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Selected Research on the Use of Instructional and Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities: An Annotated Bibliography.
Research on the use of technology in education always struggles to keep up with the ever changing technology which it seeks to study. Technology is in a constant state of flux; hence, researchers have been challenged to conduct appropriate experimental testing of interventions before they are outdated or made irrelevant by advances in hardware and software. (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010) In the area of learning disabilities and technology, the research is especially sparse. Still, these students are at significant risk. The National Longitudinal Transition Study II, found that: (a) 21% of students with LD are five or more grade levels below in reading; (b) 31% of students with LD drop out of school compared to 9.4% of nondisabled peers" (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). Some research does exist which examines which tools and approaches have demonstrated effectiveness and follow best practice models of helping students with learning disabilities. However, most authors agreed that use of technology cannot compensate for instruction that is poorly designed or implemented. (Blackhurst, 2005) This annotated bibliography will provide an overview of some of these findings and their applicability to serving this population,.

Literacy Instruction, Technology, and Students with Learning Disabilities: Research We Have, Research We Need.
Kennedy, M. J., & Deshler, D. D. (2010). Literacy Instruction, Technology, and Students with Learning Disabilities: Research We Have, Research We Need. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(4), 289+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5048828025 This article provided a thorough overview of the current state of research in the use of technology to promote literacy and learning for students with learning disabilities. They emphasized that the use of technology ought not to be viewed as a crutch for these students but rather as a tool. With changing definitions of literacy, it becomes imperative to link technology tools to the particular needs of the learner and the content while keeping in mind theories of multimedia learning such as visual and auditory processing and cognitive load. Students with LD need instruction that actively reflects on and addresses limitations with respect to processing speed, working memory, and overall reading performance. (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). They recommend several principles which propose that the use of technology with this population consider an RTI approach which includes evidence-based practices as well as instructional design frameworks, with special attention given to the micromanagement of literally every image and sound that is presented to students during multimedia instruction (Kennedy & Deshler, 2010). This article wisely goes beyond researching individual technology

resources, and rather focuses on the principles likely to make any resource valuable or practical. By providing evaluative e principles, it makes a worthy contribution to the discussion.

Perspectives on Applications of Technology in the Field of Learning Disabilities

Blackhurst, A. E. (2005). Perspectives on Applications of Technology in the Field of Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(2), 175+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5009482706 In this article, Blackhurst promotes the idea that technology is a tool for the delivery of instruction. He summarizes that the best practices in teaching students with learning disabilities as: instructional approaches that are systematically designed and applied in very precise waysincluding well-defined objectives, precise instructional procedures small units of instruction that are carefully sequenced, a high degree of teacher activity, high levels of student involvement, liberal use of reinforcement, and careful monitoring of student performance. (Blackhurst, 2005) He suggests that technology which makes use of these approaches is similarly effective with this population. He points out that IDEA make is incumbent upon schools to consider assistive technology as a possible support for every student who has an IEP. He observes that choices of technology support for students are often made based on what is available or well known in a district rather than on a careful study of what is the best fit for a given situation. Such careful evaluation of technology resources His overview of these movements in educational technology for students with learning disabilities displays his passion and involvement, but lacks rigor and adequate reference to studies with empirical data.

Technology-based practices for secondary students with learning disabilities

Maccini, P., Gagnon, J. C., & Hughes, C. A. (2002). Technology-Based Practices for Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities.Learning Disability Quarterly, 25(4), 247+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000655652 This comprehensive review of the literature took a look at technology-based practices for secondary students with learning disabilities, and evaluated how these interventions affected test performance. The authors noted that technology increases student access to curriculum, improves academic achievement, motivation and prosocial behaviors among students in regular education, however its impact on student learning disabilities has been less carefully reviewed. They addressed both technology-based assessments and technology-based interventions including assessment formats, verbatim text recordings and computer-based instruction. Researchers found that students identified as learning disabled scored significantly better in many exercises wherein there instruction was computer-aided with opportunity for frequent and instantaneous

