, which is carried into lakes and streams. That combination makes waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic animals. ( Learn more about the effects of water pollution.)

Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than others. However, in an interconnected ecosystem, what affects some species eventually affects many more throughout the food chain, including non-aquatic species such as birds.

Acid rain and fog also damage forests, especially those at higher elevations. The acid deposits rob the soil of essential nutrients such as calcium and cause aluminum to be released in the soil, which makes it hard for trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also harmed by acids.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other environmental stressors, leave trees and plants less healthy, more vulnerable to cold temperatures, insects, and disease. The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Some soils are better able to neutralize acids than others. But in areas where the soil's "buffering capacity" is low, such as parts of the U.S. Northeast, the harmful effects of acid rain are much greater.

Acid deposits damage physical structures such as limestone buildings and cars. And when it takes the form of inhalable fog, acid precipitation can cause health problems including eye irritation and asthma.

The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants that cause it. This means burning fewer fossil fuels and setting air-quality standards.

In the U.S., the Clean Air Act of 1990 targeted acid rain, putting in place pollution limits that helped cut sulfur dioxide emissions 88 percent between 1990 and 2017. Air-quality standards have also driven U.S. emissions of nitrogen dioxide down 50 percent in the same time period. These trends have helped red spruce forests in New England and some fish populations, for example, recover from acid rain damage. But recovery takes time, and soils in the northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada have only recently shown signs of stabilizing nutrients.

Acid rain problems will persist as long as fossil fuel use does, and countries such as China that have relied heavily on coal for electricity and steel production are grappling with those effects. One study found that acid rain in China may have even contributed to a deadly 2009 landslide. China is implementing controls for sulfur dioxide emissions, which have fallen 75 percent since 2007 -but India's have increased by half.

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Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth. Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6, while acid rain generally has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

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Natural Hazards and Human-Exacerbated Disasters in Latin America

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The main objective of the book is to offer a vision of the dynamics of the main disasters in South America, describing their mechanisms and consequences on South American societies. The chapters are written by selected specialists of each country. Human-induced disasters are also included, such as desertification in Patagonia and soil erosion in Brazil.