# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BCE) was the first government to emerge in ancient China and the first to adopt the policy of dynastic succession. Consequently, the Xia was the first dynasty of China. Long regarded as a mythical construct of later Chinese historians, 20th-century excavations uncovered sites which corresponded to descriptions in earlier historians' accounts.

The Xia Dynasty was overthrown by the Shang Dynasty (c.1600-1046 BCE), a more historically certain governmental entity, which was in turn overthrown by the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE).

The argument claiming the Xia Dynasty is a mythological construct claims that the Zhou (and later dynasties) wanted to make clear that the previous ones lost their right to rule through immoral conduct and so created a proto-dynasty - the Xia - as a pre historic model for this. Many scholars today still maintain that the Xia Dynasty is a myth but seem to be at a loss to explain why the physical evidence uncovered argues against their claim. Those who believe the Xia Dynasty was a reality are at an equal disadvantage in that none of the sites uncovered so far positively identify themselves as belonging to the Xia Dynasty and could as easily be interpreted as early Shang Dynasty buildings.

The Rise of the Xia

According to historians like Sima Qian (145-86 BCE), there was once a great ruler named Huang-ti (also Huangdi, `emperor') better known as the Yellow Emperor who emerged from the tribal system pre-historic China to rule the region of Shandong between 2697-2597 BCE. The Yellow Emperor created Chinese culture and established a form of government which would last for centuries. He is credited with inventing musical instruments, developing the production of silk, instituting law and customs, and the development of medicine and agriculture. Upon his death, he was buried in Huangling County, Shaanxi Province in the mausoleum which is today a popular tourist attraction.

Huang-ti was succeeded by his grandson Zhuanxu, one of the famous Five Emperors, who founded the Xia tribe. After defeating their rivals, the Xia established the first dynasty in China under the leadership of the Emperor Yao. Yao ordered great palaces to be built and small villages of huts grew into urban centers. He is considered a great philosopher-king who ruled his people wisely and worked in their best interests following the precepts of Huang-ti.

Yu's rule is considered the beginning of the Xia Dynasty and he is celebrated for his victories over the flood, the Sanmiao, and the establishment of stable government.

The Flood

Yao had a serious problem during his reign in controlling the flooding of the Yellow River which disrupted agriculture as well as drowning or displacing his people. He appointed a man named Gun (revered as a demi- god in many accounts) to take care of this situation.

Gun tried for nine years to stop the flooding but every year the waters grew stronger and more lands were covered and people killed. Finally, Gun constructed a series of dykes which he hoped would hold back the water but the dykes collapsed, causing further destruction and death. Yao had relinquished rule by this time to his successor Yu Shun who was not pleased at Gun's failure to control the waters. According to some versions of the tale, Gun then killed himself while according to others he was imprisoned by Yu Shun and still others report he exiled himself to the mountains. After he was gone, Emperor Shun appointed Gun's son Yu to complete the work and stop the flooding.

Yu the Great

Yu learned from his father's mistakes: Gun had tried to do too much by himself, had underestimated his need for help, and had overestimated his own abilities. He had also acted without respect for the forces of nature and had worked against the water instead of working with it. Yu enlisted the aid of the surrounding tribes and had them construct canals which would work with the water to lead it out toward its own kind in the sea.

Yu's project lasted thirteen years and he was so dedicated to his task that he never visited his home once, even though he passed by it three times in his work. Yu's wife and young son would call out to him as he passed and his colleagues would encourage him to go home for a rest but Yu would not abandon his task until it was completed. He claimed there were many who were homeless, who had lost their own wives and children to the flooding, and he did not feel he should rest until the problem was solved. His single-mindedness and dedication to his work inspired those around him who looked up to him as a role model and worked harder until the waters of the river were contained and there were no more floods.

Once the water problem had been solved, Shun was very proud of Yu and placed him in command of his army. Yu led his men against the Sanmiao, a tribe hostile to the Xia who continuously raided their borders. He defeated the Sanmiao and drove them from the land and, as a reward for his victories, Shun declared him heir to the throne.

Yu's rule is considered the beginning of the Xia Dynasty and he is known as Yu the Great not only for his victories over the flood and the Sanmiao but for the establishment of a stable central government and the organization of the country into nine provinces to make governing such an enormous area more manageable.

Death of Yu & Decline of Xia

Yu ruled for 45 years and, on his deathbed, named his son Qi as his successor. Qi had been a young boy during the time of the great flood and many people loved him for the story of how his father refused to return home until the flooding had been stopped and how young Qi bore his father's absence so well. Yu had intended to name his minister as successor, not wishing his son to have the burden of rule, but so many people favored Qi that Yu had no choice. In naming Qi his successor, Yu initiated the policy of dynastic succession.

Qi's son, Tai Kang, was a poor ruler but many of his successors were highly skilled and numerous inventions and innovations are attributed to the later Xia, such as the development of armor in warfare and rules of chivalry in battle. The fourth ruler after Qi was the great hero Shao Kang who revitalized the country and is well known through the many legends which tell his tales. The Xia Dynasty began to decline under the rule of Kong Jia (c. 1789 -1758 BCE) who cared more for strong drink than the responsibilities of rule. He was succeeded by Gao who was succeeded by Fa, neither of whom did a great deal to improve the lives of anyone but themselves. The last emperor was Jie (1728-1675 BCE) who was known as a tyrant and who lost the mandate of heaven to rule. He was overthrown by Tang who established the Shang Dynasty.

Much of the above was considered mythology from the 1920's CE until the mid-1960's CE when archaeological evidence began to emerge to corroborate the tales of the historians. Even now, the scholarly consensus is that the history of the Xia Dynasty is largely mythological even if such a dynasty did actually exist. The scepticism grew because there were no early accounts of the Xia Dynasty and because no physical evidence argued for its existence. It was thought that historians, especially the famous Sima Qian, created the Xia Dynasty as a model precedent to explain and justify dynastic change in China. The scholar Justin Wintle explains this:

Sima had a specific political purpose [in giving credence to mythological figures and events]. In his view, as in the view of others, rulers were entitled to govern by the "Mandate of Heaven"...If they misgoverned, then that license was forfeit. The Yellow Emperor and his successors, including Yu, not only invented all the essentials of civilizations, but provided a model government. As a result of human corruption, however, this divinely instituted order soon collapsed, and thus began the familiar "dynastic cycle". A new regime comes to power, but sooner or later loses the divine right to govern, at which point it is replaced by another that does enjoy the Mandate. And this transferability of the Mandate, Sima Suggests, is the underlying principle of history (3).

The mythological interpretation of the Xia Dynasty was challenged in the 1960's/1970's CE with the discovery of palaces and four-walled homes (as distinct from earlier round homes) matching the descriptions of the historians who wrote on the Xia Dynasty centuries after its decline. Further evidence of the Xia's existence has been discovered since but no written record on any of these structures positively identifies them as Xia constructs and so the debate continues on whether the first dynasty of China was a reality or simply a politically motivated fabrication of later writers.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BCE) was the first government to emerge in ancient China and the first to adopt the policy of dynastic succession. Consequently, the Xia was the first dynasty of China...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC) was the first recorded dynasty in China, however the records and its existence are disputed. However, most Chinese people would say that their ancestors originated in an area near the east coast of China around Beijing and Tianjin and the Yellow River.

This empire was said to have existed for about 400 years until the Shang Dynasty conquered it in 1600. Based on historical writings or myths 2,000 or more years old, we get a picture of what the early civilization was like.

Xia Dynasty Key Facts

Chinese: 夏朝 Xiàcháo /sshyaa-chaoww/ 'Summer Dynasty'

Established: 2070 BC

Capitals: First in the Beijing area, and later someplace in today's Henan and Shanxi provinces.

Features: Clans were united as a small empire and ruled according to the dynastic imperial system.

Succeeded by: the Shang Dynasty in 1600 BC

Did the Xia Dynasty Exist or Not?

This question is still debatable since no conclusive evidence has been discovered that link several archeological sites evidencing advanced early bronze-age cultures with the Xia as described in the Han people's written history. Their oldest historical documents were written between 0 BC and 1000 BC.

Sima Qian's account, Records of the Grand Historian, were written between about 109 and 91 BC. He tells about the origins and the history of the the Xia Dynasty of the Huaxia tribe along the Yellow River.

Based mainly on the ancient historical traditions, most Han Chinese generally identify themselves as descendants of the Huaxia tribe of the Xia dynastic clan.

What's the Evidence of Their Existence?

What we know about the Xia Dynasty era comes both from their own written histories and modern archeological discoveries.

The Archeological Evidence

Archeologists know that around the time that the Xia Kingdom is said to have existed, between 2070 and 1600 BC, there were several cultures in the Yellow River Basin. Archeologists generally think that the Han ethnic group and their culture emerged in the region about 4,000 years ago. Exact details about their origins are lost in the myths of history, but scholars try to decipher archeological discoveries for clues to uncover their origins.

Neolithic Peoples in the Yellow River Basin

Though archeologists think they know the general region where the Han originated, scholars debate about the exact area and time of the emergence of their civilization in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. In particular, it isn't clear archeologically about which tribes became the Han. Archeologists have discovered evidence of several tribes or small kingdoms in the river basin area more than 3,500 years ago, but they have not proved which of these people were the ancestors of the Han.

Archeologists have identified the Jiahu people (7000 to 6600 BC) and the Yangshao people (5000 to 3000 BC) who lived in the middle reaches of the Yellow River Valley. In the lower reaches of the river valley, the Qingliangang people (5400 to 4000 BC) lived nearer the coast. No written records of these people have been found, so it isn't clear whether these people were the ancestors of the Han people.

The Longshan culture (3000 to 2000) lived in the middle reaches, and the culturally different Dawenkou people (4300 to 2500) lived in the lower reaches contemporaneously. However, since no written records have been found among their remains and artifacts, it isn't clear whether these people were the ancestors of the Han either.

Archaeological Evidence? - Xia Era Relics Found

A site (called Erlitou) was discovered in the central Yellow River basin where the Xia Dynasty is said to have ruled. It is between Luoyang and Zhengzhou, in western Henan Province.

Radiocarbon dating places these discoveries between 2000 and 1500 BC. But it is unknown whether the Erlitou people were the people who were called the Xia.

Bronze tools and artifacts were dug out. But no written records have been found except for some markings on pottery and shells.

Erlitou Artifacts

Many stone tools, pottery, jade ware, bronze ware, horn implements, and mussels were unearthed. A Chinese dragon-shaped object decorated with beautiful turquoise was believed to be the original image of a Chinese dragon.

As more Erlitou culture evidence is unearthed, we will see what evidence there is to prove that the Xia Dynasty existed.

Historical Records of the Xia Dynasty

Records of the Grand Historian.

Some ancient accounts tell about the rise and fall of a small kingdom along the Yellow River in the northern part of the country over a 500-year period. But the accounts were all written later than the Xia Dynasty.

The main ancient accounts are in the Records of the Grand Historian (written between about 109 and 91 BC by Sima Qian), and the Bamboo Annals. The Bamboo Annals was written by official historians of Jin and Wei during the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BC).

Xia Dynasty Origin Stories in Detail

The Origins of Xia - Descendants of a Great Emperor

Recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian, there were battles between clans before Xia was established. Xia was one of Zhuanxu's descendant clans. Zhuanxu was one of the five great emperors in ancient times.

Yu the Great Established the Xia Dynasty (Reign: 2029-1978 BC)

Yu the Great was appreciated by Shun, the Xia clan's king at that time. Because the Xia tribe grew stronger, they were able to defeat a rival tribe. Shun sent Yu to suppress the Sanmiao tribe and he succeeded, which helped to make the Xia clan a strong one. Shun passed his throne to Yu the Great, and the Xia Dynasty began.

Before the Xia Dynasty, the clans passed their kingship to a reputable person. But Yu the Great passed his kingship to his son, Qi. Then the dynastic system began.

There was another story that Yu the Great planned to pass the throne to Gaotao, but Gaotao died before Yu the Great. And then he planned to pass it to Boyi, but his son Qi gained a higher reputation than Boyi. So Qi killed Boyi and succeeded the throne.

Stories of Yu the Great Taming Yellow River Floods

In the written stories, there was once a great flood that lasted many years, in about 2215 BC. A man named Yu the Great was given the task to control the flooding on the Yellow River by a sagely king named Yao (2358-2258 BC).

As you can see, the dates of these supposed events don't even match. It is said that Yao told Gun, who was Yu's father, to control the flood.

But the dikes that he built against the flooding didn't work. They collapsed, and the area was flooded. So Yao executed Gun and recruited Yu. Instead of relying on dikes, Yu had canals dug to divert the water. Digging the canals meant removing a mountain. The place where the mountain was removed was called Yu's Doorway (禹门口).

The flood works united the people along the Yellow River together. Yu the Great tamed the flood with other clans, gaining him a good reputation. Because of greater harvests, the Xia tribe grew stronger. People respected Yu highly for successfully controlling the flood, and he later became the ruler of the Xia clan.

The Story of the Demise of the Xia Dynasty (1559 BC)

The Xia Dynasty is said to have continued for hundreds of years. The kingdom had ups and downs, and it expanded during the reigns of another 17 emperors.

The Xia Empire Lost Prestige and Broke Up with Other Clans

One of the emperors, named Kongjia, changed the custom of worshiping ancestors to worshiping supernatural beings. Some clans were dissatisfied with Xia's rule. And when Jie inherited the throne, the good relationship between Xia and other clans had been broken.

The Last Xia Emperor, Jie (Reign: 1590-1559 BC)

The last emperor, named Jie, was very extravagant and fell into dissipation. Jie constructed a palace for his favorite concubine and drank all night long. He killed his loyal ministers who criticized him.

Emperor Jie was fond of women and every time he suppressed a clan, he took away the women that he wanted. The Shang clan grew stronger when Xia lost favor with the other clans. Jie then suppressed Shang and imprisoned Tang their leader, but he was later released.

It is said that Emperor Jie's wanton rule led to the dynasty falling out of favor with Heaven, i.e. Xia lost the Mandate of Heaven, meaning that it was fated to be replaced.

The Shang Clan Led Other Clans to Supplant Xia

Around 1559 BC, Tang of Shang united the other clans to suppress Jie and succeeded. Jie was banished, and Tang became the first leader of the Shang Dynasty.

See Evidence of China's Earliest Civilization for Yourself

Luoyang

The bronze implements and weapons, and fine jade jewelry and figurines show high craftsmanship. Some artifacts can be seen in the National Museum in Beijing. Customize a tour of Beijing to visit the museum.

The Erlitou exhibit in Yanshi is off the beaten path. It would be best to visit it in conjunction with a Luoyang tour or a Zhengzhou tour.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Xia Dynasty History (2070-1600 BC), China's First Dynasty?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC) was the first recorded dynasty in China, however evidence for it is not conclusive. Find out more here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) was among the most culturally significant of the early Chinese dynasties and the longest lasting of any in China's history. It is divided into two periods: Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE) and Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE). It followed the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE), whose cultural contributions it developed, and preceded the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE, pronounced "chin") which gave China its name. Among the Shang concepts developed by the Zhou was the Mandate of Heaven - the belief in the monarch and ruling house as divinely appointed - which would inform Chinese politics for centuries afterwards and which the House of Zhou invoked to depose and replace the Shang.

The Western Zhou period saw the rise of decentralized state with a social hierarchy corresponding to European feudalism in which land was owned by a noble, honor-bound to the king who had granted it, and was worked by peasants. Western Zhou fell just before the era known as the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 772-476 BCE), named for the state chronicles of the time (the Spring and Autumn Annals) notable for its advances in music, poetry, and philosophy, especially the development of the Confucian, Taoist, Mohist, and Legalist schools of thought.

Eastern Zhou moved the capital to Luoyang and continued the Western Zhou model but with an ever-increasing breakdown of the imperial Chinese government which resulted in the claim that the Zhou had lost the Mandate of Heaven. The weakness of the king's position gave rise to the chaotic era known as the Warring States Period (c. 481-221 BCE) during which the seven separate states of China fought each other for supremacy. This period ended with the victory of the state of Qin over the others and the establishment of the Qin Dynasty which tried to erase the accomplishments of the Zhou in order to establish its own primacy.

The Zhou Dynasty made significant cultural contributions to education, literature, philosophical schools of thought, as well as political & religious innovations.

The Zhou Dynasty made significant cultural contributions to agriculture, education, military organization, Chinese literature, music, philosophical schools of thought, and social stratification as well as political and religious innovations. The foundation for many of these developments had been laid by the Shang Dynasty but the form in which they came to be recognized is entirely credited to the Zhou.

The culture they established and maintained for almost 800 years enabled the development of the arts, metallurgy, and some of the most famous names in Chinese philosophy, among them Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti, Lao-Tzu, and Sun-Tzu all of whom lived and wrote during the period known as the time of the Hundred Schools of Thought during which individual philosophers established their own schools. The contributions of the Zhou Dynasty provided the foundation for the development of Chinese culture by those that followed, most notably the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) which would fully recognize the value of the Zhou Dynasty's contributions.

Fall of the Shang & Rise of the Zhou

Prior to the Zhou was the Shang Dynasty who overthrew the Xia Dynasty (c. 2700-1600 BCE), claiming it had become tyrannical, and the Shang leader, Tang (dates unknown) then stabilized the region and initiated policies encouraging economic and cultural advances. The Shang made the most of the fertile soil on the banks of the Yellow River to produce abundant harvests, providing more food than required, the surplus of which then went toward trade. The resulting prosperity allowed for the development of cities, (some on a large scale, such as Erligang), arts, and culture.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

The Shang were expert masons, jewelers, and metallurgists, creating masterpieces in bronze and jade, as well as producing high-quality bolts of silk. They developed a calendar, divination through oracle bones, writing, music and musical instruments, the concept of ancestor worship, Taoism, and the religious concept of the Mandate of Heaven which claimed the monarch ruled by the will of the gods.

The gods' approval of a king was evident in the prosperity of the land and the general well-being of the people. Any decline in either was interpreted as a sign the monarch had broken his contract with the gods and should be deposed. The last Shang emperor, Zhou (also given as Xin), became as tyrannical as the earlier Xia kings had been. He was challenged by King Wen of Zhou (l. 1152-1056 BCE) and was overthrown by Wen's second son, King Wu, who reigned 1046-1043 BCE as the first king of the Zhou Dynasty.