feedback and multiple trials. The researchers note that many effective teaching variables were embedded with in phases of the instructional cycle (Maccini, Gagnon & Hughes 2002). and it was therefore difficult to ferret out as to which of these variables were most important in the research outcomes. Nonetheless several principles emerged from the study. Instructional technology was found more effective for students when it allowed students to self select the level of support they needed, allow for repetitive interaction with the learning materials, provided clear and timely feedback, allows students to review instruction as needed, and focused on factual questions rather than those required interpretation. Researchers also found that students with learning disabilities comprehend text more completely when they both read and listened to it or only listened to it, and did more poorly when they were allowed to only read it. When the text comprehension evaluated was longer, more in depth, or over a longer period of time students with learning disabilities did not comprehend well in either the read and listen intervention or the listen only intervention. The researchers determined that students with learning disabilities would need more scaffolding than merely a change in the presentation of material. In the area of math, the researchers found the computeraided instruction, hypertext study guides and hypermedia study guides to present new material and guide practice was effective for students with learning disabilities. Overall, the researchers found that quote technology-based interventions are promising however they must be viewed in light of four important limitations: the relatively few studies reviewed; the level of student proficiency following intervention; the lack of maintenance checks on generalization measures; and a limited number of content areas studied. (Maccini, Gagnon & Hughes 2002). The researchers found that when technology embodied best practices, it tended to have positive impacts on student learning. Perhaps many forms of technology merely make best practice instruction more reliable, more fluid, and more available for students learning disabilities. Technology it would seem would make the presentation of best practice behaviors less dependent on the moment to moment performance of the teacher. The authors conclude that , now more than ever, technology is a valuable tool with great potential for assisting student's labeled LD. (Maccini, Gagnon & Hughes 2002)

The role of technology in the transition to postsecondary education of students with learning disabilities: a review of the literature.
Mull, C. A., & Sitlington, P. L. (2003). The Role of Technology in the Transition to Postsecondary Education of Students with Learning Disabilities: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Special Education, 37(1), 26+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001925059 In this article, Mull and Sitlington Mull and Sitlington research available about the use of technology for students with learning disabilities in post secondary education. The authors provide a nice overview of the use of technology in education beginning with the use of prosthetics the 1950s for soldiers returning from war and proceeding up through the year 2000. The areas of technology usage for students with learning disabilities focused primarily on written language and reading as well as spelling, organization and

memory all of which create significant demands for the students. The authors noted that assistive technology in the area of mathematics was almost completely unrepresented. Encouragingly the study looked at not only high tech interventions but also many low cost, low tech interventions. I find this to be important especially because so many students must work with technology before finding out if it is good fit for them. It only makes sense to include low-tech low-cost technologies first. Their research indicated five problems in the use of technology by students with learning disabilities: view by outsiders that the use of assistive technology was a crutch; high costs; abandonment of the device by the students themselves; the training needed; and questions about eligibility. This article included a meaningful discussion about whether technology exists as a prosthetic, which replaces the students need to conquer the material or skill; or whether the technology exists as a partner, supporting the student in his attempt to master independently the material and/or skill. One important finding was that, The student must believe that there is a problem that needs to be solved and that the proposed technology-based solution is effective. (Mull and Sitlington, 2003). Most studies found that students in the post secondary educational environment needed to be carefully involved in the selection of their assistive technology and trained appropriately. In all, these authors found support for the following interventions: Spell check, online dictionary, online thesaurus, Word prediction software, voice recognition software, spellcheck and grammar check programs, tape recorder for notes, software is which enables readers to change the size and background of text, screen readers, graphic organizers, personal organizer software, noise blocking headphones, talking dictionaries and talking calculators. One of the most important findings in this survey of the research was that, approximately half of the students with learning disabilities in high school who were participating in their 2-year study were no longer considered eligible for special education services. With sufficient access to assistive technology and instruction on how to use it, the students were able to achieve at their grade-level expectations... which provides a strong recommendation for the students. (Mull and Sitlington, 2003).

