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Bottom up approach-Dipankar Moitra, Nagpur, India

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Bottom up approach-Dipankar Moitra, Nagpur, India

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Outbreak of Dengue, a vector-borne disease, is a major cause of worry in most cities of India, and we at Nagpur with a population of around 3 million, have been particularly affected. The solutions are simple, to eliminate stagnant water puddles being primary, but then lack of citizen awareness and cooperation is multiplying the numbers of people affected by the disease. Our city doesn't have a centrally controlled monitor where citizens can complain or upload addresses where such puddles or wild shrubs are observed. The solution is to create an app whereby people can register their problems.

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When considering the potential for privacy law breaches, particularly within the smart cities context containing a vast scope of data that is available to the Government, data may often need to be de-identified to maintain privacy. Whilst this may make it difficult to reconcile data collected from multiple services, it could still allow for the useful collection and aggregation of data for defined purposes. The E-CAF system (Common Assessment Framework), where a database of all children assessed by government services (including police, social services and schools) is maintained by the UK Government, highlights how anonymity is fading due to data-driven technologies. The system allows authorities to predict which children will commit crime in the future and allow them to intervene, based on a number of risk factors and profiling. It is evident that citizens captured by the database as children will no longer be "anonymous" members of society. Given the potential Government presumption that parties unwilling to share their information are inherently suspicious, the difficulty of maintaining anonymity in modern smart cities is clearly quite high.

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The Government of Catalonia, Barcelona City Council and Oracle, have promoted the creation of a Big Data Excellence Center (CoE) (http://www.bigdatabcn.com/en/). The group's tasks include "evaluating what measures can be taken to ensure the protection of personal data and helping introduce data culture and big data technology into businesses and public administrations". (http://eldigital.barcelona.cat/en/a-group-of-big-data-experts-is-set-up-to-strive-for-personal-data-protection_229930.html)

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Developing a City Strategy for Cybersecurity: A 7-Step Guide for Local Governments.

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Developing a City Strategy for Cybersecurity: A 7-Step Guide for Local Governments.

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By Irati Lasa Amo.

Cybersecurity is an issue that can't be ignored at any level of government. To help cities prioritize risks and assign roles and responsibilities for key aspects of cybersecurity within their infrastructures, Council Lead Partner Microsoft just released a set of recommendations based on years of working with local authorities. The strategy outlined in the City Strategy for Cybersecurity aims to help cities enhance the integrity, availability, manageability and confidentiality of city information, citizen services and business operations. It's a must-read for city governments everywhere.

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When we start living through our fears instead of through our dreams then we stop living.

The reading list at my school from 6-12 grade was comprised of only books that were on the banned book list in some city/state/country. Simply because my teachers felt that it was important for us to know that knowledge was an universal truth, and we had every right to know whatever we wanted.

Fear cannot stop you from living life.

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The main point of this matter, is who will use this information. The are a lot of possibilities or applications that can be designed and applied from the information got. Maybe Barcelona can decide which infraestructure need to be constructed and in which way. China as a country, can used in the same way, but at the same time, they could know where is taking place a meeting, where is going someone they are looking after.

I consider we are going to get a few number of good uses and a high number of bad uses.

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Willing to 'trade-in' data for overall good - Maja Dunn

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Willing to 'trade-in' data for overall good - Maja Dunn

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The UK's Information Commissioner's Office has a guide about online privacy and security regulations: https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-pecr/  And as Judy Backhouse already mentioned the more people are around in an environment the safer it becomes, and surveillance cameras do deter people with ill intent.  (We had a fracas a couple of weeks ago on an estate behind us and since the police installed CCTV it has been very very quiet).  So I wonder if you can extrapolate that metaphor, of the more eyes around the better: the more data is available and people know it is being gathered, then the more it will deter people?  Of course we must ensure that data is as secure as possible, and anonymised before being released.  Someone has already mentioned private corporations versus state data.

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UK- Data Protection for online Apps: 

Data Protection for online Apps - Maja Dunn

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UK- Data Protection for online Apps: 

Data Protection for online Apps - Maja Dunn

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Personal information online

More and more people are conducting their personal affairs online. Online shopping, social networking, job hunting and the ability to carry out 'official' functions, such as renewing car tax or contacting local councils and government departments online, are now an everyday part of life.

The code explains how the Data Protection Act applies to the collection and use of personal data online. It provides good practice advice for organisations that do business or provide services online. It was launched in July 2010 following an extensive consultation process.

The code explains the privacy risks that may arise when operating online, and suggests ways for organisations to deal with them. It stresses the importance of treating consumers' information properly, and being transparent about how their information is used.

The code covers topics including online marketing, operating internationally, and applying individuals' rights in an online environment. It applies equally to the public and private sectors.

On 26 May 2011 the rules on using cookies changed. This guidance reflects the law before that date. Our advice on the new cookies law sets out the changes and explains what steps you need to take now to ensure you comply.