Western Zhou

King Wu at first followed the paradigm of the Shang in establishing a central government on either side of the Feng River known as Fenghao. Wu died shortly afterwards, and his brother, Dan, the Duke of Zhou (r. 1042-1035 BCE), took control of the government as regent for Wu's young son, Cheng (r. 1042-1021 BCE). The Duke of Zhou is a legendary character in Chinese history as a poet-warrior and author of the famous book of divination, the I-Ching. He expanded the territories eastward, and ruled respectfully, abdicating when the son of Wu came of age and took the throne as King Cheng of Zhou. Not every region under Zhou control admired their policies, however, and rebellions throughout the vast realm broke out, inspired by factions wishing to rule themselves.

A centralized government could not maintain the large territory that had been conquered and so the ruling house sent out trusted generals, family members, and other nobles to establish smaller states which would be loyal to the king. The policy of fengjian ("establishment") was instituted which decentralized the government and allotted land to nobles who acknowledged the supremacy of the Zhou king. The fengjian policy established a feudal system and social hierarchy which ran, top to bottom:

Each noble formed his own separate state with its own legal system, tax code, currency, and militia. They paid homage and taxes to the Zhou king and provided him with soldiers when necessary. In order to strengthen the king's position, the Mandate of Heaven concept was more fully developed. The king made sacrifices at the capital on behalf of the people and the people honored him with their loyalty and service.

This was one of the few times in China's history that the upper & lower classes worked together for the greater common good.

The fengjian policy was so successful, producing such abundance of crops, that the resultant prosperity validated the Zhou as possessing the Mandate of Heaven. The wealth that was generated encouraged the so-called well-field system which divided lands between those cultivated for nobility and the king, and those worked by and for the peasantry. This was one of the few times in China's history that the upper and lower classes worked together for the greater common good.

The Zhou culture, naturally, flourished with this kind of cooperation. Works in bronze became more sophisticated and the metallurgy of the Shang, overall, was improved upon. Chinese writing was codified and literature developed, as evidenced in the work known as Shijing (the Book of Songs, composed 11th-7th centuries BCE), one of the Five Classics of Chinese literature. The poems of the Shijing would have been sung at court and were thought to encourage virtuous behavior and compassion for members of all social classes.

This time of prosperity and relative peace, however, could not last. Scholar Patricia Buckley Ebrey comments:

The decentralized rule of the Western Zhou had from the beginning carried within it the danger that the regional lords would become so powerful that they would no longer respond to the commands of the king. As generations passed and ties of loyalty and kinship grew more distant, this indeed happened. In 771 BCE, the Zhou king was killed by an alliance [of tribesmen and vassals]. (38)

Western Zhou fell when invasions, most likely by the peoples known as the Xirong (or Rong), further destabilized the region. The nobility moved the capital to Luoyang in the east which gives the next period of Zhou history its name of Eastern Zhou.

Eastern Zhou

By all accounts, the era of Eastern Zhou was chaotic and violent but managed to produce literary, artistic, and philosophical works of startling originality and substance. The Spring and Autumn Period which begins the era of Eastern Zhou still retained some of the courtesy and decorum of the days of Western Zhou but that would not last for long. The separate states - Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao - all had more power than the Zhou at Luoyang at this time. Even so, it was still thought that the Zhou held the Mandate of Heaven and so each state tried to prove themselves the Zhou successor.

In the early years of the Spring and Autumn Period, chivalry in battle was still observed and all seven states used the same tactics resulting in a series of stalemates since, whenever one engaged with another in battle, neither could gain an advantage. In time, this repetition of seemingly endless, and completely futile, warfare became simply the way of life for the people of China during the era now referred to as the Warring States Period. The famous work The Art of War by Sun-Tzu (l. c. 500 BCE) was written during this time, recording precepts and tactics one could use to gain advantage over an opponent, win the war, and establish peace.

How widely read The Art of War was at this time is unknown but Sun-Tzu was not the only one who tried to end the violence through stratagems. The pacifist philosopher Mo Ti (also given as Mot Tzu, l. 470-291 BCE) went to each state, offering his knowledge in strengthening a city's defenses as well as offensive tactics in battle. His idea was to provide each state with exactly the same advantages, neutralizing all, in the hope that they would realize the futility of further warfare and declare peace. His plan failed, however, because each state, like a die-hard gambler, believed that their next offensive would result in the big win.

A Qin statesman named Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE), following Sun-Tzu's lead, advocated for total war, without regard to the old laws of chivalry, and stressed the goal of victory by any means at one's disposal. Shang Yang's philosophy was adopted by King Ying Zheng of Qin who embarked on a brutal campaign of carnage, defeated the other states, and established himself as Shi Huangdi, the first Chinese emperor. The Zhou Dynasty had fallen, and the Qin Dynasty now began its reign over China.

Zhou Contributions

The Qin would undo many of the advances of the Zhou but could not completely rewrite history. In the same way the Zhou had drawn on the accomplishments of the Shang, so the Qin did with the Zhou. The Zhou's advances in agriculture, for example, were kept and improved upon, notably irrigation techniques, dam building, and hydraulics which would be instrumental in Shi Huangdi's construction of the Grand Canal.

The use of cavalry and chariots in Chinese warfare (also originally Shang developments) were further developed by the Zhou and kept by the Qin. The Zhou had brought horsemanship to such a high level that it was considered a form of art and a requisite for the education of princes. Horses were thought so important, they were frequently buried with their masters or sacrificed for the spiritual power and protection their energy could provide to the deceased.

The most famous example of this is the tomb of Duke Jing of Qi (r. 547-490 BCE), found in Shandong Province in 1964 CE which, though still not fully excavated presently, is thought to contain the remains of 600 horses sacrificed to accompany the Duke into the afterlife. All of the states drew on the Zhou knowledge of horsemanship and Ying Zheng, in fact, made full use of the chariot and cavalry units developed by the Zhou in subduing the other states.

The Zhou separation of an army into units, deployed in different directions in battle, was also maintained by the Qin as was Zhou metallurgy. Shi Huangdi made the most of Zhou techniques in metalworking by forcing the subdued states to turn over their weapons which were melted down and turned into statues celebrating his reign.

The Zhou contributions which were discarded by the Qin were all in the areas of art and culture. The Spring and Autumn Period and its time of the Hundred Schools of Thought had produced some of the most significant philosophical thinkers in the world. The major schools of thought were founded by Confucius (l. 551-479 BCE) whose famous Confucian precepts continue to inform Chinese culture, Lao-Tzu (l. c. 500 BCE) who codified and founded formal Taoism, and Han Feizi (l. c. 280-233 BCE), founder of the school of Legalism.

There were also many lesser known, but still significant, philosophers such as the sophist Teng Shih (l. c. 500 BCE), the hedonist Yang Zhu (l. 440-360 BCE), and the politician and philosopher Yan Ying (l. 578-500 BCE). Among the best-known later philosophers was the famous Mencius (also given as Mang-Tze, l. 372-289 BCE) who would codify the works of Confucius, and Xun Kuang (l. c. 310 - c. 235 BCE) whose work, Xunzi, reimagined Confucian ideals with a more pessimistic, pragmatic vision. Except for the legalism of Han Feizi, which the Qin adopted as its national policy, the work of all these philosophers was ordered destroyed; any which survived had been hidden by priests and intellectuals at the risk of their lives.

Zhou musical contributions were also undervalued by the Qin, though they were later recognized fully by the Han Dynasty. Central to the values of the Zhou Dynasty were the concepts of Li (ritual) and Yue (music and dance), commonly given as Li-Yue. Music was considered transformative, as explained by the scholar Johanna Liu:

Since the Zhou Dynasty, music has been considered as one important subject in the curriculum including four disciplines for cultivating the sons of royal family and eminent people from the State to be prominent future leaders. In the Book of Rites, it was said...'the direction of Music gave all honor to its four subjects of instruction, and arranged the lessons in them, following closely the poems, histories, ceremonies, and music of the former kings, in order to complete its scholars.' (Shen, 65)

Each piece of music had a corresponding dance and the combination of these was thought to not only improve the moral character of the individual but assist in balancing the nature of the cosmos. Confucius believed music to be essential in cultivating a good character, especially in a ruler, and that a lover of music would conduct himself, and his administration, justly.

The Book of Rites referenced by Liu is one of the classic Chinese texts which was produced during the Zhou Dynasty during the period of the Hundred Schools of thought. The Four Books and Five Classics - which managed to survive the book burning of the Qin - became the standard texts for Chinese education. They are:

The Book of Rites (also known as The Book of Great Learning)

The Doctrine of the Mean

The Analects of Confucius

The Works of Mencius

The I-Ching

The Classics of Poetry

The Classics of Rites

The Classics of History

The Spring and Autumn Annals

These works continue to be studied in the present day and for the same reason: they are thought to not only educate an individual but also elevate the soul and improve one's overall character.

Conclusion

These works were only made possible by the Zhou development of writing. The Zhou developed the Shang script Jiaguwen into the Dashuan, Xiaozhuan, and Lishu scripts which would lend themselves to the development of still others. The Zhou's elevation of ancestor worship encouraged the development of religious thought and their vision of the Mandate of Heaven would continue to inform Chinese dynasties going forward for thousands of years.

If the Zhou had only produced philosophers such as Confucius and the others, it would be impressive enough, but they did far more. In the Western Zhou period, they established a decentralized, but cohesive, state which honored and inspired the people of all social classes, not just the noble and wealthy. They consistently improved upon what they had inherited from the Shang and looked for other ways to make their lives, and others', better.

In the Eastern Zhou period, even amidst the chaos of constant warfare, they continued to develop art, music, literature, and philosophy of the highest quality. The Zhou Dynasty's reign of nearly 800 years, in fact, was so profoundly influential at every level of culture that even the destructive policies of the Qin could not erase it. After the Qin fell to the Han Dynasty, the cultural contributions of the Zhou were revived and, today, are indistinguishable from Chinese culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) was among the most culturally significant of the early Chinese dynasties and the longest lasting of any in China's history. It is divided into two periods: Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE) and Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE). It followed the Shang Dynasty (c.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article was most recently revised and updated by

Zhou dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Chou, dynasty that ruled ancient China for some eight centuries, establishing the distinctive political and cultural characteristics that were to be identified with China for the next two millennia. The beginning date of the Zhou has long been debated. Traditionally, it has been given as 1122 bce, and that date has been successively revised as scholars have uncovered more archaeological evidence. The most recent findings have placed the outright start of the dynasty at 1046 bce. The dynasty ended in 256 bce.

History

The Zhou coexisted with the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 bce) for many years, living just west of the Shang territory in what is now Shaanxi province. At various times they were a friendly tributary state to the Shang, alternatively warring with them. One of the Zhou ruling houses devised a plan to conquer the Shang, and a decisive battle was fought, probably in the mid-11th century bce. However, a rebellion broke out before the whole Shang territory could be consolidated by the Zhou. The fighting went on for three years before the rebellion was put down, and finally the Zhou solidified their reign over all of China. An array of feudal states was created within the empire to maintain order and the emperor's hold on the land. The original Zhou capital had been located near present-day Xi'an in Shaanxi on the Wei River above its confluence with the Huang He (Yellow River). To support the empire in the east and its loyal feudal rulers, an eastern capital was built at Luoyang on the middle reaches of the Huang He.

The stability of that arrangement lasted some 200 years before it began to collapse with the increasing local interests of the 20 or more feudal lords. In the 8th century bce the political system, which had essentially consisted of a network of extended family, began to weaken seriously. With the decline of the feudal king's power, de facto power fluctuated among various of the feudal chiefs as they were able to make themselves overlords.

The period before 771 bce is usually known as the Xi (Western) Zhou dynasty, and that from 770 is known as the Dong (Eastern) Zhou dynasty. The Dong Zhou itself is often further subdivided into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (770-476 bce), when China consisted of many small squabbling states, and the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (475-221 bce), when the small states consolidated into several larger units, which struggled with one another for mastery. Finally, one of those small kingdoms, Qin (from which derives modern China's name), succeeded in conquering the rest of the states and establishing the Qin dynasty (221-207 bce).

Cultural achievements

The visual arts of the Zhou dynasty reflect the diversity of the feudal states of which it was composed and into which it eventually broke up. The arts of the early Xi Zhou were essentially a continuation of those of the Shang dynasty. That was especially true of works in bronze, in which there was an accelerated deterioration of the variety of shapes, the decoration, and the craftsmanship of casting. It was not until the Dong Zhou and the classical age of Confucius and Laozi that unique local traditions became apparent. The range of applied decoration for the first time included pictorial subjects-for example, hunting scenes and chariots and horsemen.

As the empire was breaking up, arts and culture were flowering in the various component states, encouraged and stimulated by the highly localized interests that fed the impulse toward independence of the empire. The remains of many of the feudal capitals during the Zhou period have been uncovered and reveal great buildings with rammed-earth floors and walls. There were also two-story buildings and observation towers, and Laozi mentions a nine-story tower.

Although (with the exception of a few works on silk) no painting survives from the Zhou, written descriptions of paintings evidence their themes, including figures, portraits, and historic scenes. Lacquerware including gold and silver inlay became finely developed, and bronzework carried on from the great legacy of the Shang. Jade ornaments and objects were used lavishly for funerary and ritual purposes, and ornamental carvings reflected superb craftsmanship. Pottery continued Shang traditions and expanded greatly in variety of shapes and finishes during the Warring States period.

During the Zhou dynasty, China underwent quite dramatic changes. Iron, ox-drawn plows, crossbows, and horseback riding were all introduced; large-scale irrigation and water-control projects were also instituted for the first time, greatly increasing the crop yield of the North China Plain. The communication system was also greatly improved through the construction of new roads and canals. Trade was increased, towns grew up, coinage was developed, chopsticks came into use, and the Chinese writing system was created out of its primitive beginnings in the Shang period.

There was also a great philosophical flowering: the schools of Confucianism, Daoism, and legalism developed in that period. Literature flourished with Confucius and other great Chinese philosophers. Later generations of Chinese have regularly studied the Zhou dynasty for information regarding the origin of their civilization.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Amy McKenna.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Zhou dynasty | History, Achievements, Art, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Zhou dynasty, dynasty that ruled ancient China for some eight centuries, establishing the distinctive political and cultural characteristics that were to be identified with China for the next two millennia. The Zhou dynasty began in 1046 BCE and ended in 256 BCE.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Capital of Qin Dynasty

The Qin (pronounced "chin") region was located in modern-day Shaanxi province, north of the Zhou Dynasty territory-Qin served as a barrier between it and the less civilized states north of it. The capital of the Qin Dynasty was Xianyang, which was extensively enlarged after Qin dominance was established.

Qin itself had been considered a backwards, barbarian state by the ruling Zhou Dynasty. This distinction had to do with its slow pace in embracing Chinese culture, for instance, lagging behind the Zhou in doing away with human sacrifice.

The ruling class of Qin nonetheless believed themselves to be legitimate heirs to the Zhou states, and through the centuries they strengthened their diplomatic and political standing through a variety of means, including strategic marriages.

Shang Yang

It was during the rule of Duke Xiao from 361 to 338 B.C. that the groundwork was laid for conquest, primarily through the work of Shang Yang, an administrator from the state of Wey who was appointed Chancellor.

Shang Yang was a vigorous reformer, systematically reworking the social order of Qin society, eventually creating a massive, complex bureaucratic state and advocating for the unification of Chinese states.

Among Shang Yang's innovations was a successful system to expand the army beyond the nobility, giving land as a reward to peasants who enlisted. This helped create a massive infantry that was less expensive to maintain than the traditional chariot forces.

Following Duke Xiao's death, Shang Yang was charged with treason by the old aristocrats in the state. He attempted to fight and create his own territory but was defeated and executed in 338 B.C. with five chariots pulling him apart for spectators in a market. But Shang Yang's ideas had already laid the foundation for the Qin Empire.

Ying Zheng

The state of Qin began to expand into the regions surrounding it. When the states of Shu and Ba went to war in 316 B.C., both begged for Qin's help.

Qin responded by conquering each of them and, over the next 40 years, relocating thousands of families there, and continuing their expansionist efforts into other regions.

Ying Zheng is considered the first emperor of China. The son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and a concubine, Ying Zheng took the throne at the age of 13, following his father's death in 247 B.C. after three years on the throne.

Qin Shi Huang

As the ruler of Qin, Ying Zheng took the name Qin Shi Huang Di ("first emperor of Qin"), which brings together the words for "Mythical Ruler" and "God."

Qin Shi Huang began a militarily-driven expansionist policy. In 229 B.C., the Qin seized Zhao territory and continued until they seized all five Zhou states to create a unified Chinese empire in 221 B.C.

Advised by the sorcerer Lu Sheng, Qin Shi Huang traveled in secrecy through a system of tunnels and lived in secret locations to facilitate communing with immortals. Citizens were discouraged from using the emperor's personal name in documents, and anyone who revealed his location would face execution.

Qin Unification

Qin Shi Huang worked quickly to unify his conquered people across a vast territory that was home to several different cultures and languages.

One of the most important outcomes of the Qin conquest was the standardization of non-alphabetic written script across all of China, replacing the previous regional scripts. This script was simplified to allow faster writing, useful for record keeping.

The new script enabled parts of the empire that did not speak the same language to communicate together, and led to the founding of an imperial academy to oversee all texts. As part of the academic effort, older philosophical texts were confiscated and restricted (though not destroyed, as accounts during the Han Dynasty would later claim).

The Qin also standardized weights and measures, casting bronze models for measurements and sending them to local governments, who would then impose them on merchants to simplify trade and commerce across the empire. In conjunction with this, bronze coins were created to standardize money across the regions.

With these Qin advances, for the first time in their history, the various warring states in China were unified. The name China, in fact, is derived from the word Qin (which was written as Ch'in in earlier Western texts).

Great Wall of China

The Qin empire is known for its engineering marvels, including a complex system of over 4,000 miles of road and one superhighway, the Qinzhidao or "Straight Road," which ran for about 500 miles along the Ziwu Mountain range and is the pathway on which materials for the Great Wall of China were transported.

The empire's borders were marked on the north by border walls that were connected, and these were expanded into the beginnings of the Great Wall.

Overseen by the Qin road builder Meng Tian, 300,000 workers were brought to work on the construction of the Great Wall, and on the service roads required to transport supplies.

Qin Shi Huang's Monuments

Qin Shi Huang was noted for audacious marvels of art and architecture meant to celebrate the glory of his new dynasty.

