# data[].attributes.body
As the Industrial Revolution began to take off in Britain, the government began to address issues pertaining to the infrastructure as well as living conditions. The Industrial Revolution gave people more opportunities to work and allowed for more and more goods and products to be made but at the expense of workers who suffered in poor work conditions. These poor work conditions, low wages, alongside increased production demands led to uprisings and protests among the working class. In fear of a revolution from the rapidly growing working class, Parliament began implementing changes such as restricting child labour, and creating museums and parks in order to appease the working class. With more regulation and better working conditions, this allowed for many design reformers in Britain to begin looking into new technologies and materials, ethical and moral obligations as well as chances to educate people through design schools and museums. These design reformers would set new standards for future generations to follows as the middle class began to grow and wealth became more dispersed.

Victorian design reform began with the resurgence of the gothic style, especially after the reconstruction of the House of Parliament in London which was designed by A.W.N. Pugin in the late 1830’s. During this time architecture in England was moving in a more contemporary and ostentatious direction while Pugin had converted to Roman Catholicism which influenced his work. Pugin’s religious influence can be seen in his work, as much of his work was commissioned for churches. Pugin openly criticized designers for turning objects and materials into something they are not and later delivered his own set of design rules and principles in 1841. Pugin believed that architecture, furniture and goods were becoming too ornate with carvings and paintings and was a result of greed and capitalism. Pugin ultimately believed in respecting the materials he was using and creating functional objects. An example being a umbrella stand he created in 1850 which he created with function in mind first and details and aesthetic second if even at all.

Another reason for the conception of design reform in Britain during the 1930’s was due to manufactured goods from foreign countries were becoming increasingly popular while demand for British goods was growing smaller abroad as well as in Britain. The lack of focus on arts and design in Britain was beginning to hinder the economy and the government knew they needed to make changes. Many people such as Sir Henry Cole began advocating for more opportunities in design education and he believed it would help the growth of Britain. Cole also campaigned for public museums which he thought would be beneficial to the working class. In order to promote his ideas, Cole helped published The Art Journal between 1849-51 to broadcast new ideas and designs.On the contrary to Pugin, Cole believed that there could be a relationship between function, industry, and art and looked into history and nature as inspiration. Examples being Richard Redgrave’s Well-Spring carafe vase which depicted a pond but also functioned as a water container and Alfred Stevens who designed a stove with the Renaissance style while utilizing materials such as ceramic tile to increase efficiency.

The design reform movement really hit a turning point during The Great Exhibition in 1851 which was organized by Sir Henry Cole with support from Prince Albert. This event was the pinnacle of highlighting innovation in new designs and products from Britain as well as other foreign countries. The exhibition took place in the Crystal Palace which was designed by Joseph Paxton and was constructed in Hyde Park made out of large sheets of glass and iron. The Crystal Palace was a spectacle in itself, its sheer magnitude and with access to running water and restrooms represented innovation as well as the rise of Britain as a superpower. The Great Exhibition was fundamental in pushing design reform and the arts began to becoming more intertwined with products. After the exhibition, Cole began to fulfill his vision of building a museum, the South Kensington Museum which is known today as the Victoria & Albert museum which allowed people from all backgrounds to see art and was instrumental in helping designers find inspiration.

While many applaud The Great Exhibition for celebrating the advancement in British technologies, there are many who criticize it and believe that it didn’t have as much as an impact some believe it had. Many artists such as Gottfried Semper and Owen Jones were critical that the exhibition didn’t elevate the taste of the general public and the quality of the products shown shouldn’t be the standard. Jones went later on to create the The Grammar of Ornament to highlight his own perceptions of what the standard of design should be and was shaped to Pugin’s ideologies. Jones printed colorful illustrations which largely took inspiration from nature and his approach was adopted through interior and exterior design. Ralph Wornum was another person who was critical of the exhibition. Wornum wrote an award winning essay that criticized the Crystal Palace itself and didn’t believe that it was as big of a spectacle that it was made out to be and the focus on aesthetics and beauty eclipsed utility. An example of beauty eclipsing the utility of an object is a Centripetal Spring Armchair which was designed by Thomas E. Warren. While it contains ornate detailing, many people fail to realize that the detailing also absorbed the shock of motion and the chair was created for transportation.

About two decades later, the opening of department stores coincided with the rise of the middle class and more people had the chance to decorate their homes with the newest and latest furniture and art. Britain’s colonialism had also allowed for more raw materials and inspiration from around the world. With goods being able to manufactured in large quantities and print technologies improving images in print, textiles, and advertising became more uniform. The Penny Magazine which was published by Charles Knight is a prime example of standards of art and furniture help setting standards of design. At one point it had reached 200,000 readers in Britain and people began to see the hybrid of function and art. Engravings in wood and metal became increasingly popular and new methods helped propel this movement.