If you run a small business with an online presence, this checklist will help you to adopt best practice when processing your customers' information.

Protecting personal data in online services

This report identifies eight of the most common IT security vulnerabilities that have resulted in organisations failing to keep people's information secure.

The flaws were identified during the ICO's investigations into data breaches caused by poor IT security practices. Many of these incidents have led to serious security breaches resulting in the ICO issuing monetary penalties totalling almost a million pounds.

Your questions answered - video

Simon Rice, Group Manager for our Technology team, answers questions sent to us via Twitter and our WordPress blog about the report.

Mobile apps

As with any other business or project, developers of applications for mobile devices need to comply with the Data Protection Act.

A typical mobile ecosystem contains many different components, including mobile devices themselves, their operating systems, plus apps provided through an app store. In many ways these are simply developments of earlier concepts that have been used on less portable computer hardware for years, but the mobile environment has some particular features that make privacy a pressing concern.

In light of these features, this guidance has been produced to help app developers comply with the Data Protection Act 1998 and ensure users' privacy.

Wi-Fi analytics

Monitoring individuals through the use of Wi-Fi analytics can be a privacy intrusive activity unless specific actions are taken. This guidance has been developed to explain these risks and give advice to organisations considering the use of the technology.

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More and more people are conducting their personal affairs online. Online shopping, social networking, job hunting and the ability to carry out 'official' functions, such as renewing car tax or contacting local councils and government departments online, are now an everyday part of life.

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MK - MASH Hub Security between Police/Health/Probation Services - Maja Dunn

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MK - MASH Hub Security between Police/Health/Probation Services - Maja Dunn

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Purpose-specific Information Security Protocol for Milton Keynes Multi Agency Safeguarding Hub (MASH

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UK Privacy and Security Legislation & Guidelines - Maja Dunn

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UK Privacy and Security Legislation & Guidelines - Maja Dunn

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The UK's Information Commissioner's Office has a guide about online privacy and security regulations: https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-pecr/

The Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations (PECR) sit alongside the Data Protection Act.

They give people more privacy in relation to electronic communications.

There are specific rules on:  marketing calls, emails, texts and faxes;  cookies (and similar technologies);  keeping communications services secure; and  customer privacy as regards traffic and location data, itemised billing, line identification, and directory listings.

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In brief...

The Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations (PECR) sit alongside the Data Protection Act. They give people specific privacy rights in relation to electronic communications.

There are specific rules on:

marketing calls, emails, texts and faxes;

cookies (and similar technologies);

keeping communications services secure; and

customer privacy as regards traffic and location data, itemised billing, line identification, and directory listings.

We aim to help organisations comply with PECR and promote good practice by offering advice and guidance. We will take enforcement action against organisations that persistently ignore their obligations, starting with those that generate the most complaints.

In more detail...

The basics

PECR are the Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations. Their full title is The Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003.

They are derived from European law. They implement European Directive 2002/58/EC, also known as 'the e-privacy Directive'.

The e-privacy Directive complements the existing data protection regime and sets out more-specific privacy rights on electronic communications. It recognises that widespread public access to digital mobile networks and the internet opens up new possibilities for businesses and users, but also new risks to their privacy.

PECR have been amended four times. The more recent changes were made in 2015, to allow emergency text alerts and to make it easier to take action for breaches of the marketing rules; and in 2016, to require anyone making a marketing call to display their number. This guide covers the latest version of PECR, which came into effect on 16 May 2016.

You can find a link to the full text of the original PECR - and to the exact changes made in the 2004, 2011, 2015 and 2016 amendment regulations - on the 'what we do' section of our website .

What kind of areas do PECR cover?

PECR cover several areas:

Marketing by electronic means, including marketing calls, texts, emails and faxes. See the Electronic and telephone marketing section of this guide for more information.

The use of cookies or similar technologies that track information about people accessing a website or other electronic service. See the Cookies and similar technologies section of this guide for more information.

Security of public electronic communications services. See the Security of services and Security breaches sections of this guide for more information.

Privacy of customers using communications networks or services as regards traffic and location data, itemised billing, line identification services (eg caller ID and call return), and directory listings. See the Communications networks and services section of this guide for more information.

Do PECR apply to me?

Some of the rules only apply to organisations that provide a public electronic communications network or service. But even if you are not a network or service provider, PECR will apply to you if you:

market by phone, email, text or fax;

use cookies or a similar technology on your website; or

compile a telephone directory (or a similar public directory).

How does this fit with the Data Protection Act?

The Data Protection Act still applies if you are processing personal data. PECR just set out some extra rules for electronic communications. You must still comply with the Data Protection Act as well. In fact, regulation 4 explicitly says:

"Nothing in these Regulations shall relieve a person of his obligations under the Data Protection Act in relation to the processing of personal data."

Naturally, there is some overlap, given that both aim to protect people's privacy. Complying with PECR will help you comply with the Data Protection Act, and vice versa - but there are some differences and you must make sure you comply with both.