Each time Qin made a new conquest, a replica of that state's ruling palace was constructed across from Qin Shi Huang's Palace along the Wei River, then linked by covered walkways and populated by singing girls brought in from the conquered states.

Weapons from Qin conquests were collected and melted down, to be used for the casting of giant statues in the capital city Xianyang.

Qin Shi Huang Tomb

For his most brash creation, Qin Shi Huang sent 700,000 workers to create an underground complex at the foot of the Lishan Mountains to serve as his tomb. It now stands as one of the seven wonders of the world.

Designed as an underground city from which Qin Shi Huang would rule in the afterlife, the complex includes temples, huge chambers and halls, administrative buildings, bronze sculptures, animal burial grounds, a replica of the imperial armory, terracotta statues of acrobats and government officials, a fish pond and a river.

Terracotta Army

Less than a mile away, outside the eastern gate of the underground city, Qin Shi Huang developed an army of life-size statues-almost 8,000 terracotta warriors and 600 terracotta horses, plus chariots, stables and other artifacts.

This vast complex of terracotta statuary, weapons and other treasures-including the tomb of Qin Shi Huang himself-is now famous as the Terracotta Army.

Excavation of the tomb of Qin Shi Huang has been delayed due to high levels of toxic mercury at the site-it's believed that the emperor had the liquid mercury installed in the tomb to mimic rivers and lakes.

Death of Qin Shi Huang

Qin Shi Huang died in 210 B.C. while touring eastern China. Officials traveling with him wanted to keep it secret, so to disguise the stench of his corpse, filled up 10 carts with fish to travel with his body.

They also forged a letter from Qin Shi Huang, sent to crown prince Fu Su, ordering him to commit suicide, which he did, allowing the officials to establish Qin Shi Huang's younger son as the new emperor.

End of the Qin Dynasty

In two years time, most of the empire had revolted against the new emperor, creating a constant atmosphere of rebellion and retaliation. Warlord Xiang Yu in quick succession defeated the Qin army in battle, executed the emperor, destroyed the capital and split up the empire into 18 states.

Liu Bang, who was given the Han River Valley to rule, quickly rose up against other local kings and then waged a three-year revolt against Xiang Yu. In 202 B.C., Xiang Yu committed suicide, and Liu Bang assumed the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty, adopting many of the Qin dynasty institutions and traditions.

Sources

The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Mark Edward Lewis.
Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Li Feng.
Emperor Qin's Tomb. National Geographic.
Qin Dynasty. World History Encyclopedia.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Qin Dynasty: Achievements, Facts & Time Period - HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Qin Dynasty was the first royal dynasty during the age of Imperial China. Qin achievements had a profound cultural impact on the dynasties that followed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Xia Dynasty is said to have been the first true Chinese dynasty, described in the ancient Bamboo Annals called the Ji Tomb Annals, dated to the late third century BCE; and in the Records of the Historian Sima Qian (called the Shi Ji and written about 145 BCE). There is a long-standing debate as to whether the Xia Dynasty was myth or reality; until the mid-20th century, no direct evidence was available to support stories of this long-vanished era.

Some scholars still believe that it was invented in order to validate the leadership of the Shang Dynasty, for which there is abundant archaeological and written evidence. The Shang Dynasty was founded in about 1760 BCE, and many of the attributes ascribed to the Xia are different from those ascribed to the Xia.

Legends of the Xia Dynasty

According to the historical records, the Xia dynasty is thought to have lasted between about 2070-1600 BCE, and it was said to have been founded by a man known as Yu the Grea a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, and born about 2069. His capital was at Yang City. Yu is a semi-mythical figure who spent 13 years stopping a great flood and bringing irrigation to the Yellow River Valley. Yu was the ideal hero and ruler, said to have been assisted in his work by a yellow dragon and a black turtle. Many of the tales about him are cast in mythology, which doesn't necessarily rule out the possible reality of a sophisticated society predating the Shang.

The Xia dynasty is said to be the first to irrigate, produce cast bronze, and build a strong army. It used oracle bones and had a calendar. Xi Zhong is credited in legend with inventing a wheeled vehicle. He used a compass, square, and rule. King Yu was the first king to be succeeded by his son instead of a man chosen for his virtue. This made the Xia the first Chinese dynasty. The Xia under King Yu probably had about 13.5 million people.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian (the Shi Ji, started around the second century BCE (over a millennium after the end of the Xia Dynasty), there were 17 Xia Dynasty Kings. They included:

Yu the Great: 2205-2197 BCE

Emperor Qi: 2146-2117 BCE

Tai Kang: 2117-2088 BCE

Zhong Kang: 2088-2075 BCE

Xiang: 2075-2008 BCE

Shao Kang: 2007-1985 BCE

Zhu: 1985-1968 BCE

Huai: 1968-1924 BCE

Mang: 1924-1906 BCE

Xie: 1906-1890 BCE

Bu Jiang: 1890-1831 BCE

Jiong: 1831-1810 BCE

Jin: 1810-1789 BCE

Kong Jia: 1789-1758 BCE

Gao: 1758-1747 BCE

Fa: 1747-1728 BCE

Jie: 1728-1675 BCE

The fall of the Xia is blamed on its last king, Jie, who is said to have fallen in love with an evil, beautiful woman and become a tyrant. The people rose up in rebellion under the leadership of Zi Lü, the Tang Emperor and founder of the Shang Dynasty.

Possible Xia Dynasty Sites

While there is still debate over how much the texts can be relied on, there is recent evidence has increased the likelihood that there really was dynasty predating the Shang. Late Neolithic sites which hold some elements suggesting Xia dynasty remains include Taosi, Erlitou, Wangchenggang, and Xinzhai in central Henan province. Not all researchers in China agree to the connection of archaeological sites with prehistoric semi-mythical polities, although scholars have noted that Erlitou in particular had a high degree of cultural-political sophistication at an early period.

Erlitou in Henan Province is a massive site, covering at least 745 acres, and occupations between 3500-1250 BCE; at its heyday about 1800, it was the primary center in the region, with eight palaces and a large cemetery precinct.

Taosi, in southern Shanxi, (2600-2000 BCE) was a regional center, and had an urban center surrounded by large rammed-earth walls, a craft production center for pottery and other artifacts, and a semicircular rammed-earth structure which has been identified as an astronomical observatory.

Wangchenggang in Dengfeng province (2200-1835 BCE) was a settlement center for at least 22 other sites in the upper Ying River valley. It had two connected small rammed-earth enclosures built about 2200 BCE, a craft=production center, and many ash pits some containing human burials.

Xinzhai, in Henan Province (2200-1900 BCE) is an urban center with at least fifteen associated sites surrounding it, with a large semi-subterranean structure interpreted as a ritual structure.

In 2016, an international group of archaeologists reported evidence of a great flood in the Yellow River at a site called Lajia, dated about 1920 BCE, which they claimed provided support to the great flood in the Xia Dynasty legends. The Laija townsite in particular was found with several residences with skeletons buried within the deposits. Wu Qinglong and colleagues admitted that the date was several centuries later than the historical records state. The article appeared in Science magazine in August of 2016, and three comments were quickly received disagreeing with the dating and interpretation of the geological and archaeological data, so the site remains an open question like the others.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Was the Xia Dynasty of Ancient China Real or Mythical?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Xia Dynasty is said to have been the first true Chinese dynasty, described in the ancient Bamboo Annals called the Ji Tomb Annals, dated to the late third century BCE; and in the Records of the Historian Sima Qian (called the Shi Ji and written about 145 BCE).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Shang dynasty, the first recorded Chinese dynasty for which there is both documentary and archaeological evidence. The Shang dynasty was the reputed successor to the quasi-legendary first dynasty, the Xia ( 2070- c. 1600 bce).

The dates given for the founding of the Shang dynasty vary from about 1760 to 1520 bce, and the dates for the dynasty's fall also vary, from 1122 to 1030 bce. The period of the dynasty's rule has traditionally been dated 1766-1122 bce. However, more recent archaeological work has placed the Shang's starting date at about 1600 bce and has identified the dynasty's end as being 1046 bce. The latter part of the Shang dynasty, from the reign of the Pangeng emperor onward (i.e., c. 1300 bce), has also been called the Yin dynasty.

Shang China was centred in the North China Plain and extended as far north as modern Shandong and Hebei provinces and westward through present-day Henan province. The kings of the Shang are believed to have occupied several capitals one after another, one of them possibly at modern Zhengzhou, where there are rich archaeological finds, but they settled at Anyang in the 14th century bce. The king appointed local governors, and there was an established class of nobles as well as the masses, whose chief labour was in agriculture. The king issued pronouncements as to when to plant crops, and the society had a highly developed calendar system with a 360-day year of 12 months of 30 days each. It was during the Shang that Chinese writing began to develop, and the symbol for "moon" was-as it has remained-that also for "month." The calendar took cognizance of both lunar and solar cycles, and, when it became necessary to adjust the basically lunar year to the seasonal reality of the solar year, intercalary months were added.

Musical instruments had evidently come down from the Xia or whatever society preceded the Shang, for the early Shang instruments were well developed and included a clay ocarina, tuned chimes of stone, and bells and drums of bronze. (Legend traces the origin of pipes of bamboo earlier, even before the mythical Xia.)

The architects of the Shang period built houses of timber over rammed-earth floors, with walls of wattle and daub and roofs of thatch. Tombs were dug in clay, and their walls show traces of paintings that strongly resemble some of the ornamentation and animal shapes reflected in the outstanding bronze work of the period. The earliest bronzes of the Shang were primitive, but a course of development is evident that culminates in elegant ceremonial objects as well as a substantial range of cooking and serving dishes and various utensils and ornaments. There was a three-legged li for cooking, and upon it could be fitted a bronze zeng, a bowl with a pierced bottom to function as a steamer-together called a yan. Serving bowls were often stemmed, and pouring vessels, such as the gu, had long spouts. Those and numerous other vessels were often richly decorated.

Pottery objects were abundant, and Shang potters made fired-clay sectional molds for casting bronzes. They also used clay molds to imprint decorations into clay vessels-whose shapes in many cases clearly inspired designs in bronze. Some of the pottery gives evidence of possibly having been shaped on a potter's wheel. Pottery included dishes and bowls in a white glaze for ceremonial and ritual use, as well as black pottery and a rich brown glaze for more mundane purposes.

Jade carving became quite advanced during the Shang dynasty. Ceremonial weapons of jade were made, as well as jade fittings for actual weapons. Jade figurines included both human and animal shapes, carved in the round in careful detail. Many of those objects have been found in tombs of the period. Other funerary art ran a gamut in size from tiny objects of jade or carved bone and ivory (sometimes inlaid with turquoise) to chariots of lacquered wood. Larger sculptures in marble followed animal motifs.

No literature as such survives from the Shang, but quite numerous records and ceremonial inscriptions and family or clan names exist, carved into or brushed onto bone or tortoise shells. Three kinds of characters were used-pictographs, ideograms, and phonograms-and those records are the earliest known writing in China.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Shang dynasty | Definition, Government, Time Period, Map, & Art

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Shang dynasty, the first recorded Chinese dynasty for which there is both documentary and archaeological evidence. The Shang dynasty was the reputed successor to the quasi-legendary first dynasty, the Xia (c. 2070-c. 1600 BCE). Learn more about the Shang dynasty in this article.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Shang Dynasty (c.1600-1046 BCE) was the second dynasty of China which succeeded the Xia Dynasty (c. 2700-1600 BCE) after the overthrow of the Xia tyrant Jie by the Shang leader, Tang. Since many historians question whether the Xia Dynasty really existed, the Shang Dynasty may have actually been the first in China and the origin of Chinese culture.

The stability of the country during the Shang Dynasty led to numerous cultural advances such as industrialized bronze casting, the calendar, religious rituals, and writing. The first king, Tang, instantly began to work for the people of his country instead of for his own pleasure and luxury and provided a role model for his successors. These men created a stable government which would continue for 600 years but eventually, according to the records of the Chinese historians, they lost the mandate of heaven which allowed them to rule.

The Shang were overthrown by King Wu of Zhou in 1046 BCE who founded the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE). The Zhou would be the last before the Qin Dynasty (221-210 BCE) which unified China and gave it its name. By the time of the Zhou and Qin dynasties, Chinese culture was already formed, so if one discounts the Xia Dynasty as a politically motivated fabrication of later historians, one must conclude that the Shang Dynasty is responsible for the foundations of Chinese culture and civilization. If one accepts the Xia as historical reality, then it was still during the Shang Dynasty that the most important aspects of the culture were developed.

King Tang of Shang

Tang ruled the kingdom of Shang, a vassal state under the higher rule of the Xia Dynasty. His years of rule are disputed. Historian Joshua J. Mark notes how "The dates popularly assigned to him (1675-1646 BCE) do not in any way correspond to the known events in which he took part and must be considered erroneous." The last emperor of the Xia Dynasty, Jie, was a tyrant who lived for his own pleasure at the expense of his people. Tang endured this treatment as long as he could for the sake of harmony and peace and because, most of all, it was believed that the Xia ruled according to the mandate of heaven, the principle that the gods gave certain people the right to rule over others. Eventually, Tang came to see that the Xia had lost the mandate and led his people in revolt.

Tang abolished Jie's tyrannical policies and excessive taxes and instituted a new government which worked for the people instead of against them.

At the Battle of Mingtiao, fought in the midst of a huge rainstorm of thunder and lighting, Tang defeated Jie. Jie ran from the field and sought safety in exile, eventually dying from an illness. Tang abolished Jie's tyrannical policies and excessive taxes and instituted a new government which worked for the people instead of against them.

Although Tang, and his successors, kept a standing army of around 1,000 troops at the ready, he lowered the number of conscripts and the amount of time one needed to serve. He also began government-funded social programs for the poor. One of these included giving specially marked gold coins to poor people who had needed to sell their children to survive a famine; the coin was issued so they could buy their children back. The country suffered from famine a number of times during Tang's reign but was on the whole very prosperous.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

Historian Justin Wintle notes that "the presence [on both banks of the Yellow River] of vast quantities of loess - an exceptionally fertile alluvial sediment" and the Shang's prudent use of this soil, led to their ability to "grow significantly more food than they, or their dependents, required, thus releasing labor for such enterprises as the Shang tombs, the Great Wall, the Grand Canal and the early proliferation of cities" (6). One of the reasons the Xia dynasty's place in history is questioned by modern historians is that there is no way to really tell if the cities assigned to the Xia are not actually early Shang because the Shang Dynasty built so many.

The Shang initiated the technique of hangtu ('stamped-earth') in constructing these cities. Wintle explains that hangtu "involves compacting soil, usually with up-ended logs or beams, into a hard base which is then used as a platform upon which to erect wooden edifices, or built up using the same process to form walls and ramparts. Its appearance, especially in the north of China, denotes considerable manpower resources" (11). The use of hangtu, and the ornate tombs and public building projects of the Shang, all point to political stability and a thriving economy which allowed people the freedom from subsistence farming to participate in such projects. The best example of this can be seen in the city of Erligang in Zhengzhou.

Erligang

In 1952 CE the remains of a vast city from the Shang Dynasty were discovered near the modern city of Zhengzhou. This city had walls 32 feet (10 m) high and an amazing 65 feet (20 m) thick which ran for over four miles (7 km) to enclose an area of over one square mile (3 km²). Wintle notes that "nothing of comparable magnitude belonging to the same period has been detected elsewhere in east Asia and it is calculated that to build Erligang would have taken 12,000 men ten years" (16). The excavations also uncovered bronze foundries which were used to craft weapons and statues. The weapons of the Shang military were all bronze and finds at excavations have shown that they were well armed. Still, the arts were as important to the Shang as military campaigns. The bronze statues found at Erligang are far superior in craftsmanship and size to those found anywhere else from the same time.

Besides work in bronze, the craftsmen of the Shang Dynasty were also expert in stonework, especially jade. Grave goods of very ornate jade workmanship have been found, including bodies covered in jade shingles, like armor plate. In textiles, the artists were equally skilled. Work in silk and other woven materials was of a very high quality which is clear from the clothing of carefully preserved bodies from Shang Dynasty tombs.

Bone workshops were also discovered at Erligang. Bone workshops in ancient China were industrial centers where artisans created objects from bone and stone for ceremonial or decorative purposes, and their presence at Erligang, along with the bronze foundries and artifacts, indicates enormous wealth. Throughout early Chinese history, artisans usually worked from rural homes to make their pieces in bone or stone; an industrial complex of the size at Erligang would have meant that the city could attract skilled craftsmen from other areas to live and work in the city.

The prosperity and stability of the Shang Dynasty not only produced a thriving economy and great works of art but also allowed for development of religious thought and ritual. Historian Joshua J. Mark writes:

Prior to the Shang, the people worshipped many gods with one supreme god, Shangti, as head of the pantheon. Shangti was considered 'the great ancestor' who presided over victory in war, agriculture, the weather, and good government. Because he was so remote and so busy, however, the people seem to have required more immediate intercessors for their needs and so the practice of ancestor worship began.

The Shang Dynasty not only developed ancestor worship but also the link between the people and the king and the king and the gods. This led to a completely harmonious understanding of life where the planes of the divine and the human, the rulers and the ruled, were intertwined. Religious thought cannot develop when one is concerned for one's safety or family, and so, this is further proof of the stability of the Shang Dynasty and of the validity of the later records claiming it was a time of great happiness and prosperity for the people.

Taoism is thought to have developed during this time and the folk religion (including ancestor worship) which grew out of Taoist teachings. These religious developments included a belief in an afterlife and allowed one to call on one's ancestors for help in one's life. It also meant that the king who ruled over the land was not ruling by chance or whim but by the will of the all-powerful gods and in harmony with one's ancestors. Joshua J. Mark comments on this:

When someone died, it was thought, they attained divine powers and could be called upon for assistance in times of need. This practice led to highly sophisticated rituals dedicated to appeasing the spirits of the ancestors which eventually included ornate burials in grand tombs filled with all one would need to enjoy a comfortable afterlife. The king, in addition to his secular duties, served as chief officiate and mediator between the living and the dead and his rule was considered ordained by divine law. Although the famous Mandate of Heaven was developed by the later Zhou Dynasty, the idea of linking a just ruler with divine will has its roots in the beliefs fostered by the Shang.