In the period of the design reform movement books started to become popular and the increasingly advanced technologies allowed for more books to be pressed. At the time books were ornate and only wealthy people could afford books. The covers would often be made out of wood that had ornate carvings in them and would also contain illustrations some of which were printed in color in chromolithography. Some journals were also printed in color as well. Some of the wood cut books were cut in color such as H. Noel Humphreys, The Miracles of Our Lord in 1848. The use of colored wood carvings didn’t only happen in Britain but worldwide in America in Harper’s Weekly, as well as throughout Europe which would depict events in politics, religion, or other events such as prizefights. Artists such as Thomas Nast who worked for Harper’s Weekly would often travel to Europe for the magazine.

The basis of Victorian Design Reform looks at the past, other cultures as well as nature for inspiration. People wanted to create standards for design and along with industrialization design reform took off and shaped art and the world we live in today. Unifying art with function was also very important and art and design became more important and was the beginning of modernization. While there are many debates and side to design reform and The Great Exhibition, the movement is fundamental to the growth of the culture of Great Britain.

# data[].attributes.body
After the design reform movement began, decorative arts became something people were growing increasingly interested in. However, there are few who were critical of the industrialization and believe that art was becoming too mass produced. John Ruskin was one of the artists who were highly critical of the industrialization of decorative arts and he was fundamental in shaping people’s opinions. Ruskin was not keen on machines and believe that they made work too easy and sacrificed art and that the exciting work of craftsman was lost. Ruskin also believed that industrialization didn’t help poverty but rather helped further induced it with exploitation of the working class and Ruskin often advocated for social reform before turning his attention to architecture and decorative arts. Ruskin essentially believed that if people were happy doing what they were doing, the quality of the art and designs would improve. Ruskin also didn’t believe in set design standards and believed in individuality.

John Ruskin’s philosophies on art and social reform influenced the work of many such as William Morris who would later to go on and inspire many artists and designers with his own work and ideas. After Morris took on the task of designing his home he took on a interest in decorative arts. In 1861 opened a showroom that designed, manufactured, and showcased a variety of furniture and decorative arts such as textiles and stained glass. In 1875 Morris rebranded his showroom as Morris & Co and put Morris’s idea into the spotlight. Many people cite this as the beginning of the Arts & Crafts movement. An example of Morris’s work is a chair that combined the aesthetic of rustic furniture but utilized materials that were unaffected by industrialization and without the modern techniques. The fundamentals of the Arts & Crafts Movement were love for nature and the work and ornate detailing were included to highlight the skills of the craftsman. Morris would collaborate with many craftsman in cases where their skills were far superior than his own for the sake of his designs. Morris would also often experiment with new ideas such as using vegetables for dyes. Morris brought back details in his artwork and wanted people to express their ideas and to create the art they wanted to. Morris’s ideals are contrary to the design reform movement as ornate detailing and art began to rise again. He wanted to reemerge the relationship between function and art. Examples of this can be seen in Morris’ textiles and patterns which would often include very elaborate details such as in The Green Dining Room he designed for the Victoria & Albert Museum. Morris later began to focus on social change and was an avid socialist. Despite his business being run by the capitalist society he hated and his disdain of machinery, he eventually broadened his views to accept the benefits of what he was campaigning against. He essentially believed that as long as people found joy, there could be a silver lining.

William Morris’s legacy influenced Britain as well as American and European designers. Designers such as Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo was similar to Morris and believed that there was a difference between fine and applied arts. Examples of his artwork included the title page of Wren’s City Churches and a chair he designed were abstract but contained nature influences while creating something functional. The relationship between designer and creator was more important than ever. William Lethaby founded a school in London focusing on the same principles that Morris had. Charles Ashbee was also a pioneer in protecting the principles of craft and opened the Guild and School of Handicraft. A silver bowl and spoon he designed in 1904 highlights his collaboration between art and craft with function. Ashbee’s school wasn’t successful and after meeting Frank Lloyd Wright, Ashbee believed that he could use machinery without compromising his design aesthetic.

While the ideologies of the Arts & Crafts Movement went against industrialization and wanted to highlight individual identities of craftsman, there was no way it could compete against the rapidly growing industrialization of the world.  However, it brought back art to decorative arts and allowed for more people to express their ideas and skills.

# data[].attributes.body
The Aesthetic Movement was brought on by a new appreciation of decorative arts and a new general appreciation of art in the late 19th century. Artists such as Christopher Dresser brought back the importance of the designer in the manufacturing process. In his work such as in plates he designed for Owen Jones’ The Grammar of Ornament highlights his knowledge and skills as a designer. Pieces of Dressers’ work includes various influences from nature and foreign places such as Japan which inspired his own metalwork which was applauded for its contemporary style with traditional influences. His designs didn’t follow any standards and he used a variety of styles and ideas.

Dressers’ philosophy was that “knowledge is power” and he believed that knowledge propelled work and that it should shared. The influx of design schools and museums influenced many designers including Owen Jones whose knowledge and skills can be seen in his designs. Design schools helped propel the importance of art through professors such as Jones and Richard Redgrave.