In particular, it's important to realise that PECR apply even if you are not processing personal data. For example, many of the rules protect companies as well as individuals, and the marketing rules apply even if you cannot identify the person you are contacting.

For more information on your other obligations under the Data Protection Act, see our separate Guide to data protection.

Are there any exemptions?

Yes. Some of the rules have built-in exemptions. These specific exemptions are explained in the relevant section of this guide.

There are also a few more-general exemptions that can apply to any of the rules - in brief, exemptions for national security, law enforcement, or compliance with other laws (see the Exemptions section of this guide).

How can the ICO help us comply?

If you are a service provider (eg a telecoms provider or an internet service provider), we can also conduct an audit of your security measures. The audit will look at whether you have effective policies and procedures in place, and whether you are following them. It includes our recommendations on how you could improve. We believe that audits play a key role in helping organisations understand and meet their obligations.

We select service providers for audit based on the level of risk. If we select you for audit, we will write a letter of invitation, asking you to participate voluntarily. If you decide not to respond, then we have the power to undertake a compulsory audit. We agree a scope of work with you, and set this out in a letter of engagement. We will then carry out both an off-site check of your security policies and procedures, and an on-site review of your procedures in practice.

After completing the audit, we provide a comprehensive report and an executive summary. The report allows you to respond to our audit team's observations and recommendations. We publish the outcomes of PECR audits on our website.

What action can the ICO take to enforce PECR?

The ICO has several ways of taking action to change the behaviour of anyone who breaches PECR. They include criminal prosecution, non-criminal enforcement and audit. The Information Commissioner can also serve a monetary penalty notice imposing a fine of up to £500,000.

These powers are not mutually exclusive. We will use them in combination where justified by the circumstances.

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The Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulations (PECR) sit alongside the Data Protection Act. They give people specific privacy rights in relation to electronic communications. There are specific rules on: marketing calls, emails, texts and faxes; cookies (and similar technologies); keeping communications services secure; and customer privacy as regards traffic and location data, itemised billing, line identification, and directory listings.

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By Michelle Araujo

I believe transparency is essential in such process, however, we are not on this level yet, not as citizens or as governments. For now, we are on trial and error phase. Many places need a complex surveillance system, like Rio de Janeiro's surveillance project started during the World Cup in Brazil. Other places make to with simple neighbourhood watch.
I believe getting the right balance between the need for security and privacy is a work in progress that depends on a lot more than just data collection and systems, but on our evolution as civilization in general and the choices we make.

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National (open) data platform: Rijksoverheid.nl

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National (open) data platform: Rijksoverheid.nl

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In the Netherlands we are creating a national (open) data platform with all the large cities in our country: https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/opendata

Here the data of several governments is open and re-uasable for citizens. Of course we also have several conferenges and meeting on this topics as well, with local and national governments. Citizens involvement is needed to decide in front which data should and can be collected.

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Sensors affecting Smart cities citizens' privacy

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Sensors affecting Smart cities citizens' privacy

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Sensors affecting Smart cities citizens' privacy
Indeed I am concperned about privacy. A lot of data collected explaining my quotidian life actuvities could fall in the wring hands. If so, I would be threatened to experiment negative changes in this routine by somebody else doing malpractice of this data.
Fortunately, new efficient digital security systems are being developed so as to address this issue. Therefore it's a good idea to keep on with the usage of sensors.
I do not know any example of this happening yet.

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India : Data Protection and Privacy - Harsh Thapar

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India : Data Protection and Privacy - Harsh Thapar

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I did some quick research and found that Eurpoean cities like London have very clear guidance and reposnbilities allocated to data collectors under the Data Protection Act. India interestingly does have two regulations adressing the issue

a) Information Technology ct of 2000

b) Information Technology Rules of 2011 - pertaining to personal data

I believe that is a good starting point for the smart city developments however since this is a specialist technical area area i believe it will have to be looked at very carefully especially considering high vulnerability of certain section of Indian population and cultural values.

Nodal bodies like Nasscom and Ministry of Communication and Information Tech. have just taken up the IOT initiatives and i believe data privacy in smart technologies will gather more discussion and attention in India in future.

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this thing was noticed by me when I once visited a university. This university keep a track of IP address that its students use and also keep a track on the host site IP address so that if some illegal work is going against privacy, then it can be tracked. And even one student was found doing such, so he was warned.

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Privacy And Security - To Smart Cities - DRAFT by Prabhdip Singh Rayat

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Privacy And Security - To Smart Cities - DRAFT by Prabhdip Singh Rayat

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Privacy and Security – With Smart Sensing Data What are various Risks – To Smart Cities Addressing Issues – Privacy and Security

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MK Smart  -  Privacy And Security - To Smart Cities

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People will accept the smart control when they feel security about this issue. The communication needs to be effective. They need all information about it. In my city the citizens would like to have more technology for their security, the number of cameras that are connected with police control isn’t enough.