The Calendar, Writing & Music

The traditional Chinese calendar was lunar, based on the moon, but the farmers needed a solar calendar so they could tell when the best times were to plant and harvest their crops. During the Shang Dynasty a man named Wan-Nien measured time over a one-year period by measuring the shadows throughout a day using a sun-dial and a water clock. He established the two solstices of the year and, after that, the two equinoxes and so created the calendar known as the Wan-lien-li or the "perpetual calendar". Before Wan-Nien, the Chinese believed there were 354 days in a year but Wan-Nien proved there are 365.

The exact date of Wan-Nien's work is unknown but when it comes to the invention of writing there is a little more certainty. Writing developed in China gradually through the use of oracle bones. Oracle bones were shells of turtles or bones of animals which were used in divination. If a person wanted to know their future they would go to a fortune teller who would carve a question on a bone or shell. If one wanted to know whether to attend a friend's wedding, the fortune teller would write "I will go to my friend's wedding" on one part of the shell and "I will not go to my friend's wedding" on another part. These were not necessarily words but could have been symbols, pictograms. The shell or bone would then be placed in a fire until it cracked. The fortune teller would interpret that crack to answer the question.

This practice led to the development of writing as people had more complex questions for the oracle bones than whether to attend a wedding. By c. 1250 BCE writing had developed in recognizable form. As Wintle puts it, "the first unambiguous appearance of a Chinese script in the form of inscribed oracle bones" comes from the city of Anyang at this time (17). The script found on these bones is archaic but is definitely Chinese script and able to be read.

The invention of writing aided in the discipline of science as observations could be recorded more accurately. The Oracle Scripts are accounts of eclipses and other celestial events written by astronomers of the time. Their works also show advances in mathematics during the same period and the development of odd and even numbers and principles of accounting. The I-Ching (also known as The Book of Changes) was either written or compiled at this same time (c. 1250-1150 BCE). The I-Ching is a book of divination with roots going back to the fortune tellers of the rural areas and their oracle bones.

Musical instruments were also developed by the Shang. At Yin Xu, near Angyang, excavations have revealed instruments from the Shang period such as the ocarina (a wind instrument), drums, and cymbals. Bells, chimes, and bone flutes have been discovered elsewhere. The founding of the city of Angyang, which would become the capital of the Shang Dynasty, corresponds to the height of its power.

Decline & Fall

The Shang Dynasty may have gone through a brief decline prior to the founding of Angyang, around 1300 BCE, when separate states under Shang rule seem to have broken away economically, if not politically. Archaeologists have come to this conclusion through a study of the trade at the time which indicates a rise in the economy of independent states but not, as before, of the whole region under Shang control. This claim is in doubt, however, as the physical evidence is not decisive.

The two greatest emperors after Tang were Pan Geng, who moved the capital to Yin (so that the dynasty is sometimes referred to as Yin Shang), and Wu Ding. Wu Ding is one of the only Shang emperors whose existence is corroborated by the physical evidence of archaeology. He reigned for 58 years from 1250-1192 BCE and during this time the country developed many of the most important advances listed above as well as those in medicine, dentistry, and the fine arts.

After Wu Ding's reign the dynasty began to decline until the last emperor, Zhou (also known as Xin) who forgot his duty to his people and concentrated on gratifying his own desires. He spent most of his time with his concubine Daji and not only neglected his duties but made his people pay for his luxuries and idleness. He became a worse tyrant than Jie of the Xia Dynasty had been and was finally overthrown by King Wu, of the province of Zhou, at the Battle of Muye in 1046 BCE.

The Shang Dynasty was replaced by the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) which began to dissolve in its final years into the phase known as the Warring States Period (c.481-221 BCE). During this time, the seven states which had been under Zhou control fought each other for supreme rule of the country. The state of Qin (pronounced 'chin') was victorious and China takes its name today from the Qin Dynasty. Unlike the Shang or the Zhou, the Qin began badly and only became worse over time until they were overthrown by the Han. The Shang Dynasty, which was responsible for so many important advancements in culture, was looked back upon as a golden age of prosperity and, in many ways, it was.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Shang Dynasty (c.1600-1046 BCE) was the second dynasty of China which succeeded the Xia Dynasty (c. 2700-1600 BCE) after the overthrow of the Xia tyrant Jie by the Shang leader, Tang. Since many historians question whether the Xia Dynasty really existed, the Shang Dynasty may have actually been the first in China and the origin of Chinese culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela | Shang Dynasty: China's First Recorded History

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Fuhao, the first woman to appear in Chinese written history, commanded an army of 10,000 soldiers during the Shang dynasty.

Recorded history in China begins with the Shang dynasty. Scholars today argue about when the dynasty began, with opinions ranging from the mid-18th to the mid-16th century B.C.E. Regardless of the dates, one event more than any other signaled the advent of the Shang dynasty - the Bronze Age.

It was during the Shang dynasty that bronze working became common. Thousands of artifacts from the ruins of Yin, the last capital of the Shang, were unearthed in the late 1920s and '30s. Bronze vessels for drinking were used in ritual ceremonies, while bronze chariots and axes were used in battle. As the metal was associated with royalty, the tombs of Shang kings contained hundreds of small bronze objects, even including hairpins.

One of the few undisturbed tombs was that of the legendary Fuhao, wife of Wu-ting. Her tomb by itself contained 468 works of bronze and 775 pieces of jade. Some of the bronze objects found contained the first Chinese characters ever written. Very simple in nature, these characters often represented the name of the object's owner.

Oracles written on tortoise shells serve as the earliest evidence of the development of a writing system in China.

Them Bones

In addition to bronze, examples of the early Chinese writing system can be found on oracle bones, another type of artifact characteristic to the Shang dynasty. Ancient Chinese priests commonly used tortoise shells and cattle bones to answer questions about the future. They interpreted the cracks formed by holes punched in the bones. Oracle bones also served as a way for the priests to write down the history of the dynasty and the timeline of kings.

Today, over 150,000 oracle bones have been recovered. Unfortunately, many more artifacts containing early Chinese writing have been lost. Writing made on books of bamboo strips and silk could not survive centuries of burial in the earth. Many of those that did survive were burned by the first emperor of the Ch'in dynasty in approximately 100 B.C.E.

Shang Society

From what has survived archaeologists and historians have learned much of the Shang culture. The Shang were skilled workers in bone, jade, ceramics, stone, wood, shells, and bronze, as proven by the discovery of shops found on the outskirts of excavated palaces. The people of the Shang dynasty lived off of the land, and as time passed, settled permanently on farms instead of wandering as nomads.

The Shang dynasty emerged in the 17th century B.C.E. as the first true Chinese dynasty. Its boundaries are shown in gray.

To guard against flooding by the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the ancient Shang developed complex forms of irrigation and flood control. The farming of millet, wheat, rice, and barley crops provided the major sources of food, but hunting was not uncommon. Domesticated animals raised by the Shang included pigs, dogs, sheep, oxen, and even silkworms.

Like many other ancient cultures, the Shang created a social pyramid, with the king at the top, followed by the military nobility, priests, merchants, and farmers. Burials were one way in which the social classes were distinguished. The elite were buried in elaborate pit tombs with various objects of wealth for a possible use in the afterlife. Even an elephant was found among the ruins of an ancient tomb. The people who built these tombs were sometimes buried alive with the dead royalty. The lesser classes were buried in pits of varying size based on status, while people of the lowest classes were sometimes even tossed down wells.

Beginning to Believe

All of the classes however had one thing in common - religion. The major philosophies to later shape China - Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism - had not yet been formed. Folk religion during the Shang dynasty was polytheistic, meaning the people worshipped many gods.

This bronze sculpture of a human head with gold leaf is typical of the bronze artwork created during the Shang dynasty.

Ancestor worship was also very important to the Shang. It was thought that the success of crops and the health and well being of people were based on the happiness of dead ancestors. If the ancestors of a family were pleased, life for that family would be prosperous. If the spirits were not pleased however, great tragedies could occur.

In addition, the god worshipped by everyone during the Shang dynasty was Shang Ti, the "lord on high." Shang Ti was believed to be the link between people and heavenly beings. The souls of ancestors, it was thought, visited with Shang Ti and received their instructions from him. It was therefore very important to make sure that Shang Ti was happy. This was done with various rituals and prayers, offerings, and sometimes even human sacrifices.

The last king of the Shang dynasty, Shang Chou, was a cruel man known for his methods of torture. The dynasty had been weakened by repeated battles with nomads and rivaling tribes within China. Shang Chou was ousted by the rebel leader Wu-wang in 1111 B.C.E.

The Mandate of Heaven
According to Chinese sages, when dynasties fell, it was because they lost the moral right to rule given by Heaven. Read the Mandate of Heaven from the Shu Jing, composed during the Zhou dynasty but written as advice to the second Shang king. Check out the thought-provoking discussion questions at the bottom of this Brooklyn College Course website to see how well you grasp the material.

Report broken link

Chinese Language
According to Chinese legend, a man named Cangjie was inspired by the footprints of birds and animals and created written characters in imitation. Trace the developments of Chinese pictographs through their inscription on oracle bones, bronze, bamboo, and even silk at this well-organized website.

Report broken link

If you like our content, please share it on social media!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
shang dynasty — china's first recorded history

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Shang Dynasty - China's First Recorded History [ushistory.org]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Fuhao, the first woman to appear in Chinese written history, commanded an army of 10,000 soldiers during the Shang dynasty. Recorded history in China begins with the Shang dynasty. Scholars today argue about when the dynasty began, with opinions ranging from the mid-18th to the mid-16th century B.C.E.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Zhou Dynasty of Ancient China including the Eastern and Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn Period, and the Warring States.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela | The Qin Dynasty and the Unification of China: 221-202 B.C.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Qin dynasty, Qin also spelled Kin or (Wade-Giles romanization) Ch'in, dynasty that established the first great Chinese empire. The Qin-which lasted only from 221 to 207 bce but from which the name China is derived-established the approximate boundaries and basic administrative system that all subsequent Chinese dynasties were to follow for the next two millennia.

The dynasty was originated by the state of Qin, one of the many small feudal states into which China was divided between 771 and 221 bce. The Qin, which occupied the strategic Wei River valley in the extreme northwestern area of the country, was one of the least Sinicized of those small states and one of the most martial. Between the middle of the 3rd and the end of the 2nd century bce, the rulers of Qin began to centralize state power, creating a rigid system of laws that were applicable throughout the country and dividing the state into a series of commanderies and prefectures ruled by officials appointed by the central government. Under those changes, Qin slowly began to conquer its surrounding states, emerging into a major power in China.

Finally, in 246 bce, the boy king Ying Zheng came to the throne. He, together with his minister Li Si, completed the Qin conquests and in 221 created the Qin empire. Ying Zheng proclaimed himself Qin Shihuangdi ("First Sovereign Emperor of Qin"). To rule the vast territory, the Qin instituted a rigid, authoritarian government; they standardized the writing system, standardized the measurements of length and weight and the width of highways, abolished all feudal privileges, oversaw large-scale construction of what then became the first Great Wall, and in 213, to halt subversive thought, ordered all books burned, except those on such utilitarian subjects as medicine.

Those harsh methods, combined with the huge tax levies needed to pay for the construction projects and wars, took their toll, and rebellion erupted after Shihuangdi's death in 210 bce. In 207 the dynasty was overthrown and, after a short transitional period, was replaced by the Han dynasty (206 bce-220 ce).

The Qin dynasty left two architectural monuments of massive proportions-one the Great Wall of China, which actually connected sections of a number of existing short walls, and the other a great palace for the first emperor, which contained a hall of state some 1,500 feet (450 metres) square. Its most important artistic contribution may have been the simplification and standardization of the emerging written Chinese language. Little survives of Qin painting, but it generally emulated what was being produced late in the Zhou period (1046-256 bce). Silhouettes drawn on funerary slabs depict feasts and beasts (mythical and actual) and historic scenes. The Qin tomb near present-day Xi'an in Shaanxi province, the burial place of Shihuangdi with an army of some 8,000 life-size terra-cotta soldiers and horses, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987. The Qin did not last long enough to stamp out literature and learning effectively, and much of the rich legacy of the ancient Shang dynasty managed to survive into the successor Han, under which the arts thrived greatly.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Qin dynasty | History, Facts, & Achievements

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Qin dynasty, Qin also spelled Kin or (Wade-Giles romanization) Ch'in, dynasty that established the first great Chinese empire. The Qin-which lasted only from 221 to 207 bce but from which the name China is derived-established the approximate boundaries and basic administrative system that all subsequent Chinese dynasties were to follow for the next two millennia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) was the first dynasty of Imperial China (defined as the era of centralized, dynastic government in China between 221 BCE and 1912 CE) which united the separate states following the Warring States Period (c. 481-221 BCE), the era of near-constant warfare resulting from the decline of the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE).

It was founded by Shi Huangdi (r. 221-210 BCE) who understood that the Zhou's policy of a decentralized government had contributed to its fall and so established a centralized state which decreased the power of the aristocracy, eliminated the borders between different states, and operated according to the precepts of the philosophy of Legalism. It arose from the state of Qin (pronounced "chin") which gave its name to China as it was the westernmost state and so the one which western merchants primarily engaged with.

Shi Huangdi's early reign focused on consolidating his power and appealing to the lower classes through initiatives such as building projects and construction of roads and canals, which made trade and travel easier and provided employment. Among his accomplishments were an early version of the Great Wall of China, the Grand Canal, and his enormous tomb guarded by the terracotta warriors.

At the same time, however, he worked to dismantle many of the cultural achievements of the Zhou, which he felt had weakened the state, while retaining and improving upon any Zhou innovations conducive to Chinese warfare or his personal power. By c. 213 BCE, his need to control every aspect of his subjects' lives, and fear of rebellion, had turned China into a police state in which freedoms were severely limited and the peasant class was reduced to a level of conscript slavery.

Shi Huangdi's obsession with immortality, combined with this need for absolute control, destabilized his reign.

The emperor's obsession with immortality, combined with this need for absolute control, destabilized his reign, which then encouraged even more restrictive measures as his fear of rebellion and assassination grew. He died in 210 BCE after drinking an elixir of mercury, which he believed would make him immortal, and court intrigue, combined with the inept rule of his son, led to a swift decline of his empire. The last Qin ruler was assassinated in 206 BCE, and after a vicious civil war for succession, the Han Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) was founded which would fully connect itself with the achievements of the earlier dynasties the Qin had rejected.

Zhou Dynasty Rise & Fall

The state of Qin was originally just one of many states under the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou had overthrown the earlier Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) claiming they had become corrupt and lost the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate of Heaven was a concept first conceived of by the Shang (though fully developed by the Zhou) claiming that a monarch was legitimized by the will of the gods who formed a kind of contract with him to care for his subjects and ensure their prosperity. The monarch (or dynasty) was considered to possess the Mandate of Heaven only so long as it was evident their policies benefited the country overall, not just themselves; when it became clear that the government was perpetuating policies in their own self-interest (evidenced by a lack of prosperity for others), it was understood the king had lost the Mandate of Heaven and had to be replaced by a new ruler the gods approved of.

After toppling the Shang, the Zhou Dynasty established a decentralized state which operated as a feudal society and was so successful they were able to greatly expand their territory; at first by conquest and then by enlarging the separate states which had sworn loyalty to the king. The Zhou improved upon cultural innovations of the Shang in areas such as agriculture, writing, education, technology, metallurgy, music, horsemanship, and construction techniques. The decentralization of the Chinese government, however, encouraged separate states to seek greater autonomy which eventually led to its decline and fall.

The early period, known as Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE), ended with an invasion of barbarians from the west, possibly the people known as Xirong (or Rong) and Zhou government continued in the era known as Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE) whose early stage is known as the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 772-476 BCE), so-called after the name of the state chronicles of the time, the Spring and Autumn Annals. This was the time of the Hundred Schools of Thought and the development of the philosophical schools of Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism, among others. It was also a period of increasing violence and chaos, however, as the Zhou government grew weaker and the separate states, all now stronger than the Zhou, sought to establish themselves as worthy of the Mandate of Heaven.

The Warring States & Rise of Qin

The seven states in contention were Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao. None could claim supremacy, however, because they each felt the Zhou still had the Mandate of Heaven which could only pass to the one who could prove itself the most powerful. This proved difficult because each state used the same tactics in war and observed the same rules of chivalry. The famous work The Art of War by Sun-Tzu (l. c. 500 BCE) was an attempt to provide a state with an instruction manual for winning the war, but it does not seem to have been widely read, at least not at first, and the incessant wars continued.

The state of Qin initially had the advantage of location and skill in horsemanship. It was said to have been founded by one Gao Yang (also given as Zhuanxu) one of the legendary, predynastic Five Emperors said to have ruled c. 2852-2070 BCE, whose descendants, the Ying family, lived in the region. Much later, the 8th monarch of the Zhou Dynasty, King Xiao (r. c. 872-866 BCE), took notice of a young man of the Ying family, Feizi (d. 858 BCE) who was skilled in breeding horses and rewarded him with lands in the Valley of Qin. The Qin state, therefore, came to be associated with horses and with the high level of horsemanship developed by the Zhou. The Qin also had control of the western lands and, possibly, an association or alliance with the Xirong people who were excellent horseman and fierce fighters.

Even these advantages could not tip the war in Qin's favor, however, until they adopted the policies of one of their own statesmen, Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE), who advocated for total war and victory at any cost, ignoring all the old rules of military chivalry. Whether Shang Yang had read Sun-Tzu is unknown, but their philosophies match closely. Yang's theories were either unread or ignored, however, until the young Qin king Ying Zheng implemented them and defeated the other six states in quick succession. Han fell first in 230 BCE, then Zhao in 228 BCE, Wei in 225 BCE, Chu in 223 BCE, Yan in 222 BCE, and Qi in 221 BCE; afterwards, Ying Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi ("first emperor") and established the Qin Dynasty.

Policy & Tyranny

Shi Huangdi's initial policies were directed at unification and consolidation of power in a strong central government. Historian Will Durant comments:

[Shi Huangdi] simplified official ceremonies, issued a state coinage, divided most of the feudal estates, prepared for the prosperity of China by establishing a peasant proprietorship of the soil, and paved the way for unity by building great highways in every direction from his capital...Traveling in disguise and unarmed, he made note of abuses and disorders, and then issued unmistakable orders for their correction. He encouraged science and discouraged letters. (696)

In order to protect his people from invasion by the nomadic Xiongnu of the north, he decreed a wall built along the country's borders. The stones of the walls which used to divide the separate states were initially used for this purpose and would form the first version of what would later become the Great Wall of China. He ordered all the states to surrender their weapons which he had melted down and made into artworks and statues celebrating the new state. Canal work was also decreed, which at first provided employment just as the Great Wall did, resulting in an early version of the Grand Canal.