With more and more people focusing on art, The Aesthetic Movement was born. This movement was fundamental in art and substantially influenced many designers. Artists and designers were able to express themselves and their ideas and could make art without being subjected to design standards and the focus of function over art. International exhibitions highlighted designs of the aesthetic movement. For instance in 1852 Japan opened its trade ports to all and more artists could learn new techniques and styles and gather new inspiration. Seeing new art that was so vastly different broke barriers for artists and they began to finally feel free to create what they wanted. The Japanese influence can be seen in objects such as a buffet designed by E. W. Godwin which took inspiration from Japanese aesthetics and Godwin put his ideas and his craft first and let function take a backseat.

One of the biggest figures of the Aesthetic Movement was James Abbott McNeill Whistler who was a painter. Whistler’s work is exemplified symmetry, nature, and had a well rounded understanding to art. Charles Eastlake and Bruce Talbert were also two designers who were important during The Aesthetic Movement. They brought together art without compromising function while using the gothic style, they used new techniques to create details. In a cabinet Talbert designed, it stays true to the gothic style but he didn’t use carvings for the details but used the marquetry technique. More and more artists and designers became free to create what they pleased. Emerging designers also became eager to showcase their designs in international exhibitions or studios and have their designs in wealthy people’s homes.

The Aesthetic Movement also created a new wave of interest in printing and illustrations. Children’s publications also became increasingly popular and it also began to help shape children’s taste and perceptions of art and helped allowed them to imagine. Illustrator Randolph Caldecott is considered to be one of the most influential illustrators from this period. For example  his picture-book Hey Diddle Diddle eliminated conventional techniques and his work has inspired many other artists such as Van Gogh.

# data[].attributes.body
Towards the beginning of the 20th century the Art Nouveau movement was fading due to increasing competition from antique dealers as well as from department stores that could create trendy items at more affordable prices. Despite the fall of the Art Nouveau, some influences still remained and French artists and designers began using new influences and inspiration such as contemporary art, neoclassicist furniture, fashion, and entertainment. An example of artists using neoclassical influence are chairs (Example 1) that Maurice Dufrène designed in 1913 highlights decadence and opulence while using 18th century influences. The chairs designed be Dufrène are representative of the direction french artists and designers were headed into, his work showed craftsmanship and highlights workshop production. The chairs were balanced and pure but extravagant and influences from other art forms such as painting can be seen.

Many painters during this era also began to dabble in decorative arts. A collaboration between Louis Süe and André Mare is an example of painters who designed furniture. Their designs were simple but ornate, not symmetrical but yet still balanced. Their work wasn’t meant to be coordinated or cohesive yet it still worked as a piece of art as they shared similar elements of design (Example 2).

Another new influence in this era was the Cubist aesthetic. Characteristics of Cubism were angular facets and overlapping planes and influence from the increasingly urbanization of the world and the combination of fine art with techniques with techniques from cheap wallpaper or advertisements. New techniques were applied to designs such as wood furniture by designers such as Jacques-Émile Ruhlmann who took advantage of globalization and used exotic woods and employed new techniques. Other designers such as Armand-Albert Rateau used new techniques and new materials as well. An example of his work being a chaise lounge that he created with patinated bronze (Example 3).

In this era many fashion designers and couturiers began to rise in Paris. A very influential figure from this time would be Paul Poiret. Poiret opened the Atelier Martine to showcase his designs and textiles. Poiret used bold color choices and found inspiration from art and also created the Harem pant as he believed there should be a symphony between garments and body. (Example 4)

Poiret collaborated with other designers such as Raoul Duffy to create new textile patterns. Duffy's designs would often be extravagant yet restrained with repetition, similar to Poiret’s textiles, and his work would appear in Vogue and was also showcased at the 1937 World’s Fair in Paris. (Example 5)

This time period also explored new techniques with glass design. A new technique from this time was known as pâte de verre which allowed for smoother shapes, irregular shapes, and new coloring techniques. An example of this technique is a bowl designed by François Décirchemont. (Example 6)

Another new glass technique was verse soufflé which was used on clear glass to emphasize relief surfaces and incorporating designs into the glass as opposed to applied decoration. Maurice   Marinot is an example of an artist who used this technique. (Example 7)

Another important artist who played with new techniques with glass was René Lalique who was a jewelry designer who turned to glass as it was cheaper to work with than gems and jewels. Lalique saw glass as transparent as opposed to opaque and used acid to create textures and contrast in his work. Lalique also used his skills to collaborate with perfumer François Coty to design perfume bottles. (Example 8)

Lalique turned to glass because it was inexpensive to work with and many other artists and designers such as Jean Dunand turned to other inexpensive materials. Dunand played with inexpensive metals such as copper and brass in the field of dinanderie to create small vases and utensils. Dunand used the technique of repoussé to create relief pattens that were geometric or floral inspired. Dunand learned new techniques such as learning from Japanese craftsman Seizo Sugawara about applying lacquer to dinanderie and he later used the lacquer application technique in many other works of his art. (Example 9) Other artists such as Jean Lambert-Rucki and metalsmith Jean Goulden used the laquard technique in their work.