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by Juliana Stojanovska

Each change, whether radical or evolutionary, brings possibilities of its abuse for some causes. That is why the change should be accompanied with a set of regulations and procedures, for protection, security, privacy and functionality, in order to prevent such abuse.

On the other side, without the change we cannot make things better, it is simply inevitable.

For instance, satellite imagery improves seismic surveys . One example enough to show the "big brother's" benefit.

That, of course. does not justify any behavior against humanity and the human rights and freedoms.

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Security cameras are often installed to help reduce criminality, which they actually succeed in doing (just looking at before/after figures).

Our subway/bus/train journeys are monitored as well in order to adapt public transportation infrastructures to our travel patterns.

Of course it is an intrusion in our privacy, but the information isn't used to track people: Camera recordings are only analyzed in case a problem is reported to the police and our travel information is gathering to improve the level of service, so why should we fear anything?? Of course, everything has to be highly regulated and monitored carefully, but many governmental institutions and independent associations are already doing this.

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As part of a project I used to have a camera monitoring my
presence at my desk, you just got used to its existence. That’s me in the
middle of the screen if you follow the link:-

http://cnm.open.ac.uk/projects/hexagon/

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The lightest possible internet video-conferencing software application.

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"1984" by George Orwell (published in 1949)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Big Brother is a fictional character and symbol in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. He is ostensibly the leader (either the actual enigmatic dictator or perhaps a symbolic figurehead) of Oceania, a totalitarianstate wherein the ruling Party wields total power "for its own sake" over the inhabitants.

In the society that Orwell describes, every citizen is under constant surveillance by the authorities, mainly by telescreens (with the exception of the Proles). The people are constantly reminded of this by the slogan "Big Brother is watching you": a maxim which is ubiquitously on display. In modern culture the term "Big Brother" has entered the lexicon as a synonym for abuse of government power, particularly in respect to civil liberties, often specifically related to mass surveillance.

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https://wikileaks.org/spyfiles/

In contexts like Latin America, Government can use the data to chase people that disagree with them.

Allowing or banning sensors in a city is not going to stop governments to spy on their citizens.

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by Judy Backhouse

Places are more secure when more people are about, informally observing. Security cameras do much the same. Even if the footage is only viewed when needed, knowing that they are there modifies people's behaviour for the better. So I am OK with my workplace having cameras down every corridor (but not in our offices). If I thought that the footage was being used to monitor my work patterns, I might feel differently about them, but at the moment they are not. I don't actually know to what extent these practices are codified or not. Might be worth investigating...

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Privacy is discussed in all IoT/Smart City conferences

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Privacy is discussed in all IoT/Smart City conferences

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Like few of us mentioned, Privacy is most sought after topic in conferences held across the world. However, this needs to formalized in all policies and framework by government and private industry that takes up such deployments. As it is evolving, not prudent enough to comment whether it has been made integral part so far

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Annual Privacy and Security Conference - Victoria, Canada

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Annual Privacy and Security Conference - Victoria, Canada

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Not an example from a specific city, but does show that information privacy and security is an important topic for professionals in both government and private industry in British Columbia. 2015 marked the 16th annual conference: https://www.rebootcommunications.com/event/privsec2015/

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Privacy & Security of Data in Milton Keynes

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Privacy & Security of Data in Milton Keynes

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It seems that MK Smart does consider the privacy and security of our data, but it wasn't easy to find this information!

http://www.mksmart.org/blog/2014/09/05/empowering-citizen-researchers-citizen-data-workshops/

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UK: INSTALL "GIANT EYE" CITIZENS TO MONITOR ...

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UK: INSTALL "GIANT EYE" CITIZENS TO MONITOR ...

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The screens are located in three hits on the new railway station of the city and used facial recognition technology to identify pedestrians and offer personalized ads based on age or gender.

http://elmicrolector.org/2015/09/03/reino-unido-instalan-ojos-gigantes-para-vigilar-a-los-ciudadanos-y-a-la-gente-le-gusta/

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Ongoing news reports in the international media have revealed operational details about the United States National Security Agency (NSA) and its international partners' global surveillance[1] of foreign nationals and U.S. citizens. The reports mostly emanate from a cache of top secret documents leaked by ex-NSA contractor Edward Snowden, who obtained them while working for Booz Allen Hamilton, one of the largest contractors for defense and intelligence in the United States.[2]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_surveillance_disclosures_%282013%E2%80%93present%29

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Retrofit Solid Wall Insulation on Nottingham Social Housing - Smart Energy Metering

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Retrofit Solid Wall Insulation on Nottingham Social Housing - Smart Energy Metering

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Nottingham City Housing in partnership with Nottingham Trent University fitted with permission of tenants suitable range of wireless infrared thermography sensors / and smart meter sensors for autonomous monitoring in 40 social housing homes with solid walls built between 1901 and 2012, The results showed that these old solid wall buildings (most without cavitiy walls) had significant heat losses through the walls. The measurements were repeated after retrofitting with solid wall insulation which demonstrated to the citizens the benefits of retrofitting solid wall insulation to all members of the community. Data protection means that  there are challenges around the issue of securely sharing this data in the wider community between only those partners who need access to the data,

Keith McGraw

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Summit on water security, Budapest, which is topical. Drinking water is bottled, which is true for most places in the world. The UK is unusual in that water can be drunk from the tap

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Summit on water security, Budapest, which is topical. Drinking water is bottled, which is true for most places in the world. The UK is unusual in that water can be drunk from the tap

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It won't solve our privacy problems, but will bring some benefits, and balance in power.