His early reign seems, at first glance, a model for any monarch in true leadership and care for his people but Shi Huangdi only interpreted the Mandate of Heaven in terms of his own power and self-importance; his subjects were a means to an end, not an end in themselves. Those who worked on the wall, the canal, and other public projects, if they even were initially paid, quickly became conscripts taken from their homes to labor for scraps of food and communal lodgings.

The philosophical school of Legalism (an early version of which was advocated by Shang Yang and later developed by Han Feizi, l. c. 280-233 BCE) informed the law and dictated how people dressed, spoke, and interacted with each other. Legalism maintained that people were only motivated by self-interest and so laws needed to be strict and narrow to control the population and punish infractions.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

The people's lives under the Qin became harsh, narrow, and more uncertain than they had been during the Warring States Period because government officials could take anyone they wanted to work on the emperor's projects, no matter their social class or occupation. Only the emperor's men were allowed weapons so there was no armed resistance possible and, even if arms had been available, Shi Huangdi's network of spies, secret police, and informants would have revealed a plot before it had a chance to be put into action.

The Burning of the Books

There were other ways to resist the Chinese emperor's tyranny, however, and this came in the form of Confucian scholars and intellectuals of other schools writing treatises and tracts criticizing the regime by comparing it with past dynasties, notably the glory of the early Zhou Dynasty. At its height, the Zhou had operated on the policy of fengjian ("establishment"), a feudal system of a decentralized government and separate states each acting in their own interests but loyal to the king and a set hierarchy which enabled each individual to recognize their place and function in society. This policy, the scholars would have noted, had resulted in prosperity and happiness for those of all social classes. Shi Huangdi, conversely, had confused the hierarchy by undercutting the power of the nobles and turning the other classes - merchants, laborers, and peasants - into slaves, ignoring the Mandate of Heaven to care for his people above himself.

Shi Huangdi suppressed all freedom of speech, had the legal codes rewritten, & burned books & executed scholars.

In 213 BCE, the prime minister Li Siu (also given as Li Si, l. c. 280-208 BCE) suggested to Shi Huangdi that all histories of past dynasties be gathered and destroyed except for the history of the State of Qin and that any who sought to hide and preserve them should be executed. Any works expressing the concepts from the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought should also be destroyed including the standard educational texts known as the Four Books and Five Classics from the Zhou Dynasty. Anyone speaking on such topics should be killed and any officers or officials who heard of such conversations and did not report them should be likewise. The only exemptions were works on medicine, science, agriculture, divination, and other practical matters.

Shi Huangdi approved this plan instantly. All philosophical schools were outlawed except for Legalism. Shi Huangdi suppressed all freedom of speech, had the legal codes rewritten to adhere more closely with his own personal vision, and, as per Li Siu's suggestion, burned the books and executed the scholars as well as anyone who refused to turn over their books or tried to hide them. Although some modern historians claim these events did not occur exactly as they are described by the historian Sima Qian (l. 145/135-86 BCE), no one has yet denied that they did, in fact, happen.

Decline & Fall

From 213 BCE on, Shi Huangdi became increasingly paranoid and erratic. Three attempts were made to assassinate him, which only increased his anxiety and encouraged even more restrictive policies. He changed the room he slept in each night, was always armed, and increased his security. His fear of imminent death encouraged an obsession with immortality, and he tasked trusted officials with finding him some means to live forever and went on journeys to areas where an elixir seemed promising. At the same time, he devoted more resources to the effort of building his grand tomb, as large as a city, and complete with its own army, from which he planned to continue his reign in the afterlife.

Shi Huangdi died on one of his trips by drinking an elixir of mercury. Whether this was a successful assassination or his unintentional suicide is unknown but his death is traditionally considered accidental. Afterwards, Li Siu concealed the emperor's death, bringing his body back to the capital in a caravan of dead fish to conceal the smell of the corpse, until he could have Shi Huangdi's will, which named his eldest son Fusu (d. 210 BCE) as successor, changed to name the younger son, Hu Hai. Fusu was a strong and commanding personality who was friends with the general Meng Tian (d. 210 BCE) and, if he became emperor, Li Siu would almost certainly be replaced. Hu Hai, on the other hand, was a spoiled child, coddled by his teacher, the chancellor Zhao Gao, and would be easy to manipulate.

Li Siu's plan worked, the death of the emperor was announced after Li Siu and the chancellor Zhao Gao (d. 207 BCE) had Hu Hai change the will, had Fusu and Meng Tian eliminated, and installed Hu Hai as Emperor Qin Er Shi (r. 210-207 BCE), with Li Siu and Zhao Gao's powerful positions secure. Qin Er Shi proved himself a weak king and the government's hold on the people steadily loosened under his reign. He was famous for his bad temper, ordering the death of anyone who brought him bad news, and his lasting legacy is the origin of the saying "Don't kill the messenger" regarding a negative reaction to receiving unwelcome information.

Zhao Gao turned on Li Siu afterwards, accused him of treason, and had him executed. He then forced Qin Er Shi, who had approved of Li Siu's death, to commit suicide or face dishonor for his role in changing the will, Fusu's death, and essentially usurping the throne, all of which Zhao Gao seems to have threatened to disclose.

Zhao Gao then installed Fusu's son Ziying (d. 206 BCE) as emperor, thinking to control him, but Ziying tricked him and had him killed along with his entire family. Ziying did no better at restoring Qin authority than Qin Er Shi, however, and full-scale rebellion broke out in 206 BCE which came to be led by the noble Xiang Yu of Chu (l. 232-202 BCE) and the commoner Liu Bang of Han (l. c. 256-195 BCE). In 206 BCE, Liu Bang reached the Qin capital at Xianyang first and accepted Ziying's surrender. Xiang Yu, arriving afterward, had Ziying and his family executed and so ended the Qin Dynasty.

Conclusion

Xiang Yu and Liu Bang then turned on each other, both pursuing a policy of total war, in the conflict known as the Chu-Han Contention (206-202 BCE) which cost thousands of lives. Liu Bang finally gained the upper hand by kidnapping Xiang Yu's concubine, Lady Yu, who was the great love of his life, and luring the Chu forces into a hopeless situation at the Battle of Gaixia (202 BCE). Lady Yu committed suicide and Xiang Yu, after burying her, fought his way out but was pursued and killed himself rather than be taken. Liu Bang then established the Han Dynasty, ruling as the Emperor Gaozu (r. 202-195 BCE).

Although the Qin Dynasty is often referenced positively as the first political entity to unite China and give it the name it is known by in the West, the reign of Shi Huangdi and his inept son and grandson were a dark time for the people who were impoverished, brutalized, and kidnapped from their homes to serve the ego of the emperor. It is a telling detail that the Qin Dynasty is the shortest, only 15 years, in the history of Imperial China owing to its brutality and blatant rejection of the central value of the Mandate of Heaven that a ruler care for the people above any personal considerations.

Shi Huangdi, after his initial gestures, pursued a course in direct defiance of the mandate, epitomized in the burning of the people's books and the execution of those who tried to preserve their heritage and the hope for the future. There is no way of knowing how many texts from the Hundred Schools of Thought were burned but, considering Shi Huangdi's extensive reach through his network of spies, the numbers are thought to have been quite high, representing a tremendous loss of cultural history, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese literature.

Shi Huangdi's insistence on the primacy of the Qin, and his own rule, encouraged his attempts to erase the significant achievements of the Zhou Dynasty which also represented the legacy of the Shang. In divorcing his dynasty from those of the past, the emperor sought to avoid what he saw as their weaknesses and mistakes but rejected their strengths and accomplishments as well. The history of the Qin Dynasty should be understood as a cautionary tale in denying the past, whether on a personal, national, or global level, in attempts to create a present which must finally be untenable because it has no foundation on which to stand.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) was the first dynasty of Imperial China (defined as the era of centralized, dynastic government in China between 221 BCE and 1912 CE) which united the separate states following...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Emperor Gaozu and the Start of the Han Empire

Following a mass revolt in the Qin Empire in 210 B.C. and brief control by warlord Xiang Yu, Liu Bang seized the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty in 202 B.C.

He established the Han capital of Chang'an along the Wei River in one of the few surviving palaces of the Qin Dynasty and took the name Emperor Gaozu. The period of time where Chang'an served as the capital of the empire is known as the Western Han. It would last until around 23 A.D.

Gaozu immediately recognized a number of kingdoms in Ancient China but systematically replaced many of the kings with members of his own Liu family before his death in 195 B.C. The idea was to prevent rebellions, but the Liu family kings often tested the stamina of the empire in favor of their own ambitions.

Empress Lu Zhi

Following Gaozu's death, the Empress Lu Zhi made an attempt to take control by murdering a few of Gaozu's sons. Lu Zhi also personally mutilated and murdered her mother and Gaozu's preferred mistress, Lady Qi, before throwing her body into a privy and showing it off to visitors.

The power struggle lasted for 15 years, ending when Gaozu's son, Emperor Wan, slaughtered Lu Zhi's family and became emperor.

Confucian Revival

Confucianism gained popularity among Han royalty around 135 B.C. during the early reign of Emperor Wu. Confucianism had stayed alive in China thanks to the efforts of intellectuals like Fu Sheng, who managed to keep some Confucian literature during the Qin Dynasty and beyond.

Many Confucian texts had been confiscated by the Qin Dynasty and then permanently lost when the imperial library was burned down in a civil war in 210 B.C.

Fu Sheng had saved The Book of Documents, and the Han Dynasty put forth a forceful effort to round-up remaining Confucian documents. Some were in the possession of kings, while others were found in the walls of Confucius' home.

In 136 B.C., a program in the imperial university was created for teaching the Five Classics of Confucianism-five books called the Book of Changes, the Book of Documents, the Book of Odes, the Book of Rites and the Spring and Autumn Annals- translated into modern script. By the year second century A.D., the university had 30,000 students studying Confucianism.

Silk Road

In 138 B.C., a man named Zhang Qian was sent on a mission by Emperor Wu to make contact with tribes to the west. He and his party were captured by the Xiognu tribe, but Zhang Qian escaped and continued west. He reached Afghanistan, in an area known as Bactria, which was under Greek control.

In Bactria, Zhang Qian saw bamboo and textiles brought from China and asked how they had gotten there. He was told that the items came from a kingdom in Afghanistan called Shendu.

Thirteen years after he had left, Zhang Qian made his way back to the Emperor, told him of what he had seen and mapped out a route to send an expedition back there. The map and this route was used more and more, and developed into the international trade route known as the Silk Road.

Han Dynasty Art

Most knowledge of Han Dynasty art comes from the tombs of ruling families. The Wu Family site in Jiaxiang is one of the most famous. With two underground chambers beneath four shrines, the tomb features 70 carved stones and painted ceilings and walls depicting historical figures.

The site contained about 3,000 examples of Han Dynasty art figures, utilizing silver, bronze, gold, jade, silk and pottery. Two suits with 2,000 pieces of jade in each were discovered in the tomb.

Found often in Han Dynasty tombs are models of houses in pottery form, with varying degrees of sophistication.

The tomb are believed to have survived with their treasures intact because their outside areas were not adorned in any special way, but marked only by a large pile of dirt.

Wang Mang and the New Dynasty

The Western Han ended in 9 A.D. when government official Wang Mang took advantage of long-term internal disarray to seize the throne and try to stabilize the empire. The last several emperors had died young and their power had consistently transferred to their maternal uncles in the role of commander in chief.

Wang Mang took power through this method, but broke with tradition by declaring "the New Dynasty."

Wang Mang broke apart the aristocratic estates and redistributed them among the peasants. The peasant class became frustrated by massive flooding and by 23 A.D., their anger manifested in rebels called the Red Eyebrows.

An uprising ensued, resulting in the destruction of Chang'an and the beheading of Wang Mang.

Liu Xiu, a descendent of Gaozu, took advantage of the moment and grabbed control, establishing a new capital in Luoyang and the new dynasty known as the Eastern Han.

Eastern Han Palace Wars

Following the death of Emperor Zhang in 88 A.D., the Han Empire was almost exclusively ruled by boys in their early teens, a circumstance that set up palace intrigue and directly led to its fall.

During the emperor's early years of rule, the power was in the hand of his mother, who leaned on her own family to keep control.

The young emperors were kept isolated with eunuchs, who became their closest allies and often co-conspirators. This dynamic lead to several instances of eunuchs slaughtering families to help the emperor maintain control.

Invention of Paper

Paper was invented in China during the Han Dynasty. The court eunuchs were good for more than power plays; one of them, Cai Lun, is credited with developing paper as around 105 A.D.

Cai Lun pounded ingredients like bamboo, hemp, rags, fishing nets and mulberry tree bark into a pulp, mixing in water and spreading it flat. The use of paper is said to have spread quickly through the empire.

Innovations in Writing

Around the same time, Xu Shen compiled the first Chinese dictionary, which included Han era characters as well as those from the Zhou and Shang periods. This dictionary continued to be an invaluable tool into the 20th Century in deciphering archaeological inscriptions.

This same era also featured a boom in the work of historians. Sima Qian created the ambitious first history of China through the dynasties, "The Grand Scribe's Records." Containing 130 chapters, it is another book that is still used as a source for modern historians.

Han Dynasty Ends

The Han Dynasty's predilection for court intrigue eventually got the best of it. In 189 A.D., a minor war in the palace broke out between the Empress Dowager's family and the eunuch allies of the young emperor.

Also involved was a religious cult called the Yellow Turbans who had tried to start a civil war and usher in their own dynasty.

As the situation deteriorated, the military marched in to take control in a conflict that would last until 220 A.D., when the last Han emperor was dethroned and the dynasty finished.

The Six Dynasties Period (220 AD-589) followed the Han Period, bringing with it a rise in Daoism and Buddhism that would transform China.

Han Dynasty Timeline:

206 B.C. - Han Dynasty founded

206-24 A.D. - Western Han Dynasty rules China

202 B.C. - Liu Bang seizes the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty

195 B.C. - Liu Band dies and Empress Lu Zhi, tries to take power in a struggle that will last 15 years.

141 B.C.-87 B.C. - Reign of Emperor Wu, breaking records for the longest reign at 54 years.

141-86 B.C. - Emperor Wu adopts Confucianism

9 A.D. - Wang Mang declares the "New Dynasty." It will last until 25 A.D.

25-220 A.D. - Eastern Han Dynasty rules China

100 A.D. - Xu Shen completes first Chinese dictionary

105 A.D. - Cai Lun invents paper in China

130 B.C. - The Han Dynasty opens up trade with the West

184 A.D. - The Yellow Turban Rebellion breaks out

220 A.D. - Fall of Han Dynasty

Sources

The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Mark Edward Lewis.
The Dynasties of China. Bamber Gascoigne.
Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Li Feng.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
China's ancient Han Dynasty was known for its promotion of Confucianism and opening the Silk Road trade route to Europe, permanently altering the course of Chinese history.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela - The Cultural Heights of China’s Han Dynasty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Han dynasty saw growing prosperity throughout China, as well as the Great Wall.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn the history about the Han Dynasty of Ancient China. The Emperors and accomplishments.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sui dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Sui, (581-618 ce), short-lived Chinese dynasty that unified the country after four centuries of fragmentation in which North and South China had gone quite different ways. The Sui also set the stage for and began to set in motion an artistic and cultural renaissance that reached its zenith in the succeeding Tang dynasty (618-907). Its capital was at Daxing, which, during Tang times, changed its name to Chang'an (now Xi'an).

The first Sui emperor, Yang Jian, known by his posthumous name Wendi, was a high official of the Bei (Northern) Zhou dynasty (557-581), and, when that reign dissolved in a storm of plots and murders, he managed to seize the throne and take firm control of North China; by the end of the 580s he had won the West and South and ruled over a unified China. The Wendi emperor established uniform institutions of government throughout the country and raised a corps of skilled and pragmatic administrators. He reestablished Confucian rituals last used in government by the Han dynasty. He sought and won the support of men of letters, and he fostered Buddhism. He promulgated a penal code and administrative laws that were simpler, fairer, and more lenient than those of the predecessor Bei Zhou. He conducted a careful census, a practice long lost in chaos, and simplified the taxation. He made his army into a system of militias that was self-supporting when the country was not at war.

The second emperor, Yangdi, completed the integration of southern China into the empire, emphasized the Confucian Classics in an examination system for public employment, and built a second capital at Luoyang in the east. He engaged in great construction projects, including a vast canal system.

The relations of the Sui with the Turks in the west deteriorated; and, when wars in Korea to exact tribute failed, the short regime collapsed in a welter of rebellions. Yangdi was murdered by a member of his entourage in 618, and his successor, Gongdi, reigned less than a year.

The architecture of the Sui was dominated by the great Yuwen Kai, who in nine months designed a vast capital city at Daxing that was six times the size of present-day Xi'an at the same site. Its palace had a rotating pavilion accommodating 200 guests. Painters came from throughout the country seeking patronage at the Sui court. The dynasty established a pattern of patronizing the arts that was later embraced by the Tang rulers. Because of the brevity of the Sui reign and the consonance of its arts with those of the Tang, the arts of the two dynasties are often treated together.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sui dynasty | Chinese Imperial Dynasty, Reunification of China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sui dynasty, (581-618 ce), short-lived Chinese dynasty that unified the country after four centuries of fragmentation in which North and South China had gone quite different ways. The Sui also set the stage for and began to set in motion an artistic and cultural renaissance that reached its zenith

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Sui Dynasty of Ancient China including its history, culture, accomplishments, government, rise and fall, and interesting facts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sui Dynasty Facts

The Sui Dynasty was a dynasty in Imperial China that only lasted for 37 years beginning in 581 and ending 618AD. The Sui Dynasty began with Yang Jian (Wen Di Emperor) and ended with the death of his son Yang Guang (Yang Di Emperor). The Sui Dynasty is most well-known for unifying the Southern Dynasty and the Northern Dynasty and for re-establishing Han Chinese rule. The Sui Dynasty implemented forced labor to build very large construction projects, which some believe was an attempt to reinstate a large empire, as they had been disappearing for 500 years and the Sui wanted to create a lasting empire. The Sui Dynasty fell when the people rebelled.

The Sui Dynasty was able to unite China after a long period of division.

From 581 to 604AD Emperor Wen ruled the Sui Dynasty.