Another new technique that emerged in this era was welding which allowed for different metals to be combined and was used in all forms of decorative arts ranging from furniture to lighting and doors. Edgar Brandt is an example of an artist who experimented with welding in his work. Brandt’s work is characterized by broad curves, contours, and sweeping lines. (Example 10) These techniques allowed for ornate and extravagant designs which Art Deco truly encompassed.

Another important metal designer from this time was Jean Puiforcat who was inspired by modern abstractions as well as the human figure. His work didn’t take inspiration from nature but he preferred designs that were geometric and balanced. Puiforcat also was inspired by luxury ocean liners because he admired the geometric qualities. A coffee and tea set he designed encompasses the geometric shapes he was inspired by and also shows some influence from ocean liners that he admired. (Example 11)

In an example of A.M. Cassandre’s work you can see why Puiforcat  found geometric inspiration in ocean liners (Example 12). Cassandre was a poster artist who’s work is representative of the Art Deco movement and his work was original and recognizable. He used cubist and geometric inspirations to create abstract art and incorporated text and shapes into his work and was highly sophisticated.

Alfred Tolmer later published a book in 1930 called Miss en Page which highlighted new techniques and new creative ideas in visual communication for publishing which had ideas similar to Cassandre's.

The pivotal moment where the Art Deco movement was gaining popularity was during The Paris Exposition of 1925. Organizers set a criteria of only having designs that were modern and not based on historical designs and influences. The exhibition highlighted new interior designs ranging that showcased unique designs. The designs featured luxurious decorations and rare materials with works from artists such as Süe and Mare. A highlight of the exhibition was the Hôtel d’un Collectionneur which was designed by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann and was featured in a structure separate from the exhibition and consisted of multiple interiors that were designed for lavish living. (Example 13) All of the work featured in the hotel are examples and have characteristics of Art Deco furniture and art. Everything was grand and ornate, and featured details such as high ceilings, glass beading, maple fireplaces, and exemplified luxury, grace, while still being comfortable. Throughout the exhibition, there was more use of industrial materials such as polished marble, lacquer, and smooth metal sheeting. Designers preferred to use angles as opposed to curves. Dunand designed a smoking room for the model french embassy and it consisted of a octagonal shape with a ceiling that resembled a pyramid and used a color scheme with black lacquer and red accents. Dunand also played with geometric shapes in his design and used ornate textiles for his fabrics in the pillows and sofa. Dunand and Ruhlmann combine design, with architecture with furnishings in order to create a cohesive space. They utilized Cubism to create geometric shapes and designs and everything exemplified sophistication and luxury.

While some designs in the past condemned industrialization and machines, many artists in the Art Deco period embraced it. Fernand Léger is an example of an artist who embraced industrialization and it can be seen in his painting, The City, (Example 15) which shows elements of industrialization in his work. Robert Delaunay is another artist who began to embrace industrialization and was one of the first contemporary artists to feature the Eiffel Tower in his project, Windows on the City. Delaunay’s wife Sonia was also an artist and her work would contain geometric shapes and bold color and her work would be used in interiors, textiles, and furnishings. (Example 16)

The Art Deco era also brought on a new interests in things such as sports and exercise as well as health and hygiene. Elsa Schiaparelli’s designed new simple sportswear such as tennis outfits (Example 14). Francis Jordain designed a Physical Culture Room in order to promote new lifestyles that encouraged exercise. The new emphasis on health and hygiene also changed the structure and style of people’s homes. Designs began to become more mechanical and utilitarian yet modern and abstract. Artists and designers began to embrace new technologies and mass production.

# data[].attributes.body
World War 1 not only reshaped and changed the landscape of the world but also art and thus Modernism was born. There was need of social reconstruct and society was changing and what people valued began to shift. The world was becoming increasingly modern and new technologies such as electricity and photography began to integrate into society. The invention of automobiles and faster transportation methods became normalized. Machinery became standardized and artists and designers began to embrace technology as inspiration and began to turn away from nature and natural influences in their art. Technology also allowed for art to reach new masses and more people than before.

Some examples of new art forms and ideas are Jules Marey and chronophotography or the work of Giacomo Balla. Balla was a painter who created dynamic and frenetic art, similar to other artists such as Gino Severini and Earl Horter. Balla was interested in men’s fashion and  believed that fashion shouldn’t be symmetrical and should be bolder (Example 1). These artists are examples of Futurists and they pushed boundaries and created their own culture. Futurists’s art were dynamic and abstract, which incorporated shapes and bold colors, yet had a message behind the art and art would sometimes have a double meaning behind it whether political or an advertisement.

An important element of Modernism was the Dutch journal De Stijl which began in 1917 by Theo van Doesburg and would feature work by artists such as Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszar, and George Vantongerloo. The journal believed that World War 1 was a result of individualism and began giving new principles of design based on unity. An example of De Stijl setting uniform principles was using the architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright and using his designs to set principles based on unsymmetrical designs and boundaries while still maintaining balance and unity. Mondrian wrote essay’s for the journal about the subject (Example 2). Van Doesburg used De Stijl to enforce his philosophy of finding balance in unbalance  through the use of color, shapes, spacing and sizing. Through the exposure of De Stijl and its design principles, Van Doesburg also designed buildings and interiors. An example of his work is a cinema he designed for the Café L’Aubette in Strasbourg and the end result (Example 3) is a result of his “unbridled imagination”.  De Stijl led to more uniformity in architecture and many housing projects were influenced by these ideas. An example being J.J.P. Oud who designed housing in Rotterdam (Example 4). Uniformity in architecture became increasingly popular in Europe. Ornate styles began to waive but eventually so did Van Doesburg’s aesthetic as some of his work later garnered criticism.