Peter Stair

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Continuous Geosurveillance in the “Smart City”

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Continuous Geosurveillance in the “Smart City”

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Rob Kitchin on the New Forms of Governance in the Era of Ubiquitous Computing

With original artwork by Mark Dorf

For the past couple of decades there has been a steady stream of analysis that has documented the ways in which the rollout of new digital and networked technologies have enabled increasingly pervasive and extensive forms of state and corporate surveillance. Such technologies have the capability to capture and communicate data about their use; simultaneously a wealth of sophisticated software has been developed that processes and acts on such data in automated, autonomous, and automatic ways. Importantly, the use of embedded GPS, sensors, and digital cameras are enabling location and movement to be tracked, facilitating extensive geosurveillance of people and places.

Continuous geosurveillance relies on the production of spatial big data, and in particular the notion of the "smart city" takes center stage, that is, urban landscapes that can be monitored, managed and regulated in real-time using ICT infrastructure and ubiquitous computing. Such instrumented cities are promoted as providing enhanced and more efficient and effective city services, ensuring safety and security, and providing resilience to economic and environmental shocks, but they also seriously infringe upon citizen's privacy and are being used to profile and socially sort people, enact forms of anticipatory governance, and enable control creep, that is re-appropriation for uses beyond their initial design.

What follows is a consideration of the unfettered rush to create "smart cities" that is sensitive to the risks involved in extensively monitored urban landscapes. Are too much data about people and places being generated by public and private institutions and used to profile, sort, and sift in pernicious ways? In the rush to create smart cities is the privacy and freedom we expect in liberal democracies being eroded? Perhaps most alarming, are we creating cities that represent the interests of a select group of corporations and technocrats, rather than producing ones that represent the best interests of all citizens?
Extensive and Continuous Geosurveillance
If we wind the clock back seventy years, surveillance was generally a slow, labor-intensive, and partial process. Two of the largest cutting edge surveillance operations of the Second World War - the Bletchley Park decryption of encoded messages and the Medmenham air photo reconnaissance - sought to determine the location and likely movements of troops and equipment across Europe and the Atlantic ocean. Both required thousands of well-trained personnel to work through massive amounts of sampled analogue material of variable quality to map the enemy. The records were bulky, difficult to cross-tabulate and analyze, and expensive to store. Interpretation was imprecise and often quite granular. The only way to track the movements of an individual, and their patterns and preferences of consumption, were to follow them in person and to quiz those with whom they interacted. As a result, nearly everybody passed unobserved in the crowd unless there was a specific reason to focus on them through the deployment of costly resources.

Today the situation has changed utterly. An abundance of networked digital devices, systems and infrastructures mediate movement, work, consumption, communication, and play. We are at the beginning of an era of ubiquitous computing, enabled by advances in computation, data analytics and machine learning, internetworking, and database solutions that facilitate the harvesting, processing, analysis, storage and sharing of vast quantities of data, often in real-time and at a fine resolution. Consequently, citizens and spaces have become knowable and governable in new ways.

Satellites and drones can monitor large portions of the planet at highly granular resolutions, taking up fixed orbits to provide a continuous stream of data about a location. For example, the ARGUS-IS project, unveiled by DARPA and the US Army in 2013, is a 1.8-gigapixel video surveillance platform operated from a drone with a resolution of six inches from an altitude of 20,000 feet. Capturing 12 frames per second the system can track in real-time up to 65 moving objects (Anthony 2013). Many cities are saturated with remote controllable digital CCTV cameras that can zoom, move and track individuals and objects such as vehicles, with analysis and interpretation aided by algorithmic analyses, such as facial, gait and automatic number plate recognition. In cities such as London and New York it is all but impossible to traverse the city unnoticed, with trains, stations, buses and pedestrians nearly always in sight of a digital CCTV camera, and large parts of the road network surveyed by traffic, red-light, congestion and security cameras.

Cameras are increasingly being complemented with interconnected sensors and actuators embedded into the fabric of cities that form one element of the Internet of Things. These can measure specific outputs such as levels of light, humidity, temperature, chemicals, electrical resistivity, acoustics, air pressure, movement, speed, water levels and quality, and so on, creating a continuous stream of data. Placed on vehicles, they can monitor location, workload, stress, and terrain. By attaching RFID chips to products it becomes possible to track and trace the movement of individual units from factory or farm to consumer. Likewise, RFID tags in vehicles communicate with transponders at toll-booth and parking barriers, enabling automatic payment, as well as measuring vehicle flow or parking space availability. Similar units attached to buses and trains communicate with transponder boxes along their routes making it possible to track the location of vehicles in real-time.