In 581 Emperor Wen (then only a member of the ruling Northern Zhou clan), had approximately 60 relatives killed, establishing him as the emperor. He expanded his army until he had the manpower to expand his control.

Emperor Wen is believed to have sent half a million troops across the Yangtze River in 588, and he conquered the Chen Empire in 589.

Emperor Wen believed in Buddhism and did his best to spread the philosophy throughout his kingdom during his reign.

For several hundred years after Emperor Wen's rule Mahayana Buddhism was popular in many kingdoms.

Emperor Wen oversaw two major construction projects including the Grand Canal and reinforcing and rebuilding the Great Wall.

The conditions under which labourers had to work when building the Grand Canal are believed to have resulted in the deaths of half the workers.

Emperor Wen sent his army to fight wars and create a larger empire but he lost a lot of his soldiers when they contracted tropical diseases in the south and died.

Emperor Wen died in 604. Some believe that it was own son that killed him.

Emperor Yang came into power in 604 following the death (or murder) of his father Emperor Wen.

Emperor Yang continued much of what his father had started but he also like to spend on luxuries for himself.

The Grand Canal was mostly completed under Emperor Yang, which made it easy for him to send large armies to Korea to invade Goguryeo.

Emperor Yang's efforts to invade Goguryeo were in vain and they were defeated in all four major attempts. The cold winters also cost many of Emperor Yang's soldiers their lives.

Emperor Yang's extravagant spending, forced labor, high taxes, and loss of life in the attempted invasions of other kingdoms led to a rebellion. Emperor Yang was also known to be a tyrant, practicing inhuman cruelty. This also led the people to rise up against him in revolts.

In 618 Emperor Yang's own ministers assassinated him, marking the end of the Sui Dynasty.

Following the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty came into power. It continued to follow many of the beliefs instilled during the Sui Dynasty's reign.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sui Dynasty was a dynasty in Imperial China that only lasted for 37 years beginning in 581 and ending 618AD. The Sui Dynasty began with Yang Jian (Wen Di Emperor) and ended with the death of his son Yang Guang (Yang Di Emperor).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Tang Dynasty is considered a golden age of Chinese arts and culture. In power from 618 to 906 A.D., Tang China attracted an international reputation that

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How did Tang Dynasty of China dominate East and Central Asia?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Kids History: The Tang Dynasty of Ancient China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Tang Dynasty of Ancient China. A time of peace, prosperity, and inventions such as gunpowder, printing, and porcelain.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela - Tang Dynasty — The Golden Age of China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Song (aka Sung) dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 CE with the reign split into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1125 CE) and Southern Song (1125-1279 CE). The Northern Song ruled a largely united China from their capital at Kaifeng, but when the northern part of the state was invaded by the Jin state in the first quarter of the 12th century CE, the Song moved their capital south to Hangzhou. Despite the relative modernisation of China and its great economic wealth during the period, the Song court was so plagued with political factions and conservatism that the state could not withstand the challenge of the Mongol invasion and collapsed in 1279 CE, replaced by the Yuan dynasty.

Foundation

The chaos and political void caused by the collapse of the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) led to the break-up of China into five dynasties and ten kingdoms, but one warlord would, as had happened so often before, rise to the challenge and collect at least some of the various states back into a resemblance of a unified China. The Song dynasty was, thus, founded by the Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin (927-976 CE) who was endorsed as emperor by the army in 960 CE. His reign title would be Taizu ('Grand Progenitor'). Making sure no rival general ever became too powerful and gained the necessary support to take his throne, the emperor introduced a system of rotation for army leaders and swept away all opposition. Further, he ensured that the civil service henceforth enjoyed a higher status than the army by acting as their supervisory body.

The Song emperors aimed at maintaining peaceful borders in order to consolidate their rule of central China & manage their 100 million subjects.

Emperor Taizu of Song was succeeded by his younger brother, Emperor Taizong ('Grand Ancestor'), who reigned from 976 to 997 CE. The stability provided by the long reigns of the first two emperors (at least compared to the chaotic previous centuries) gave the Song dynasty the start it needed to become one of the most successful in China's history.

Consolidation & Government

Taizu may have conquered much of central China but neither he nor his successors could manage to conquer the Khitan Liao dynasty in the north, who still controlled the vital defensive area of the Great Wall of China. Indeed, so superior were the Khitan horsemen that they invaded Song China at will and Song emperors were compelled to pay their neighbours annual tribute in the form of silver and silk. They also recognised the Khitan ruler as an emperor in his own right. A similar situation arose with the Tangut Xia state to the north-west. Following a defeat in 1044 CE tribute was paid to them, too, so that the Song emperors could maintain a peaceful border and concentrate on consolidating their rule of central China and managing their 100 million subjects. The tribute payments were huge but less than the costs of a war or maintaining a constant military presence in the region. In addition, as trade thrived between these states, much of the value of the tribute, in any case, came back to China as payment for Chinese exports.

Although the Song were able to govern over a united China after a significant period of division, their reign was beset by the problems of a new political and intellectual climate which questioned imperial authority and sought to explain where it had gone wrong in the final years of the Tang dynasty. A symptom of this new thinking was the revival of the ideals of Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism as it came to be called, which emphasised the improvement of the self within a more rational metaphysical framework. This new approach to Confucianism, with its metaphysical add-on, now allowed for a reversal of the prominence the Tang had given to Buddhism, seen by many intellectuals as a non-Chinese religion.

The clashes of political and religious ideals at court frequently led to damaging factions and exiles but the real problem, of course, was never really addressed. That was the vast inequality in wealth which had plagued China for centuries. One attempt at reform was the New Policies of the chancellor Wang Anshi (1021-1086 CE) who wanted to ease the burden of the poorer elements of society. He forwarded such reforms as substituting disruptive labour service for a tax in kind, offering low-interest loans and making new land surveys which sought to more fairly assign tax obligations. The reforms were met with almost total opposition, though, by the local administrators whose interest was the status quo and their well-established network of friends and kickbacks. The practical reality was that while more people than ever had the opportunity to join the scholar-bureaucrat class which ran the Chinese state at national and local level, and even if the lower aristocracy significantly widened its base, the vast majority of the population during the Song dynasty remained, as ever, overworked and overtaxed farmers.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

If Song politics was somewhat troublesome for the emperors, at least the economy was booming. Kaifeng, already a capital in earlier dynasties, was one of the great metropolises of the world under the Song. With a population of around one million, the city was benefiting from industrialisation and was well-supplied by nearby mines producing coal and iron. A major trade centre, Kaifeng was especially famous for its printing, paper, textile, and porcelain industries. Such goods were exported along the Silk Road and across the Indian Ocean, along with tea, silk, rice, and copper. Imports included horses, camels, sheep, cotton cloth, ivory, gems, and spices.

Farming, in general, became much more efficient, and farmers aimed at producing more than they required for their own needs. Cities became more densely populated, markets thrived, and rural farmers began to grow crops they knew would demand high prices such as sugar, oranges, cotton, silk, and tea. To transport all these goods by canals and sea to where they were in demand thousands of ships were built, and so another industry became a success story. Companies became larger and more sophisticated with different levels of management and ownership. Guilds, wholesalers, partnerships, and stock companies all developed as the Chinese economy began to slowly take on the appearance of something more akin to today's industrial model.

China under the Song developed into a more modernised and industrialised nation thanks to innovations in machinery, agriculture, and manufacturing processes. Significant inventions or improvements on existing ideas included paddle-wheel ships, gunpowder, paper money, the fixed compass, the sternpost rudder, lock gates in canals, and the moveable-type printing press. Iron armour was mass-produced, and swords were made from high-quality steel made possible by water-powered bellows creating super-heated furnaces.

Literature boomed during the Song dynasty. Lie Jie wrote a famous treatise on architecture, his Yingzao fashi (1103 CE) and encyclopedias were written. Famous works of history were written such as Sima Guang's Zizhi tongjian ( Comprehensive Mirror for Aid to Government) which, published in 1084 CE, covered Chinese history from 403 BCE to 959 CE. The period saw a great many works of poetry published. One of the most famous poets is Su Dongpo (1037-1101 CE) who wrote, as many of his contemporaries did, about love, loneliness, and sorrow. Women in the Song period may well have fared less well than their predecessors, and such practices as foot-binding, in particular, became more common, but one female poet of renown was Li Qingzhao who famously described her family's exile in 1127 CE and her sorrow at her husband's early death.

The visual arts in general flourished, fuelled by a rising demand from an ever-increasing wealthy middle class. Fine porcelain and theatre were all popular with the new urban elite. Landscape paintings aimed for greater realism, with one of the most famous being Travelling among Streams and Mountains, a 2x1 metre silk hanging by Fan Kuan (c. 990-1030 CE). Flower and wildlife painting, especially of birds, also became very popular with Song dynasty artists. Such was the development of an appreciation for art that many of the most celebrated artists had their works ingeniously copied, and these fakes, sometimes complete with the embossed seal of the famous artist, continue to fool antiquarians to this day.

The defeat to the Jin state necessitated the Song court into relocating south to the Yangtze Valley.

Territorial Threats

By the early 12th century CE China's position as master of East Asia was coming under increasing threat from attacks in the north by the Liao and Xia states again. Even more dangerous were the Jurchen, tribes people in the north-eastern part of China. The ancestors of the Manchurians, they spoke the Tungusic language and had declared their own state, the Jin in 1115 CE. The Song took advantage of their territorial ambitions, and the two states joined forces to defeat the Liao. Unfortunately, despite achieving their goal, the Song were rather shown up for their own military weakness. Thus, in 1125 CE the Jin state attacked parts of northern China which even the great general Tong Guan (1054-1126 CE) could not stop. The emperor Huizong (r. 1100-1126 CE) was captured along with thousands of others and besides the loss of a huge swathe of territory, the Song were compelled to pay the Jurchen a massive ransom to avoid any more loss of life.

The defeat necessitated the Song court into relocating to the Yangtze Valley, and they eventually established a new capital in 1138 CE at Hangzhou (aka Linan) in Zhejiang province. This was the beginning of the Southern Song dynasty. The shrinking of the Song lands did nothing to dampen the booming economy as, fortunately, the great trading ports of the new capital, Quanzhou and Fuzhou were all in the south and continued to thrive as multinational cities where significant numbers of Muslim and Hindu immigrants took up permanent residence. The south was also much more fertile and continued to yield surpluses each harvest.

In 1127 CE the Song army made one of Huizong's surviving sons emperor, who then took the title Gaozong (r. 1127-1162 CE). After some half-hearted attempts, any plans to take back the lost lands from the Jin state were officially abandoned and a peace treaty signed in 1141 CE. Fortunately for the Song emperor, he still controlled the richest part of his former state and some 60% of the population. Hangzhou flourished. Famous for its scenic canals and gardens, it was a thriving commercial centre producing silk and ships and boasted a population of over one million. The military defeats also made the Song rulers and intellectuals rethink their strategy and make a better effort to help all levels of society. In the capital, the poor were given free handouts and medical aid, for example.

Mongol Invasion

Just when the Song had become accustomed to their new state following the tremendous upheaval caused by the Jurchen, an even greater menace appeared, and once again, it was from the north. The nomadic Mongol tribes had been assembled under the leadership of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE), and they repeatedly attacked and plundered the Xia and Jin states in the first three decades of the 13th century CE. The Song thought they were next and so made ready their armies, largely funded by confiscated wealth from the landed aristocracy - a policy which did nothing for internal unity. There was to be a reprieve, though, for the Mongols were busy enough expanding their empire into western Asia.

It was not until 1268 CE that the Mongol leader Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) set his sights on the lands south of the Yangtze River. First, the strategically important city of Xiangyang was besieged, and it fell in 1273 CE thanks to the Mongol's persistence and superior catapults. The invaders crossed the Yangtze in 1275 CE and proved unstoppable. With many Song generals defecting or surrendering their armies, a court beset by infighting between the child emperor's advisors, and the ruthless slaughter of the entire city of Changzhou, the end of the Song dynasty was definitely nigh. The empress dowager and her young son Emperor Gongzong (r. 1274-5 CE) surrendered and were taken prisoner to the northern city of Beijing. Some groups of loyalists fought on for three more years, installing two more young emperors in the process (Duanzong and Dibing) but the Mongols swept all before them, setting up the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE) in China, and then moved on down to Vietnam. The Song state, rich enough but paying dearly for its lack of political unity, military investment, and weapons innovation, became part of the vast Mongol empire which now covered one fifth of the globe.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Song (aka Sung) dynasty ruled China from 960 to 1279 CE with the reign split into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1125 CE) and Southern Song (1125-1279 CE). The Northern Song ruled a largely...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Song Dynasty of Ancient China including the Northern and Southern Song, advancements, culture, and government.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Prosperity in Song China (960-1279) | World History | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Song Dynasty Facts

The Song Dynasty began in China in 960 and ended in 1279. The Song Dynasty followed the Tang Empire, which fell in 906. For the next 54 years there was war, until Emperor Taizu established the Song Empire. The Song Dynasty was divided into two eras including the Northern Song, from 960 to 1127, and the Southern Song, from 1127 to 1279. During the Northern Song the capital was Bianjing (today Kaifeng). During the Southern Song the capital was moved to Lin'an (today Hangzhou) because it lost the northern section of China. The Song Dynasty was a time of innovation and art but was conquered in 1271 by the Mongolian leader Kublai Khan.

During the Song Dynasty there was competition from neighboring dynasties including the Western Xia and the Liao Dynasty. Treaties alternated with warfare during the Song Dynasty.

In 1127 the Jurchen Tribes, who had previously worked with the Song Dynasty to conquer Liao Dynasty, turned on the Song Dynasty and drove it south. This ended the period known as the Northern Song and began the period known as the Southern Song.

The Song Dynasty was able to restore unity to China and it experienced tremendous economic growth and advancements.

During the Song Dynasty China became the richest country in the world, and skilled workers grew in numbers to create major advances in industry.

During the Song Dynasty Confucianism was the most popular philosophy of the people. Buddhism and Daoism were also common.

Women in the middle and lower classes of the Song Dynasty were able to run businesses. Women were also given with large dowries (wedding gifts of money and property). This gave them more property rights.

The painful and disfiguring practice of foot binding began during the Song Dynasty. This involved binding a woman's feet to prevent the feet from growing more and it was a sign of social status and beauty. In the 1800s as much as half the female population had their feet bound, which often caused disabilities. Foot binding was not banned in China until 1912.

Painting and poetry flourished during the Song Dynasty. The Ci style of poetry was popular and the Shan Shui (mountain-water) style of painting was common among artists.

Many of the most important inventions from ancient China were made during the Song Dynasty including gunpowder, moveable type (which made book printing more feasible), and the magnetic compass, which made travel easier.

During the Song Dynasty the invention of moveable type made it possible to print money, documents, books, cards, and even calendars.

The Song Dynasty had the first standing navy in the history of the world, complete with large 300 foot long ships and catapults for weapons.

The Song Dynasty developed fire arrows, rockets, and even bombs with gunpowder which helped them during battle.

Education was highly valued during the Song Dynasty. The arts were an important part of culture during this time as well.

When the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty in 1279, they used the Song's own weapons advancements against them, including gunpowder-powered weapons.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Song Dynasty began in China in 960 and ended in 1279. The Song Dynasty followed the Tang Empire, which fell in 906. For the next 54 years there was war, until Emperor Taizu established the Song Empire. The Song Dynasty was divided into two eras including the Northern Song, from 960 to 1127, and the Southern Song, from 1127 to 1279.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article was most recently revised and updated by

Yuan dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Yüan, also called Mongol dynasty, dynasty established by Mongol nomads that ruled portions and eventually all of China from the early 13th century to 1368. Mongol suzerainty eventually also stretched throughout most of Asia and eastern Europe, though the Yuan emperors were rarely able to exercise much control over their more distant possessions.

History

The emergence of the Mongol dynasty dates to 1206, when Genghis Khan was able to unify under his leadership all Mongols in the vast steppe lands north of China. Genghis began encroaching on the Jin dynasty in northern China in 1211 and finally took the Jin capital of Yanjing (or Daxing; present-day Beijing) in 1215. For the next six decades the Mongols continued to extend their control over the north and then turned their attention to southern China, which they completed conquering with the defeat of the Nan (Southern) Song dynasty in 1279. The final consolidation came under Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan (reigned 1260-94).

The Mongol dynasty, which had been renamed the Yuan in 1271, proceeded to set up a Chinese-style administration that featured a centralized bureaucracy, political subdivisions, and a rationalized taxation system. Yuan was the first dynasty to make Beijing (called Dadu by the Yuan) its capital, moving it there from Karakorum (now in Mongolia) in 1267. The Yuan rebuilt the Grand Canal and put the roads and postal stations in good order, and their rule coincided with new cultural achievements including the development of the novel as a literary form. The vast size of the empire resulted in more-extensive foreign trade and foreign intercourse than at any other time before the modern period.

Unlike other rulers of China, the Mongols were never totally Sinicized, which proved to be an important factor in their downfall. They continued to maintain their separateness from the native population and utilized foreigners, such as the European traveler Marco Polo, to staff the government bureaucracy. Revolts in the mid-14th century led to the final overthrow of the Yuan in 1368, making it the shortest-lived major dynasty of China. The administrative centrality of the Yuan was continued by the succeeding Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911/12) dynasties, giving those later Chinese governments a more authoritarian structure than that of previous Chinese dynasties.

Cultural achievements

In the previous ages of the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, art had been encouraged by the state. During the Yuan, however, artists-especially those native Chinese who steadfastly refused to serve their conquerors-had to seek inspiration within themselves and their traditions. Those painters sought in their art a return to what they viewed as more ideal times, especially the Tang and Bei (Northern) Song periods. Artists such as Zhao Mengfu and the Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty ( Huang Gongwang, Ni Zan, Wang Meng, and Wu Zhen) thus firmly fixed the ideal of "literati painting" ( wenrenhua), which valued erudition and personal expression above elegant surface or mere representation. There was also an emphasis on stark and simple forms (e.g., bamboo or rocks) and on calligraphy, often with long complementary inscriptions on the paintings themselves. Against that radical new direction of the native Chinese in pictorial art, there was a conservative revival of Buddhist art (painting and sculpture), which was sponsored by the Mongols as part of their effort to establish authority over the Chinese.

In addition to a renewed emphasis on traditional craft arts (silver, lacquer, and other materials), there were important developments in ceramics. Various earlier traditions were continued, but there was also interest in producing new shapes, decoration, and glazes. Of special merit was the first appearance of blue-and-white ware-consisting of white porcelain with blue underglaze-which was to become so popular in later periods and among Western collectors.