Constructivism was another movement that began in 1925 with Russian artist Aleksandr Rodchenko which was born out of artists and designers wanting to assisting of the reshaping of what was the Soviet Union. Artists wanted to move out of the past and begin and create something new. An example of Rodchenko’s ideology wasn’t to have beauty and art in mind but going back to basics to create designs that served multiple purposes. An example would be armchairs that could also be turned into a chess table (Example 5). Artists began also to incorporate the feelings their work would give people. Vasily Kandisnky would see the psychological effects of  using certain shapes, patterns, and colors on people through his art. Kasimir Malevich called this Suprematism which was the expression and feeling of art. Malevich also began using the term “collective creative art” which looked at art as a collective whole and away from individualism. This meant that art could be found anywhere in places such as propaganda and political posters. For El Lissitzky, who was an engineer and artist, used abstract art for political expression and connected shapes with symbols in color to create a message (Example 6). El Lissitzky’s later began to publish a journal called Vesch/Object/Gegenstand which showcased fine art, decorative art, and new technologies. While El Lissitzky’s work may appear more as a collage, there is careful work involved and there was often symbolism involved as well which is representative of Constructivism. Further examples of Constructivism is in a Soviet poster designed by Gustav Klutsis that symbolizes Stalin’s Five-Year-Plan, as well as industrialization and the use of mixed media (Example 7).

Rodchenko began to use art to address social needs and his work became tied with an organization called INKHUK (The Institute of Artistic Culture) in 1920. While some artists such as Klutsis went against the Soviet regime, INKHUK embraced and went along with it and aligned itself with a Marxist ideology and a materialistic view of art. They thought traditional forms of fine art were fading and embraced new forms of mixed media art. The work they envisioned would be standardized and would contain anonymity. Essentially they aimed to unify industrialization with modern, abstract art, yet while sticking to the basics. However due to growing impositions placed by the Soviet Union, the Constructivism movement also waived and faded.

Another key component of the Constructivist movement was The Bauhaus in Germany which was a design school. While The Bauhaus manifesto doesn’t embrace industrialization as much as other movements from this era, they did believe in the collaboration between artist and craftsman and believed fine art should be intertwined with function. At the school there was less of a focus on art and more emphasis on function and innovation in design and the collaboration of art with life. Students who attended The Bauhaus would learn about different elements of art and design as well as how it relates to reality and life. Walter Gropius was the head of the school and taught alongside a variety of different artists from different backgrounds and had different skills. Gropius later hired László Moholy-Nagy and he brought new ideas on embracing industrialization and new materials. Moholy-Nagy welcomed Modernism and Constructivism and saw the possibility’s in industrialization. In 1923, The Bauhaus had its first  exhibition and showcased student work which demonstrated Moholy-Nagy’s focus on industrialization (Example 8). However this new industrialization focus did not please the Thuringian government and the school was closed and relocated to Dessau which was an industrial town. It was here were industrialization became more of a focus and former graduates came to teach the students. In this town many of student’s work could become manufactured due to being in a industrial town. An example being photomechanical production and new techniques in letterpress printing. An example of these new printing techniques being used is through Moholy-Nagy’s work in the title page of the Weimar Bahaus prospectus (Example 9). Typography could be printed in different colors, sizes, and decorative patterns could be added as well. Gropius later resigned and named Hannes Meyer as the new director. Though Meyer embraced new technologies, he also believed that design was a product of the economy and function. Moholy-Nagy resigned shortly after that and after the Nazi party came into power the school was closed. Despite its short run, The Bauhaus was important to design due to its collaboration between art, craftsmanship, industrialization, and designers.

Despite the closure of The Bauhaus, the legacy  and influence lived on. Wilhelm Wagenfeld designed Kubus glassware for Lausitzer Glasverien which were inexpensive yet highly functional (Example 10). They were heat-resistant and had interchangeable lids which could also be stacked. Many designers began looking into creating more functional items particularly for the  kitchen.

This era also was important for advancements in typography. Serifs began to disappear in typography and the commercial printing industry was growing. Lifestyle magazines such as Vogue incorporated the new technologies to include printed images, photography of fashion and leisurely activities. New fonts were developed, an example being Paul  Renner developing a typeface called Futura (Example 11). Jan Tschichold is an artist who  embraced new typography and combined it with Constructionist techniques to create advertisements for newspapers. However Tschichold also worked on posters, stationary, catalogues, and books. Tschichold employed techniques such as using asymmetry in order to stimulate eye movement for quick reading and found importance in white/blank space (Example 12). Tschichold also used photography in his work purely for visual representation and many other artists such as John Heartfield used photography in their graphic designs. Graphic designers played with new techniques involving photography, printing, and collaging which is representative of work from this era (Example 13). Photography, as well as typography, were huge new platforms to create anything ranging from advertisements to propaganda.