Machine-readable 'smart cards', such as the London's Oyster Card, scanned when entering and exiting stations or buses means that it is possible to trace individual journeys across the bus and rail system for two million passengers a day. Cards to enter and progress through buildings enable localised logs of movement. Moreover, sensor boxes are now being deployed on garbage bins or lampposts that scan passing mobile phones for their unique identifiers, tracking the movement of pedestrians from one box field to another. The PlanIT Valley development in Portugal, presently under-construction and designed for up to 225,000 inhabitants, aims to create a built environment laced with over 100 million embedded sensors that will produce data to monitor a diverse range of infrastructures and environments (see Marchetti 2012).

Through the embedding of chips and software into their design objects have now been made 'smart', able to generate, process and react to data inputs, and to communicate these data to third parties. Even the most quotidian devices are full of powerful software, as well as gyroscopes, accelerometers, compasses and GPS, that sense movement and location. Location-based social networking (LSBN) apps such as Foursquare and location-based service apps, such as Hailo and Uber, and mapping/routing apps, all extensively monitor individual movements across space, often without the users' knowledge or permission. Within the home, a range of smart home devices such as smart meters, software-enabled thermostats and building management systems, similarly monitor activities and consumption around a house. All transactions are tracked and traced at an individual level, from clickstream and cookie data that record pathways within and between websites, to online purchases, to all online communications.
The data that Uber collects through its Android app

Data type

Data collected

App Activity

Name, package name, process number of activity, processed ID

App Data
Usage

Cache size, code size, data size, name, package name

App Install

Installed at, name, package name, unknown sources enabled, version code, version name

Battery

Health, level, plugged, present, scale, status, technology, temperature, voltage

Device Info

Board, brand, build version, cell number, device, device type, display, fingerprint, IP, MAC address,manufacturer, model, OS platform, product, SDK code, total disk space, unknown sources enabled

GPS

Accuracy, altitude, latitude, longitude, provider, speed

MMS

From number, MMS at, MMS type, service number, to number

Net Data

Bytes received, bytes sent, connection type, interface type

Phone Call

Call duration, called at, from number, phone call type, to number

SMS

From number, service number, SMS at, SMS type, to number

Telephone Info

Cell tower ID, cell tower latitude, cell tower longitude, IMEI, ISO country code, local area code, MEID, mobile country code, mobile network code, network name, network type, phone type, SIM serial number, SIM state, subscriber ID

Wifi Connection

BSSID, IP, linkspeed, MAC addr, network ID, RSSI, SSID

Wifi Neighbors

BSSID, capabilities, frequency, level, SSID

Root Check

Root status code, root status reason code, root version, sig file version

Malware Info

Algorithm confidence, app list, found malware, malware SDK version, package list, reason code, service list, sigfile version

Source: Hein (2014)

Complementing all of these data are those that we voluntarily produce and share, much of it highly personal in nature relating to our thoughts, preferences, bodily performance, and movements. Consumers using a store loyalty card share their purchasing history, and those using an online retailer might provide reviews of products or places, both revealing their preferences and lifestyle choices. Users of wearable devices, sometimes called the quantified self movement, engage in a form of sousveillance, that is self-monitoring and managing their personal health and activities, capturing consumption (e.g., food/calorie intake), physical states (e.g., blood pressure, pulse), emotional states (e.g., mood, arousal) and performance (e.g., miles walked/run/cycled, hours slept and types of sleep), all of which is shared with the technology manufacturer and often other users. In these cases, the sites through which such data are transmitted are owned by corporate enterprises whom then produce new models of capital accumulation by extracting value from them. In contrast, crowdsourced projects such as Wikipedia and Open Street Map produce collective forms of knowledge about people and places.

Collectively what all of these examples demonstrate is that the everyday practices we enact, and the places in which we live, are now deeply augmented, monitored and regulated by dense assemblages of data-enabled infrastructures and technologies on behalf of a small number of entities. The age of big data means a deluge of continuous (real-time), varied, exhaustive, fine-grained and often indexical, relational, flexible and extensional data. We are no longer simply lost in the crowd; we can be spotted, tracked and traced.