Under Yuan rule the regional music drama that had gone two separate ways during the Song dynasty was intermixed as yuanqu, or "Yuan drama." Popular song styles became freer than before, and several forms of dancing and acrobatics were added to popular entertainment. Poetry emphasized sanqu ("nondramatic songs"), and vernacular fiction grew in popularity. Dramatists-including at least a dozen prominent Sinicized Mongols-wrote romantic plays of four or five acts in vernacular, with several songs in each act. The new literary genre attracted many men of letters, as well as large audiences.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Amy McKenna.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Yuan dynasty | History, Achievements, Art, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Yuan dynasty, established by Mongol nomads that ruled portions and eventually all of China from the early 13th century to 1368. Mongol suzerainty eventually also stretched throughout most of Asia and eastern Europe, though the Yuan emperors were rarely able to exercise much control over their more distant possessions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Yuan Dynasty of Ancient China including its history, the Mongols, Kublai Khan, rise and fall, government, culture, and fun facts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The rise and fall of the Mongol Empire - Anne F. Broadbridge

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled China from 1271 to 1368 CE. Their first emperor was Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1279 CE) who finally defeated the Song Dynasty which had reigned in China since 960 CE. Stability and peace within China brought a certain economic prosperity for some as Kublai and his successors promoted international trade which saw the now-unified country open up to the wider world. While there was peace in the western part of the Mongol Empire, Kublai launched two unsuccessful invasions of Japan and several others elsewhere in South East Asia. The Mongols' reign in China was finally ended due to a lethal cocktail of endless infighting amongst their leaders, inept and corrupt government which overspent and overtaxed, floods and famines. Peasant uprisings rumbled throughout the 14th century CE until one, led by the Red Turban Movement, toppled the Yuan and brought in a new regime, the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE).

Kublai Khan & the Song

In 1268 CE Kublai Khan focussed on finally knocking out the Song Dynasty and establishing himself, as all nomadic leaders before him had dreamed of, as the emperor of China. The Mongols had already made several major attacks on Song territory, notably during the reigns of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) in 1212-1215 CE and of Mongke Khan (r. 1251-1259 CE) in 1257-1260 CE. Equipped with an army of over 1,000,000 men, a large naval fleet, and immense wealth, Song China would prove a stubborn opponent to the otherwise invincible Mongol military machine. The success of Mongol warfare across Asia had been based on fast cavalry, but the Song countered this by deliberately adopting a strategy of more static warfare and building great fortifications at key cities and river crossings. For this reason, it would take eleven long years for Kublai to pick off his targets one by one and finally batter the Song into submission.

1279 CE was the first time that China had been unified since the 9th century CE.

The Mongols were helped by many Song generals defecting or surrendering their armies, and the fact the imperial court was beset by infighting between the child emperor's advisors. Ultimately, the empress dowager and her young son Emperor Gongzong (r. 1274-5 CE) surrendered along with their capital Lin'an on 28 March 1276 CE. The Song royals were taken prisoner to Kublai's new capital at Beijing (Daidu). Groups of loyalists fought on for three more years, installing two more young emperors in the process (Duanzong and Dibing), but the Mongols swept all before them. Finally, on 19 March 1279 CE a great naval battle was won at Yaishan near modern-day Macao; the Mongol conquest of China was complete. It was the first time that country had been unified since the 9th century CE, not that this was much consolation to the countless dead, robbed and displaced across China.

Establishing Government

Making himself emperor of China, Kublai gave himself the reign name Shizu and, in 1271 CE, his new dynasty the name 'Yuan', meaning either 'origin' or 'centre, main pivot.' The start date of the Yuan Dynasty is variously put at 1260 CE (Mongke's campaign), 1271 CE (first official use of the 'Yuan' dynasty title), 1276 CE ( death of the last Song emperor and fall of the Song capital) or 1279 CE (final extinguishing of Song resistance).

Kublai ensured that Mongols always gained an advantage in China by officially classing them as superior in rank to Chinese.

Beginning with Kublai, Mongol rulers made some superficial attempts to appeal to their new Chinese subjects by adopting such traditions as emperor's robes, travelling in a sedan chair and surrounding themselves with Confucian advisors. The real power, though, remained in Mongol hands as key administrative positions in the newly created 12 semi-autonomous provinces that China and northern Korea (annexed in 1270 CE) was now divided into largely went to Mongols, especially to members of the very large Mongol imperial bodyguard. The traditional six Chinese ministries, in place since the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), continued as before, but there were Mongol institutions, too, like the Shumi Yuan or Ministry of War.

Kublai abolished the civil service examinations which would have favoured Chinese officials with their Confucian education (they were reinstated in 1313 CE but Mongols still received advantages). Although many Chinese officials continued to work as before, they were subject to random and secret inspections by Mongol-trusted censors. The Mongol regional official known as the jarquchi was appointed to Chinese territories, and these and representatives of the various Mongol clans made up a local government for each province. The Mongol police force, the tutqaul, was given the task of ensuring roads were kept free from bandits, and western Asians, particularly Muslims, were often given roles in the financial side of government such as finance ministers and tax inspectors.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

A New Social Order

Kublai ensured that Mongols always gained an advantage in China by officially classing them as superior in rank to Chinese. The four official Yuan ranks, based on perceived loyalty to the Yuan rulers, were:

Mongols

Semu - people from Central Asia and/or speakers of Turkic languages

Hanren - northern Chinese, Tibetans, Khitans, Jurchen and others

Nanren - southern Chinese formally ruled by the Song.

Being a member of one of the above four classes had repercussions for an individual's tax status, their treatment by the judicial system and their eligibility for positions in the state administration (there was a 25% capped quota for southern Chinese, for example). Differences in treatment included northern Chinese being taxed by household while southern Chinese had to pay according to the area of land they owned. Punishments were a particularly striking area of difference with, for example, a Mongol found guilty of murder only having to pay a fine while a southern Chinese convicted of mere theft was fined and then tattooed as a criminal. The new law code introduced in 1270 CE, however, had only 135 capital crimes, half of those in the code used by the Song.

There were other measures of segregation, too, such as forbidding Chinese to take Mongol names, wear Mongol clothes or learn the Mongol language. Intermarriage was discouraged. Rather than being a solely racially-motivated policy, though, Kublai and his successors were most concerned with controlling their subjects, making it easier to identify who was who and ensuring there were no rebellions; Chinese were forbidden to carry weapons and congregate in public, for example.

At least traditional religions were permitted to continue as long as they did not threaten the state, although Buddhism was generally favoured over the traditional Chinese Confucianism. The Mongols' own preference for shamanism showed no signs of change, although Kublai himself converted to Tibetan (Lamaist) Buddhism. Further, despite the obvious discrimination, southerners kept their classical Chinese culture very much alive through private meetings and the arts, often producing paintings, poetry and plays which conveyed within them subtle protests against the Yuan regime. The latter art form, which included puppet theatre as well as live actors, boomed under the Yuan because of its visual appeal and striking stories; the Mongols, unable to speak Chinese, had little time for prose and poetry.

Foreign Policy & Trade

Kublai Khan was particularly interested in re-establishing the Chinese tribute system which had been neglected during the latter part of the Song's reign. The system had states pay symbolic and material tribute to China's dominant position as the centre of the known world, the ' Middle Kingdom.' Not only was it a means to further legitimise his position as Chinese emperor but it could also bring in useful material goods and help expand international trade. There was also the matter that Mongol rulers legitimised their position through conquest and the distribution of booty to their followers to ensure loyalty and continued service. Kublai, then, embarked on a series of campaigns to bring China's neighbours back to their former position of subservience to the emperor.

Japan was twice invaded (1274 and 1281 CE), but each time staunch resistance and fortuitous storms, the kamikaze or 'divine winds', forced a retreat. Like Japan, Southeast Asia was attacked in various land and naval campaigns but they also proved an elusive prize with invasions of Vietnam (1281 and 1286 CE), Burma (1277 and 1287 CE), and Java (1292 CE) achieving only limited success but at least gaining regular tribute from the Pagan kingdom in Burma and the Champa and Dai Viet kingdoms of Vietnam. It seemed that conducting naval warfare overseas and the unfamiliar climate of Southeast Asia were insurmountable obstacles to Yuan expansion. Kublai never gave up on Japan, though, and continued to send unsuccessful diplomatic missions to persuade the country to join the Chinese tribute system.

In other parts of Asia, to the west, there was relative peace, the so-called Pax Mongolica, although there was a major rebellion in Tibet in the early 1290s CE, and the other descendants of Genghis Khan, especially the Ogedeids, continued to nibble at China's western borders. Nevertheless, the Mongols as a group, by forging an empire from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula (even if it was now split into large khanates ruled by Genghis Khan's descendants) had managed to expose China to a wider world. This was especially so in regard to the west with contacts through Persia and, thanks to missionaries, ambassadors, and travellers like Marco Polo (1254-1324 CE), Europe. Between c. 1275 and 1292 CE Marco served Kublai Khan, seemingly in the capacity of a roving ambassador/reporter on the more remote parts of the Mongol Empire. On his return home, Marco wrote of his experiences in his book The Travels of Marco Polo, first circulated c. 1298 CE. His descriptions are amongst our best sources for the Yuan Dynasty and the emperor, in particular.

Of more concrete benefit to the Mongols and Chinese than world fame, the Yuan did promote international trade, too. Artisans and craftworkers were given a more elevated status than previously and given tax exemptions. Merchants, not being producers but 'exchangers,' had been discriminated against under the Song, and these, too, now benefitted from more favourable tax measures, low-cost loans and the end of sumptuary regulations. Merchants were encouraged to use paper money, currency exchanges were better regulated, and more roads, canals (including the Grand Canal connecting southern and northern China), and use of ocean-going ships aided the transport of goods. The effect of these policies was to create a boom in crafts and trade, especially of silk and fine porcelain, the latter product now being supervised by a specific government agency, paving the way for the later Ming potters to gain worldwide fame of their own. Trade also brought a greater exchange of ideas and technologies such as Persian expertise in astronomical observations, maps, luxury textile weaving, and irrigation coming to China, and gunpowder weapons, printing, the mariner's compass, and paper money to the west. Islam also spread further to the east as merchants crisscrossed Asia.

A Long Decline

Kublai was succeeded by his grandson Temur Oljeitu as Khan and emperor of China (r. 1295-1308 CE) who, continuing with the same institutions and many of the same officials appointed by his father, enjoyed a peaceful and successful reign. There then followed a long line of short-reigning rulers who struggled to balance the competing pro-Chinese and pro-Mongol traditionalists that divided the government at all levels. This rivalry sometimes broke out into violence with one emperor being assassinated and another thrown out following a coup. In addition, many southern Chinese, especially the intellectual class, clung on to their traditions, some even refusing to acknowledge the very existence of their Mongol masters and retiring to pursue the arts.

Collapse & Ming Dynasty

By the mid-14th century CE, the Yuan rulers had been beset by a devastating combination of unusually cold winters, famines, plagues, and flooding of the Yellow River which all combined to bring hyper-inflation when the government tried to solve the problems of a damaged infrastructure by printing too much paper money. There followed widespread banditry and uprisings by an overtaxed peasantry. Worse, some of the local elites and provincial administrators in southern China were colluding with the bandits, smugglers and even religious leaders to take over entire towns. Yuan China was disintegrating from within.

The Yuan rulers had not helped themselves by squabbling over power, creating an overblown bureaucracy, and wasting revenue and land resources on a few favoured princes and generals. Most importantly of all, they failed to quash numerous rebellions, including that perpetrated by a group known as the Red Turban Movement, an offshoot of the Buddhist White Lotus Movement, led by a peasant called Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398 CE). Zhu replaced the Red Turban's traditional policy aim of reinstating the old Song Dynasty with his own personal ambitions to rule and gained wider support by ditching the anti-Confucian policies which had alienated the Chinese educated classes. Alone amongst the many rebel leaders of the period, Zhu understood that to establish a stable government he needed administrators not just warriors out for loot.

Zhu Yuanzhang's first major coup had been the capture of Nanjing in 1356 CE. Zhu's successes continued, and he defeated his two main rival rebel leaders and their armies, first Chen Youliang at the battle of Poyang Lake (1363 CE) and then Zhang Shicheng in 1367 CE. Zhu was left the most powerful leader in China, and, after taking Beijing, the last Yuan emperor of a unified China, Toghon Temur (r. 1333-1368 CE), fled to Mongolia and the old, now largely abandoned capital Karakorum. The Yuan would, thus, continue to rule in Mongolia under the new name of the Northern Yuan Dynasty (1368-1635 CE). Meanwhile, Zhu declared himself the ruler of China in January 1368 CE. Zhu would take the reign name of Hongwu Emperor (meaning 'abundantly marital') and the dynasty he founded Ming (meaning 'bright' or 'light').

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled China from 1271 to 1368 CE. Their first emperor was Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1279 CE) who finally defeated the Song Dynasty which had reigned in China since 960 CE.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Who founded the Ming Dynasty?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Ming dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Ming, Chinese dynasty that lasted from 1368 to 1644 and provided an interval of native Chinese rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance, respectively. During the Ming period, China exerted immense cultural and political influence on East Asia and the Turks to the west, as well as on Vietnam and Myanmar to the south.

History

The Ming dynasty, which succeeded the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty (1206-1368), was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang. Zhu, who was of humble origins, later assumed the reign title of Hongwu. The Ming became one of the most stable but also one of the most autocratic of all Chinese dynasties.

The basic governmental structure established by the Ming was continued by the subsequent Qing (Manchu) dynasty and lasted until the imperial institution was abolished in 1911/12. The civil service system was perfected during the Ming and then became stratified; almost all the top Ming officials entered the bureaucracy by passing a government examination. The Censorate (Yushitai), an office designed to investigate official misconduct and corruption, was made a separate organ of the government. Affairs in each province were handled by three agencies, each reporting to separate bureaus in the central government. The position of prime minister was abolished. Instead, the emperor took over personal control of the government, ruling with the assistance of the especially appointed Neige, or Grand Secretariat.

Basically, the Ming incorporated the Song dynasty's policy of relying on the literati in managing state affairs. However, from the Yongle emperor onward, the emperors relied increasingly on trusted eunuchs to contain the literati. Also introduced at that time was a system of punishment by flogging with a stick in court, which was designed to humiliate civil officials-while also making use of them to realize the emperor's aim of maintaining practical control of the state in his own hands. By decree of the emperor, a vast spying service was organized under three special agencies.

Struggles with peoples of various nationalities continued throughout the Ming period. Clashes with Mongols were nearly incessant. During the first decades of the dynasty, the Mongols were driven north to Outer Mongolia (present-day Mongolia), but the Ming could not claim a decisive victory. From then onward the Ming were generally able to maintain their northern border, though by the later stages of the dynasty it in effect only reached the line of the Great Wall. On the northeast, the Juchen (Chinese: Nüzhen, or Ruzhen), who rose in the northeast around the end of the 16th century, pressed the Ming army to withdraw successively southward, and eventually the Ming made the east end of the Great Wall their last line of defense. The Ming devoted considerable resources toward maintaining and strengthening the wall, especially near Beijing, the dynasty's capital.

In early Ming times, China's domain extended considerably in the south as a result of its successful invasion of northern Vietnam. But the brief occupation of Vietnam was met with determined local guerrilla resistance, and the Ming government quickly decided to restore the boundary to its original line. It never again attempted to push southward. During the 15th century the government had organized large tribute-collecting flotillas commanded by Zheng He to extend China's influence. Also during the Ming, Japan became more aggressive. In the 15th century Japanese raiders teamed up with Chinese pirates to make coastal raids in Chinese waters, which were of a relatively small scale but were still highly disruptive to Chinese coastal cities. The Ming government eventually tried to stop Japan's attempt to control Korea, which became a long and costly campaign.

The Ming government was gradually weakened by factionalism between civil officials, interference by palace eunuchs, the burdens of a growing population, and a succession of weak and inattentive emperors. In 1644 a rebel leader, Li Zicheng, captured Beijing, and the local Ming military commander requested aid from the Manchu tribal peoples who had been encroaching on China's northern borders. The Manchu drove out Li Zicheng and then remained, establishing the Qing dynasty.

Cultural achievements

Despite the many foreign contacts made during the Ming period, cultural developments were characterized by a generally conservative and inward-looking attitude. Ming architecture is largely undistinguished with the Forbidden City, a palace complex built in Beijing in the 15th century by the Yongle emperor (and subsequently enlarged and rebuilt), its main representative. The best Ming sculpture is found not in large statues but in small ornamental carvings of jade, ivory, wood, and porcelain. Although a high level of workmanship is manifest in Ming decorative arts such as cloisonné, enamelware, bronze, lacquerwork, and furniture, the major achievements in art were in painting and pottery.

While there were two main traditions in painting in the Ming period, that of "literati painting" (wenrenhua) of the Wu school and that of the "professional academics" ( huayuanpai) associated with the Zhe school, artists generally stressed independent creation, impressing their work with strong marks of their personal styles.

There were many new developments in ceramics, along with the continuation of established traditions. Three major types of decoration emerged: monochromatic glazes, including celadon, red, green, and yellow; underglaze copper red and cobalt blue; and overglaze, or enamel painting, sometimes combined with underglaze blue. The latter, often called "blue and white," was imitated in Vietnam, Japan, and, from the 17th century, in Europe. Much of this porcelain was produced in the huge factory at Jingdezhen in present-day Jiangsu province. One of the period's most-influential wares was the stoneware of Yixing in Jiangsu province, which was exported in the 17th century to the West, where it was known as boccaro ware and imitated by such factories as Meissen.