Other examples of new typography was Edward Johnson who created a new sans serif font that was used  and is still used for the  London Underground Transport system which was commissioned by Frank Pick (Example 14). Pick also went on to create a cohesive design for the Underground system and creating a map of the Underground transport system alongside Henry Beck. Johnson was also a teacher and taught students such as Eric Gill who later developed a font titled Gill Sans which was used by the London and North Eastern Railway. British typography was less mechanical and more simple than other examples of typography from Europe. Another big example of typography innovations in this era was Stanley Morison who created a new typeface for The Times which is now known as Times New Roman which has become a standard font throughout the world. Another innovation from this era was book publishing. An example being Edward Young designing the book cover for Penguin books in 1935 which were inexpensive and portable and obtainable by all (Example 15).

Another influential region in Modernism design during the Interwar  period was Scandinavia. Artists such as Edward Hald and Simon Gate were hired by Swedish glass manufacturers to produce art glass for the international market. Hald had been influenced by artists such as Matisse (Example 16) and Gate had his work displayed in Paris. Some examples of characteristics in Scandinavian work represented Modernism in the use of techniques such as moulding plywood, laminating wood, and simple geometric forms. An example of this can be seen in the work of Kaare Klint (Example 17).

# data[].attributes.body
Context

World War 2 had just ended and a lot of European countries were rebuilding and looked at the growth of the United States for inspiration

World War 2 also shifted people's attitudes and they were more keen on embracing wartime technologies and more inexpensive and practical products

Commerce and culture were blending

Milan Triennale and the Festival of Britain which was the 100th anniversary of The Great Exhibition

India gained independence from Great Britain in 1947

American’s became increasingly into instant-gratification

American National Exhibition in 1959 in Moscow

Scandinavian artists and designers were very influential during this period and used new materials and used new manufacturing techniques and designs were often very sculptural

In 1945 in Britain worked to improve the lives of the working class through health care and subsidized housing and they worked to maximize efficiency

Britain government required that furniture designers had to be approved before they could be manufactured

Elements of Design

Plastics, Poly-T by Dupont

Designs became more organic

People could buy things through catalogues and advertisements became more widely seen through magazines, journals, and other forms of media. Advertisements had more contrast and were used to command people’s attention and used new forms of typography, colors, and concepts.

Print illustrations and their space and composition became something that artists considered

Designers wanted to make people’s lives easier and wanted to maximize efficiency and comfort in the home as well as in the office and new production techniques were utilized to increase productivity and efficiency.

Fiberglass was used during World War 2 but was later utilized in design for the home and the office after the war.

People wanted to buy things for as cheap as possible and cheap materials such as plastic were used to give people what they wanted

Art became more abstract and that influenced design as well

Designs would often have multi-purposes and could be modded

Marriage of aesthetics and purposefulness

Lots of designers worked with companies in designing instruction sheets for their products

Scandinavian design and more standardized and cheaper designs influenced British designs.

Use of metals in lighting fixtures particularly in Britian

New resins as alternative to ceramics

Key Designers

Earl Tupper, designed Tupperware which was inexpensive but practical (Example 1)

Henry Dreyfuss, created lightweight plastic and a receiver for Bell Telephone in order to create an easier experience using a telephone. Dreyfuss focused a lot on making products to make people’s lives easier. He also designed a round thermostat for Honeywell Corporation which later became an industry standard. (Example 2)

Charles and Ray Eames. They designed lots of furniture for the office using molding techniques to create furniture that was functional, modern yet practical and natural. They had an exhibition in 1946, and in 1949 which highlighted their work. (Example 3)

Herman Miller, designed a chair that would that eventually be used in many schools because it was inexpensive but practical because it was lightweight and could be stacked. He also collaborated with Saarinen and Charles Earmes on a storage unit that could be modified to the consumers taste and utilized multiple materials to carry out multiple purposes. (Example 4)

Eero Saarinen designed modern furniture while embracing industrialism and materials and techniques like moulded fiberglass and painted aluminum for aesthetic and function. (Example 5)

Walter Teague designed the Boeing 707 aircraft and kept in mind function, safety, and passenger reaction while using new technologies in lighting and plastic. Some of Teague’s methods are still used today. (Example 6)

Paul Rand worked in advertising and his work included humor, symbols, and surprises and brought on new ways to advertise while highlighting different uses. (Example 7)

Gene Frederico created advertisements that targeted housewifes which had lots of buying power post-war. (Example 8)

Dr M.F. Agha, was the art director for magazines such as Vogue and Vanity Fair and created a new and modern format to the magazines and he considered all factors such as color, typography, composition, and margins in his work.  (Example 9)

Will Burton was a German graphic designer who designed training and instruction manuals while keeping in mind the presentation. He worked on a variety of projects working for magazines to pharmaceutical brands, and his work would consist of 3-D elements, and clear presentation of information. (Example 10)