Importantly, both states and companies are generating and utilising these data, and in many cases companies are generating them for states through outsourcing contracts. The data produced has become an important multi-billion dollar commodity in their own right with vast quantities of data and derived information being rented, bought, and sold daily across a variety of markets - retail, financial, public administration, health, tourism, logistics, business intelligence, real estate, private security, political polling, and so on. Companies like Acxiom, who manage customer databases for 47 of the Fortune 100 companies, and have entered into data sharing deals with Facebook and other internet companies, claim to have created '360 degree views' of up to 500 million consumers worldwide by accumulating and meshing together offline, online and mobile data into a giant databank, using these data to create detailed derived products such as profiles and predictive models (Singer 2012).
Privacy, Social Sorting, Predictive Profiling and Control Creep
What are the social consequences arising from the rush to harness the power of big urban data? Smart city technologies generate and process vast quantities of finely resolute data, which, when shared raise concerns over the demise of privacy. While multidimensional in nature, privacy generally refers to limitations concerning the accessing and disclosing of personal information about a person. Privacy is considered a basic human right, a condition that people expect and value. Indeed, it is widely considered an indispensable structural feature of liberal democratic political systems, enshrined in both national and supra-national laws. Breaching privacy can have a number of emotional effects, as well as opening up an individual to a range of harmful activities such as exposure, blackmail, appropriation (identity theft), and intrusion.

The typical response is to argue that the forfeiting of privacy is countered by many benefits-improved services and safer environments. Moreover, despite leaving an ever greater quantity of digital footprints (data they themselves leave behind) and data shadows (information about them generated by others), at present, many of the data discussed above exist largely within silos, both across city and national administrations, and across companies, and the data and systems are generally not interoperable. As a consequence, while any one data collector has a view of an individual, it is a limited field of vision. And if they do have a view of other data they are usually aggregated or metadata.

The hope of many organisations, however, is to connect silos into more comprehensive data infrastructures. This is already happening at an individual level by commercial data aggregators/brokers and policing and security services. It is certainly the ambition of many city administrations, with many of the presentations and technologies demonstrated at the recent Smart City Expo and World Congress in Barcelona stressing the need for standardisation, the collapsing of silos to enable data from different domains to be interlinked through city command and control centers. (Much of these data concern operational systems such as lighting, transport, waste, and energy rather than individuals, though such administrations do also hold significant volumes of data about individuals and households). Centers such as the much discussed city-wide big data control room in Rio de Janeiro that combines spatial big data and public administration data from over 30 agencies, plus social media data, provide an initial blueprint, but they are quickly being followed by other cities and companies offering city operational systems. Such flattened systems open up Orwellian threats of a panopticon and taken to their logical conclusion form the perfect socio-technical assemblage for a totalitarian state-an all-seeing, all-tracking, all-reacting system that stifles dissent before it has chance to organize (which is why the technological fix to democratic street protest - extensive surveillance, algorithmic analyses, and digital kettling is so disturbing).

The argument dismissing such an Orwellian eventuality believes that democratic societies would not let anti-democratic and militaristic forms of regulation to occur, that social media and open forms of practice-open data, open access, open source, open platforms, open government-would counterbalance any censorship of mainstream media channels, that much of the data shared are anonymised and aggregated, and that companies would self-regulate to stop customer drifting away unhappy with what is happening with their data. Meanwhile, private enterprises have sought to strengthen their rights with respect to intellectual property and what they do with customer data, for example through the use of extensive and complex user agreements and political lobbying with respect to data protection laws. Indeed, there is a complex regulatory power game presently taking place around state and company surveillance, and the rights and expectations of individuals, with some arguing that it is unrealistic for people to expect or demand privacy, evidenced by the recent Pew Research report ' The Future of Privacy'.

Until recently, given the form and resolution of data, it was difficult for data aggregators and brokers to produce individual profiles of citizens and (potential) customers en masse. This has changed with the data deluge, enabling them to produce predictive profiles as to the likely value or worth of an individual, or their credit risk and how likely they are to pay a certain price or be able to meet payments. The aim is to provide customers with personalized treatment, including dynamic pricing that reflects their preferences and worth, and for vendors to gain sales, increase loyalty, and reduce risk. With respect to the latter, predictive profiling is thus used to socially sort and redline populations, selecting out certain categories to receive a preferential status and marginalizing and excluding others. Through denying credit or screening career opportunities, negative profiles can haunt an individual across various domains.

Anticipatory governance is where predictive analytics are used to assess likely future behaviors or events and to direct appropriate action. A number of US police forces are now using predictive analytics to anticipate the location of future crimes and to direct police officers to increase patrols in those areas. For example, the Chicago police force produce both general area profiling to identify hotspots and guide patrols, and more specific profiling that identifies individuals within those hotspots. It achieves the latter using arrest records, phone records, social media and other data to construct the social networks of those arrested to identify who in their network is most likely to commit a crime in the future, designating them pre-criminals and visiting them to let them know that they have been flagged in their system as a potential threat (Stroud 2014). In such cases, a person's data shadow does more than follow them; it precedes them. And knowledge that someone has been designated a pre-criminal adds yet another layer to social sorting, such as potentially being denied employment. While such systems have prima facie " good liberal" intentions, anticipation has consequences beyond merely preventing predicted events.