The Ming regime restored the former literary examinations for public office, which pleased the literary world, dominated by Southerners. In their own writing the Ming sought a return to classical prose and poetry styles and, as a result, produced writings that were imitative and generally of little consequence. Writers of vernacular literature, however, made real contributions, especially in novels and drama. Chinese traditional drama originating in the Song dynasty had been banned by the Mongols but survived underground in the South, and in the Ming era it was restored. This was chuanqi, a form of musical theatre with numerous scenes and contemporary plots. What emerged was kunqu style, less bombastic in song and accompaniment than other popular theatre. Under the Ming it enjoyed great popularity, indeed outlasting the dynasty by a century or more. It was adapted into a full-length opera form, which, although still performed today, was gradually replaced in popularity by jingxi (Peking opera) during the Qing dynasty.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Adam Augustyn.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ming dynasty | Dates, Achievements, Culture, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ming dynasty, Chinese dynasty that lasted from 1368 to 1644 and provided an interval of native Chinese rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance, respectively. During the Ming period, China exerted immense cultural and political influence on East Asia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The imperial Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644. It replaced the Mongol Yuan dynasty which had been in power since the 13th century. Despite challenges from abroad and within, the Ming dynasty…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela | The Ming Dynasty of China: 1368-1644

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ming dynasty was one of China's most stable with a well-organized civil service system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn the history about the Ming Dynasty of Ancient China. The Emperors and accomplishments.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Info Print

Cite

Feedback

Share

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Qing dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Ch'ing, also called Manchu dynasty or Pinyin Manzu, the last of the imperial dynasties of China, spanning the years 1644 to 1911/12. Under the Qing the territory of the empire grew to treble its size under the preceding Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the population grew from some 150 million to 450 million, many of the non-Chinese minorities within the empire were Sinicized, and an integrated national economy was established.

History

The Qing dynasty was first established in 1636 by the Manchus to designate their regime in Manchuria (now the Northeast region of China). In 1644 the Chinese capital at Beijing was captured by the rebel leader Li Zicheng, and desperate Ming dynasty officials called on the Manchus for aid. The Manchus took advantage of the opportunity to seize the capital and establish their own dynasty in China. By adopting the Ming form of government and continuing to employ Ming officials, the Manchus pacified the Chinese population.

To guarantee Manchu control over the administration, however, the Qing made certain that half the higher-level officials were Manchus. Chinese military leaders who surrendered were given ranks of nobility, and troops were organized into the Lüying, or Army of the Green Standard, which was garrisoned throughout the country to guard against local rebellions. The regular Manchu Banner System troops (Qibing, or Baqi) were kept at the capital and in a few selected strategic spots throughout the country.

Under Kangxi (reigned 1661-1722), the second Qing emperor, the Manchus forced the Russians to abandon their fort at Albazin, located along the Manchurian border on the Amur River. In 1689 a treaty was concluded with Russia at Nerchinsk demarcating the northern extent of the Manchurian boundary at the Argun River. Over the next 40 years the Dzungar Mongols were defeated, and the empire was extended to include Outer Mongolia, Tibet, Dzungaria, Turkistan, and Nepal. Under the two succeeding emperors, Yongzheng (reigned 1722-35) and Qianlong (reigned 1735-96), commerce continued to thrive, handicraft industries prospered, and Roman Catholic missionaries were tolerated and employed as astronomers and artists. In addition, painting, printmaking, and porcelain manufacture flourished, and scientific methods of philology were developed.

Subsequent rulers, however, were unable to meet the problems caused by increased population pressure and concentration of land ownership. The Manchu armies deteriorated, and popular unrest, aggravated by severe floods and famine, were factors contributing to the Taiping (1850-64) and Nian (1853-68) rebellions in the south and north, respectively. Efforts at modernization and Westernization met opposition from conservative officials especially through the efforts of the dowager empress Cixi. Bureaucratic inefficiency and corruption became widespread, a notable example being the diversion of funds intended for building a Chinese navy to instead construct an ornamental marble warship at the imperial Summer Palace outside Beijing.

The first Opium War (1839-42), the Anglo-French War (1856-58), the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95), and the Boxer Rebellion (1900) all resulted in defeats for China and the granting of major concessions to foreign powers. By 1900 revolutionary groups had begun to form throughout the country. The October 10, 1911, Republican Revolution led to the abdication of the boy emperor Xuantong (better known as Puyi) and the transfer of authority to the provisional republican government under Yuan Shikai.

Cultural achievements

The efforts of the Manchu rulers, from the beginning of their rule, to become assimilated into Chinese culture bred strongly conservative Confucian political and cultural attitudes in official society and stimulated a great period of collecting, cataloging, and commenting upon the traditions of the past. Decorative crafts declined to increasingly repetitive designs, although techniques, notably in jade carving, reached a high level. Much architecture survives; although it is often grandly conceived, it tends to an inert massiveness with overwrought ornamentation. The two major visual art forms of the period were painting and porcelain.

Despite the prevailing attitude of conservatism, many Qing dynasty artists were both individualistic and innovative. Based largely on the dicta of a late Ming dynasty artist-critic, Dong Qichang, Qing painters are classified as "individualist" masters (such as Daoji and Zhu Da) and "orthodox" masters (such as the Six Masters of the early Qing period). In addition, there are "schools" of painting (though painters so classified share more a common location than a single style), such as the Four Masters of Anhui, the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and the Eight Masters of Nanjing. The attitude shared by most artists, in spite of obvious differences, was a strong preference for "literati painting" (wenrenhua), which emphasized personal expression above all.

Qing porcelain displays a high technical mastery even to the almost total obliteration of any mark of the potter's hand. Among the innovations of the period was the development of coloured glazes such as copper red, called "blown red" ( jihong) by the Chinese and "oxblood" ( sang-de-boeuf) by the French, and two classes of painted porcelain ware, known in Europe as famille verte and famille rose, from their predominant green and rose colours.

The literature of the Qing dynasty resembled that of the preceding Ming period in that much of it focused on classical forms. The Manchu conducted a literary inquisition in the 18th century to root out subversive writings, and many suspect works were destroyed and their authors jailed, exiled, or killed. Novels in the vernacular-tales of romance and adventure-developed substantially. After Chinese ports were opened to overseas commerce in the mid-19th century, translation of foreign works into Chinese increased dramatically.

In music, the most notable development of the dynasty probably was the development of jingxi, or Peking opera, over several decades at the end of the 18th century. The style was an amalgam of several regional music-theatre traditions that employed significantly increased instrumental accompaniment, adding to flute, plucked lute, and clappers, several drums, a double-reed wind instrument, cymbals, and gongs, one of which is designed so as to rise quickly in pitch when struck, giving a "sliding" tonal effect that became a familiar characteristic of the genre. Jingxi-whose roots are actually in many regions but not in Beijing-uses fewer melodies than do other forms but repeats them with different lyrics. It is thought to have gained stature because of patronage by the empress dowager Cixi of the late Qing, but it had long been enormously popular with commoners.

jingxi China/Pond5.com

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy McKenna, Senior Editor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Qing dynasty | Definition, History, & Achievements

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Qing dynasty, the last of the imperial dynasties of China, spanning the years 1644 to 1911/12. Under the Qing the territory of the empire and its population grew significantly, many of the non-Chinese minorities within the empire were Sinicized, and an integrated national economy was established.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Qing Dynasty of Ancient China including its history, culture, the Opium Wars, outside influences, rise and fall, and interesting facts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Type of Government

The Qing Dynasty was an empire led by the Manchu ethnic group, which ruled China from AD 1644 to AD 1911. The Qing government was an absolute imperial monarchy with authority vested in an emperor who served as head of state, head of government, and leader of the armed forces. The emperor supervised a system of six executive ministries and twenty-four military divisions. Members of the imperial family often served as high-ranking governmental or military leaders. The judicial branch was organized around a system of imperial courts with jurisdiction over all civil and criminal cases.

Background

The term "Manchuria" refers to a portion of northeastern China-located between Russia and Mongolia-which, in the early twenty-first century, was organized into the Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. Between the first and the twelfth centuries AD, a number of ethnic tribes in Manchuria, including the Tungus, Jurchen, and Khitan, formed transient nations and kingdoms that competed for control of the territory. Frequent conflict and conquest between the Chinese empire and the northeastern tribes played a significant role in shaping the borders of China throughout the imperial age.

Between AD 1110 and 1115, Chief Wanyan Aguda (1068-1123) led a series of military and diplomatic campaigns to unite the Jurchen tribes in Manchuria. Aguda's empire, later called the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234), allied with the Sung Dynasty in China to defeat their common enemies, the Manchurian Khitans. The following year, the Jin turned against the Sung and captured the capital of Kaifeng, driving the Sung to the city of Hangzhou. The conflict between the Sung and the Jin continued intermittently for more than a century until the Mongolian armies of Genghis Khan (c. 1162-1227) conquered both the Sung and the Jin to establish the Yüan dynasty in AD 1279.

During the Yüan Dynasty (1279-1368) and the subsequent Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Jurchen remained in Manchuria, fractured into tribal states. In 1616 Jurchen tribal leader Nurhachi (1559-1626) united the tribes into a confederation that historians now call the Late Jin Dynasty.

Though the Jurchen were initially allied with the Chinese, Nurhachi's descendent, Emperor Abahai (1592-1643), instigated separatist policies that included severing diplomatic ties with China. Abahai adopted the name "Manchus" for the tribe and the name qing (pure) as the new dynastic title. As the Qing grew in strength, the Chinese Ming Dynasty was beginning to weaken as rebel factions developed across the nation. In 1644 the Qing armies took advantage of China's political instability and invaded Beijing. Within two years, the Qing destroyed the remnants of the Ming government and took control of the nation under an imperial regime.

Government Structure

The emperor of the Qing Dynasty and his family were the sole source of authority in the government, assisted by a complex system of administrators that served to disseminate imperial policy to the populace. The emperor had the power to institute law by decree, appoint or remove civil servants, declare war, and negotiate treaties and agreements with foreign governments. Brothers and sons of the emperor, designated "princes," were appointed to high-ranking government and military posts. Toward the end of his reign, the emperor had the power to choose a prince to serve as his successor.

The most powerful organ in the central government was the Grand Secretariat, an administrative cabinet divided into six ministries. The emperor appointed two presidents and four vice presidents to supervise the Secretariat. The central government also contained the Court of Colonial Affairs, which was in charge of supervising the empire's vassal territories and instituting policies governing the nation's ethnic minorities.

The military administration was organized into twenty-four "banners," a system initiated by Nurhachi during the Late Jin Dynasty. Each banner was under the supervision of a commander-in-chief and was organized according to ethnic composition. Manchurian banners were placed in charge of strategically important locations and served as guards for the imperial palace, while Mongolian and Chinese banners were placed in secondary positions or assigned as reserves to support Manchurian soldiers.

The judicial branch was responsible for administering a complex civil and criminal penal code, which was based on Confucian legalism, a political philosophy developed from the works of Confucius (551-479 BC), that stressed adherence to state policies as a moral and legal virtue. The central government maintained a system of imperial courts, each of which supervised a number of provincial courts.

Under the Qing, China was divided into nine super-provincial regions, each governed by an imperially appointed governor-general. Beneath the governor-generals were eleven provinces, each led by an appointed governor. Provincial governors supervised a number of territorial circuits, which were further divided into prefectures and subprefectures, headed by appointed prefects and subprefects. At the lowest administrative level were districts, each led by an appointed magistrate. At the periphery of the empire were vassal states and semi-autonomous tribes under the authority of the nearest administrative division and generally supervised by a military detachment.

Political Parties and Factions

Qing society was organized according to a caste system led by the imperial family and members of the social, political, and intellectual elite. In rural areas, wealthy landowners functioned as local leaders and dominated the population through a system of indentured servitude. In urban districts, a culture of educated scholars and religious leaders made up the ruling class. While the general populace was subordinate to the elite, movement between the two groups was common.

Because ethnic Manchurians were in the minority, the government took steps to increase ethnic integration across the nation in order to strengthen popular allegiance to the empire and reduce the influence of the ethnic Chinese. Members of vassal states and tribes were invited to take part in Qing culture and to train or apprentice to join the elite circles of society.

The Qing government explicitly forbade the development of rival political factions and parties. Members of any social class that attempted to form political unions faced severe penalties under the penal code. Informal political influence groups existed, primarily organized around trades or professions. Informal groups exerted a potent influence on local leaders and thereby played a role in the development of imperial policy. Though nationalist movements occasionally developed, the Qing military and internal security made it difficult for nationalist factions to gather into large groups and thereby gain political influence.

Major Events

Through a combination of diplomacy and military force, the Qing subdued the nomadic tribes at the empire's periphery and expanded the borders of the empire to their greatest historical extent. By 1700, the empire had achieved a degree of economic and military stability that firmly established the Qing as one of China's most prosperous dynastic periods.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, British traders began selling opium, harvested in India, to the Chinese people. China soon became Britain's primary opium market, and the opium trade became one of the largest illegal drug operations in global history. Opium addiction became a serious problem in China, and social reformers in the Qing government began attempting to restrict the opium trade and to expel the British opium dealers. The British violently defended their opium trade despite laws that made their activities illegal both in China and Britain.

After the Qing conducted raids of British trade ships in 1838 and 1839, the British responded by sending a naval detachment to China. From 1840 to 1841, in what was later called the First Opium War, the British bombarded the Chinese coast with gunboats. The Qing government surrendered and was forced to sign treaties that granted the British unlimited access to China's most productive ports.

In the wake of the opium wars, the government faced an increase in popular unrest and was forced to commit their military to internal peacekeeping. Recognizing that the Qing government was deteriorating, the Japanese began taking steps to annex the Korean peninsula. Korea was an important strategic territory, and both China and Japan wanted to control the nation for military and economic gain. From 1894 to 1895, the Qing military fought a losing battle against the Japanese for control of the Korea. After their defeat, the Qing government was burdened by conflict on many simultaneous fronts and mired by internal dissent. The United States, France, Britain, and Japan forced the government to sign treaties allowing for unlimited free trade and began to divide China into economic districts, largely replacing the government.

The Qing responded by funneling funds into secret societies organized to fight against foreign control. The Boxer Uprising of 1900, led by the "Righteous and Harmonious Fists," or "Boxers," was a popular rebellion in Beijing in which groups of Chinese fighters attacked foreign traders and trade offices. A coalition of French and British soldiers violently subdued the Boxers in Beijing and forced the Qing to allow the establishment of permanent, foreign military installations.

The Qing government instituted a series of democratic reforms aimed at holding the empire together despite widespread public dissent and the dominance of foreign powers. The reforms were ultimately unsuccessful as rebel groups gained strength. In the 1911 Wuchang Uprising, the Qing government lost a series of crucial battles to a rebel faction led by democratic reformer Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925). Though some factions of the Qing continued to fight with Sun Yat-Sen's faction for the next several decades, the uprising signaled the end of the imperial age and the beginning of China's modern period.

Aftermath

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was divided into regions under the control of local gentry and warlord leaders. Sun Yat-sen's faction, which gained an early advantage in Beijing, was forced to contend with warlord armies, Qing loyalists, and a growing communist movement fueled by military support from the Soviet Union. The resulting power struggle lasted for decades and ultimately resulted in the establishment of a communist state, the People's Republic of China.

The legacy of the Qing Dynasty was evident in the administrative and military structure of both the republican and the communist factions. Though subsequent governments would utilize a more diffuse distribution of power and reject the idea of imperial, hereditary leadership, the Qing legacy remained a part of Chinese government into the modern age.

Der-Wei Wang, David and Shang Wei. "Dynastic Crisis and Cultural Innovation: From the Late Ming to the Late Qing and Beyond." Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006.

Rawski, Evelyn S. "The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions." Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

Waley-Cohen, Joanna. "The Culture War in China: Empire and the Military Under the Qing Dynasty." New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
qing dynastytype of governmentthe qing dynasty was an empire led by the manchu ethnic group

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
which ruled china from ad 1644 to ad 1911. the qing government was an absolute imperial monarchy with authority vested in an emperor who served as head of state

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
and leader of the armed forces. the emperor supervised a system of six executive ministries and twenty-four military divisions. members of the imperial family often served as high-ranking governmental or military leaders.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Qing DynastyType of GovernmentThe Qing Dynasty was an empire led by the Manchu ethnic group, which ruled China from AD 1644 to AD 1911. The Qing government was an absolute imperial monarchy with authority vested in an emperor who served as head of state, head of government, and leader of the armed forces.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela | Qing Dynasty, the last imperial dynasty of China (1644-1912)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
_The long-lived Qing dynasty ruled over a massive multi-ethnic empire as it experienced a period of economic prosperity in the eighteenth century._

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Built on a collection of 40,000+ popular, high-quality books from 250+ of the world's best publishers, Epic safely fuels curiosity and reading confidence for kids 12 and under.

Get Started

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
online access fun thousands children great kids ebooks books

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Built on a collection of 40,000+ popular, high-quality books from 250+ of the world's best publishers, Epic safely fuels curiosity and reading confidence for kids 12 and under. Get Started

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Image above - "Spade Money"
Warring States (5th Century BC)

All lands under the watch of Heaven

The two-thousand year history of China and its civilization originates from small populations that settled along the valleys of the Yellow River (and the Yangtze River), considered the cradle of Chinese civilization. The first writings found on Chinese history date back to the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC), although philosophy, culture and literature developed in the following Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

The imperial period, began by the Emperor Qin Shi Huang (221 BC), gave birth to a history dominated largely by various dynasties that ruled parts of China. It all ended with the last dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, which was defeated by Republican rebels in the Wuchang Uprising, in 1911, followed by the abdication of Emperor child Pu Yi(1912) and the appointment of Yuan Shi-kai as president of the Republic of China.

The term "dynasty" means a succession of rulers from the same family clan. While some dynasties persisted for centuries (see Zhou and Ming), others lasted only a few decades (see Qin and Sui) .

The ancient Chinese did not know the concept of "nation" and only rarely national boundaries were permanently defined. "All lands are under the watch of Heaven" was a basic principle of the dynasties that effectively unified China as a nation. The emperor, called the Son of Heaven, ensured titles to the rulers of neighboring territories, thus uniting several regions and ethnic groups under a single administration.

It is also a history characterized by alternating periods of unity, with the expansion of dynasties, and period of divisions (or disunity) , with the presence of other peoples from Central Asia, which over the centuries were assimilated into the Han population (often it is the name used as the original ethnic Chinese population, to differentiate themselves from other ethnic minorities in China).

1912 puts an end to the Celestial Empire.

Since each dynasty was unique, it left behind a wide range of culture, art, philosophy and historical artifacts for us to admire.

All Chinese Dynasties:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Resources: Chinese Dynasties Guide

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Image above - "Spade Money"Warring States (5th Century BC) The two-thousand year history of China and its civilization originates from small populations that settled along the valleys of the Yellow River (and the Yangtze River), considered the cradle of Chinese civilization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Know Your Dynasties | The Story of China | PBS LearningMedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Each dynasty has left its mark on China. Even today, the Chinese refer to historical events not by their date but by the dynasty in which they took place. That's why you need to know your dynasties! Play the quiz with your students and match the cards to the dynasty.