Herbert Bayer, designed and released the World Geographic Atlas which featured information from broad subjects pertaining to geography, climate, and resources and how they relate to humans. His work demonstrates a collaboration between industrialization and new technologies with commerce, and cultural values. (Example 11)

Alvar Aalto used brick and tile to add textures and color and used new techniques in his work such as exposed plumbing in interior design and maximizing storage efficiency (Example 12)

Arne Jacobsen exemplified modernism in Scandinavian work with the Egg chair which was very sculptured and utilized a wide range of materials like molded fiberglass, foam, rubber, and different fabrics. (Example 13)

Alec Issigonis designed the Mini for the British Motor Corporation which was a space-saving vehicle (Example 14)

# data[].attributes.body
Example 1

# data[].attributes.body
Example 2

# data[].attributes.body
Example 3

# data[].attributes.body
Example 4

# data[].attributes.body
Example 5

# data[].attributes.body
Example 6

# data[].attributes.body
Example 7

# data[].attributes.body
Example 8

# data[].attributes.body
Example 9

# data[].attributes.body
Example 10

# data[].attributes.body
Example 11

# data[].attributes.body
Example 12

# data[].attributes.body
Example 13

# data[].attributes.body
Example 14

# data[].attributes.body
Excellent summary Kevin, well done

# data[].attributes.body
Context

Standards of what ‘good design’ were set by private institutions and were generally accepted worldwide and many organizations such as IBM build their brands on ‘good design’

Growing middle class in the United States

Higher standards of living

Introduction of mass media and new and more effective ways to reach audiences through radio, television, film, and magazines via advertising and marketing

Celebrity culture began to dominate culture and set standards for beauty

Television set standards of living for some people (ex. Shows set in the suburbs)

Consumerism led people to want the newest and best designs and items and began “throwaway culture”

More effective mass production with a strengthened relationship with advertising

Beginning of “age of information” and more people could find and reference information which could be applied to design

Rise of the automobile industry and demand for cars

Importance of consistent and unified branding

Faux ‘American Dream’ -racial and gender barriers

Post World War 2 and after having to ration and dealing with shortages people wanted new and innovative designs.

Expanded traveling opportunities after World War 2

More self-expression and individualism

The Cold War

Space Race

Rise of suburbs and strip malls and shopping centers

Encouragement and new, easier methods to buying houses (mortgages)

Packaged and processed foods

Vietnam War and the reaction of Americans particularly students

The 1964 World’s Fair in New York

More awareness to harmful products and potential environmental risks

New ways of expression through music and fashion

Demand for social justice

Emergence of youth cultures

Rock & Roll

Woodstock

Formation of The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) which led to the rise of gas prices

Elements of Design

When designers, particularly automobile designers would make new designs, they would be noticeably different from the previous model

In automobiles, introduction of air conditioning, horsepower, and also motorized convertible tops.

Some automobiles that took inspiration from jets and were streamlined with chrome and often had tailfins.

V-8 Engine

Portable radios

Designs could come in different colors and forms to conform to more people's taste

Resort Hotels

Cape-Cod style houses, rectangular shape with pitched roof sloping towards front

Drywall as opposed to plaster

Kitchens were modern and had all appliances needed and would often have windows so parents could watch their children playing outside

After some people such as Lewis Mumford criticized suburban housing for becoming too uniform, during the 1950s more housing styles became available such as Colonial, Tudor, or modern Ranch which led to the reduction of standardization in design

Addition of eat-in kitchens and informal family rooms

Formica, hard plastic which came in various patterns for the kitchen and it replaced metal and stainless steel

Linoleum, a softer alternative for flooring in kitchen and recreational rooms

New appliances, washing machines, refrigerators, toasters, dishwashers and new cleaning products

La-Z-boy and other upholstery reclining chairs that could be customized to consumer preference

New toys for children, spinning toys, yo-yos, hoola-hoops, and frisbees.

Aluminum

“Imagineering”-  designs that had purposes but weren’t reliable

Packaging techniques that were bright and festive

Synthetic fabrics such as Dacron Permapress required no ironing

Design in automobiles and housing eventually became less streamlined and there were new forms and sharp edges and cars became more ‘boxy’

Computers

New materials could imitate real materials such as marble and wood better and the gap of awareness and knowledge between fake and real was closing

Posters

Key Designers

Harley Earl was the chief of General Motors’ Styling Department. He kept up with people’s consistent demand for change and innovation and his designs would always deviate from previous models. He made his models in clay as opposed to metal or wood to make more sculptured forms. He also introduced the first tailfin cars in 1948. (Example 1)

Morris Lapidus designed the first resort hotel in Miami Beach, the Fontainebleau. Previously he designed retail stores and when he designed hotels he could use imagination to create lavish luxury that people could escape with. He loved using sweeping curves and recurves and would create lavish interiors that would surprise guests and would often reference other places such as France. He wanted to excite people's senses. (Example 2)

Christian Dior, Pierre Balmain, Hubert de Givenchy, Cristóbal Balenciaga were all fashion designers who set standards for fashion design through their craft and creativity. (Example 3)

William Levitt was a housing builder who set new standards to mass production by using pre-assembled parts and having workers that had specific tasks to complete. (Example 4)

Mary Quant, a fashion designer that designed for the youth that was active, energetic, and rebellious. Helped Twiggy become an international model who was a posterchild for this new style and youth movement. (Example 5)

Andy Warhol, founder of the Pop Art movement and one of the most iconic modern artists. He put pop culture into art and his work would have political or cultural implications behind them. (Example 6)

Ken Garland a graphic designer who wrote “First Things First” which was critical of consumerism.