One of the key foundations of privacy and data protection laws is data minimization; that is, only data relevant to a task should be generated and such data should only be used for the purpose for which is generated. However, many technologies and the data they generate are now being repurposed for alternative uses. For example, airline industry data and government administrative data being repurposed for profiling and assessing the security risk of passengers. Cameras deployed for regulating traffic behaviour are being repurposed for security tasks. While some of the data hoovered up Uber's app as set out in Table 1 will be vital for the app to work, it is difficult to believe that its scope complies with the ethos of data minimization, or that its collection is in the best interest of the app user. Such repurposing, where the data generated for one set of tasks are appropriated for another, is termed control creep. Control creep removes the barriers between systems that are often presently siloed, usually for good reasons such as protecting privacy or preventing system failures in one domain affecting another, and significantly extends the power of those who gain access to additional system resources
Technocratic approaches to cities
Other concerns about the creation of smart cities include the adoption of technocratic forms of governance, the corporatisation of governance, and the creation of buggy, brittle, and hackable cities. The turn towards technical systems and algorithms to administer city regulation presumes that all aspects of a city can be measured and monitored and treated as technical problems that can be addressed through technical solutions. That is, there is a belief that complex open systems can be disassembled into neatly defined problems that can be solved or optimized through computation. Such a view is highly reductionist and functionalist and fails to recognize the wider effects of culture, politics, policy, governance and capital in shaping city life and urban systems. It also focuses on the efficient management of the manifestations of problems, rather than solving the deep rooted structural problems underpinning them.

Further, technocratic systems tend to centralise power and decision making into a select set of administrative offices, rather than distributing power and encouraging active participation in governance. Moreover, such systems are often outsourced to companies who run them on behalf of the state, prompting anxieties over the marketisation and hollowing out of public services, that outsourcing might create a technological lock-in or corporate path dependency that beholden cities to particular systems and vendors, and cities will be straitjacketed into 'one size fits all smart city in a box' solutions that take little account of local cultures or political structures. Both software and cities are complex, open systems. Using software to run and manage city services and infrastructures exposes them to viruses, glitches, crashes, and security hacks. As city systems become more complicated, interconnected, and dependent on software, producing stable, robust and secure devices and infrastructures will become more of a challenge.

Regardless of the likelihood of any dystopian scenario coming to pass, it is nevertheless the case that the data revolution unfolding means that an exponentially larger amount of data are being generated about people and places by public and private institutions, that we are ever more under the gaze of continuous geosurveillance, and these data are being employed-often using opaque algorithms-to make decisions that concern our everyday lives. The privacy and freedoms we expect in liberal democracies are being changed or eroded away. At the same time, managing the complexity of cities is highly challenging and new technologies are improving the efficiency and effectiveness of city services. The key is to balance the public good and individual rights.

However, the transformations taking place are fast-paced and often too little debated or contested in the mainstream media and legislature, with disruptive technical and social innovations taking root and expanding rapidly before we have time to digest the implications or consider the need for oversight. Such thinking though is needed if we are to reap the benefits of big data and smart cities, rather than the negative consequences. How to gain the former and avoid the latter has to be worth pondering every time we interact with a digital device or traverse a city leaving a trail of data in our wake. The alternative is that smart cities are created that represent the interests of a select group of corporations, technocrats, and certain groups within society (particularly political elites and the wealthy), rather than producing ones that are in the best interests of all citizens.

Acknowledgements
Mike Pepi provided useful comments on an initial draft of this paper. The research for this paper was provided by a European Research Council Advanced Investigator Award, 'The Programmable City' (ERC-2012-AdG-323636).
References
Anthony, S. (2013) DARPA shows off 1.8-gigapixel surveillance drone, can spot a terrorist from 20,000 feet. ExtremeTech, 28th January 2013

Hein, B. (2014) Uber's data-sucking Android app is dangerously close to malware. Cult of Mac, November 26th.

Marchetti, N (2012) In Portugal, A Smart City From the Ground Up. Sustainable Cities Collective. 7th June.

Singer, N. (2012a) You for Sale: Mapping, and Sharing, the Consumer Genome. New York Times, 17th June,

Stroud, M. (2014) The minority report: Chicago's new police computer predicts crimes, but is it racist? The Verge, February 19th.

Rob Kitchin is a professor at the National University of Ireland Maynooth and the author of Code/Space: Software and Everyday Life (with Martin Dodge, MIT Press, 2011) and The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and Their Consequences (Sage, 2014) and other books. He's a regular media commentator and was the 2013 recipient of the Royal Irish Academy's Gold Medal for the Social Sciences.

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Lauren Boyle, Solomon Chase, Marco Roso, Nick Scholl, David Toro

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Rob Kitchin | Continuous Geosurveillance in the "Smart City"

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Rob Kitchin on the New Forms of Governance in the Era of Ubiquitous Computing With original artwork by Mark Dorf For the past couple of decades there has been a steady stream of analysis that has documented the ways in which the rollout of new digital and networked technologies have enabled increasingly pervasive and extensive forms of state and corporate surveillance.