Emilio Ambasz, a curator who designed a 1972 exhibition at MoMA titled, Italy: The New Domestic Landscape which highlighted Italian designs and protests that took place in Milan which demanded for better working and living conditions.

Clas Oldenburg, designer who created installations using everyday objects and would use clashing patterns and square furnishings who strayed away from standards of “good design” and his would be considered to be kitschy. (Example 7)

Gaetano Pesce an artist who designed the ‘Donna’ chair in 1969 which used polyurethane foam and nylon jersey and is representative of postwar designers work and vaguely mimicked the female form. (Example 8)

Victor Papanek, a designer who rallied for social change and was critical of consumerism and materialism.

R. Buckminster Fuller a designer who believed that designers should focus on conservation of energy and materials. Designed geodesic domes to help with housing material shortages (Example 9)

# data[].attributes.body
Example 1

# data[].attributes.body
Example 2

# data[].attributes.body
Example 3

# data[].attributes.body
Example 4

# data[].attributes.body
Example 5

# data[].attributes.body
Example 6

# data[].attributes.body
Example 7

# data[].attributes.body
Example 8

# data[].attributes.body
Example 9

# data[].attributes.body
Designers have always sought after new techniques and materials to utilize in their designs, one of which was plywood. Plywood is made by gluing thin sheets of wood together which allowed for the wood to be flexible, lightweight, and moldable, but also sturdy. It was inexpensive and easy to mass produce and was used in a variety of different objects and designs ranging from furniture to cars to recreational purposes.

# data[].attributes.body
One of most well known uses for plywood was in chair designs. Many designers have used plywood in their chair designs due to their sturdiness and flexibility. Plywood gave many designs new contemporary shapes. While many designers had been using plywood in their chair designs for decades, one of the most popular designs were made by Charles and Ray Eames in 1947 and was called the DCW (Dining Chair Wood) and their work influenced many other designers such as Robin Day.

# data[].attributes.body
During the height of the British Empire, plywood was used in shipping containers and storage containers. Plywood was lightweight but still sturdy which is why it was used for this purpose. One specific use of plywood containers was for tea chests in the 1890s up until the 1970s. The plywood wouldn’t effect the tea, it was lightweight and thus was perfect for shipping Britain’s tea from their various colonies across the world.

# data[].attributes.body
After World War 1, there were many issues in the United States caused by The Great Depression which led to unemployment and low income for many families. Desperate to find a low-cost solution to housing shortages, designers began making cheap, factory produced houses made from plywood. These houses were made from a model and were cheap and quick to make. These plywood houses eventually laid the foundation for housing post-World War 2 and the movement to prefabricated houses in the suburbs.

# data[].attributes.body
One of the most fascinating uses of plywood was the use of it in the fuselage of aeroplanes. This was first patented by Armand Deperdussin in 1911 and his work was imitated by many and later utilized during the World Wars. Deperdussin design utilized the lightweight quality of plywood which allowed for planes to become faster and his planes set speed records.

# data[].attributes.body
Plywood was also utilized for medical purposes. During World War 2 Charles and Eames were commissioned by the United States Navy to create a leg splint that could be stacked and also float. Their design was very successful and also influenced their later work.

# data[].attributes.body
Plywood eventually also began to be used for recreational objects such as surfboards. Plywood began being used for surfboard designs because it was lightweight, moldable, and were more waterproof than the wood that was being used prior.

# data[].attributes.body
Plywood was used by many skateboard manufacturers because they could be easily made and they could also be easily be made at home as well by just attaching wheels to a piece of plywood. While board style changed and evolved away from plywood, plywood was still used in skateboard culture. Skateboarders began to use plywood to make ramps which could were made at home because the moldability and cheapness of plywood.

# data[].attributes.body
As the middle class grew and people began having more recreational time, the Mirror Dinghy was one of the most popular boats from the 20th century. The Mirror dinghy was made from marine plywood and was affordable and was meant to be assembled at home. This was popular among beginner sailors and could be easily assembled used a method called “Stitch and Glue”.

# data[].attributes.body
During the Cold War era, the world was on the brink of nuclear war, and the United States government designed DIY shelters to encourage people to construct their own. The design mainly consisted of plywood and would be relatively inexpensive for families to create their own.

# data[].attributes.body
Perhaps one of the most innovative uses for plywood would be in race cars which Frank Costin designed. The body of the car was made from plywood and was moulded into a curved shape. Plywood was used because it was seen as stronger, lighter, and more flexible than metal.