Effectiveness of reading and mathematics software products: Findings from the first student cohort. Washington, DC: Institute for Education Sciences.
Dynarski, M., Agodini, R., Heaviside, S., Novak, T., Carey, N., Campuzano, L. Means, B., Murphy, R., Penuel, W., Javitz, H., Emery, D., & Sussex, W. (2007, March). Effectiveness of reading and mathematics software products: Findings from the first student cohort. Washington, DC: Institute for Education Sciences. As this study looked at 16 technology products commonly used in American classrooms to provide instruction in the first and fourth grade reading and sixth grade and algebra math instruction. Although teachers self-selected their classrooms to become involved,

possibly skewing the results, the findings were less than impressive. In general there was no benefit found in any of the classrooms where the technology products were used for reading or math instruction on standardized tests. Unfortunately a closer reading of the data indicates that these products were used for only 10 to 11% of instructional time. This may not be providing a full view of what these products could do if used more consistently and more thoroughly. However the researchers did find that more time on the targeted products did not result in higher test scores, but these differences in time were still relatively small. With the researchers did find was that smaller student-teacher ratios it the greatest difference in terms of test scores. The first grade technology products for reading were Destination Reading; The Waterford

Early Reading Program; Headsprout; Plato Focus; and the Academy of Reading. The tools used as fourth grade reading technology products were; Leapfrog; Read 180; Academy of Reading; and Knowledge Box. The mass products used for the sixth-grade study included; Larson Pre-Algebra; Achieve Now; and ILearn Math. The algebra math technology products included; Cognitive Tutor Algebra; Plato Algebra; and Larson Algebra. While each of these technology products certainly has its benefits, I question whether this study determines the effectiveness of reading and math software products or only of these particular products. So much other research has found that technology cannot make up for poor instructional design. I question instructional design of these products if they in fact were no more effective.

Response to Intervention and Evidence-Based Practices: Where Does Technology Fit?.

Smith, S. J., & Okolo, C. (2010). Response to Intervention and Evidence-Based Practices: Where Does Technology Fit?.Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(4), 257+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5048828014 This study looked at the role of technology in RT I, or response to intervention models for special education. They focused on three forms of technology: graphic organizers, written instruction, and explicit instruction. Hoping to find that technology would provide an evidence-based practice for special education the researchers explored a variety of literature. They found support for the use of word processing for students with learning distilled abilities as one of three main research-based interventions that had a lot of empirical support. They also recommended programs which include features that make them customizable to the individual learner, tracking the learner's performance from response to response, conducting error analyses, and looking for patterns of responses. (Smith and Okolo, 2010). What a piece of research is done it looks at so many different pieces of technology that the results are almost unhelpful. It is difficult to tell whether the technology itself or the instructional model which designed the

technology is at fault in terms of not providing results. Results also indicate that the use of the technology within the hands of a skilled or unskilled teacher makes a significant difference. They claim that define good research we will have to, to link features of technology to specific types of effective instruction. (Smith and Okolo, 2010). There were few programs which evaluated and evidence-based practice presented without technology and that exact same evidence-based practice presented with technology. Finding recommendations based on the features of particular technology product, was most helpful part of this article. This is the kind of research currently needed in the field.

Premises, Principles, and Processes for Integrating Technology into Instruction

King-Sears, M. E., & Evmenova, A. S. (2007, September/October). Premises, Principles and Processes for Integrating Technology into Instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40, 6+. Retrieved March 11, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035226637

(King-Sears and Evmenova, 2007)

This article provided a review of literature in terms of the integration of technology and effective strategies for doing so for students with learning disabilities. The authors recommended several applications including a reading pen because it both developed skills and compensated for a lack of skills. They discussed the need for students to become fluent with the use of their technology and the need for students to generalize their technology skills and to everyday applications including homework. They voice a concern that in some schools assistive technology or instructional technology devices are not allowed to be taken home with students thereby reducing the opportunities for generalization and fluency.The authors note that uses some educational technology requires more teacher supervision and redirection than might be expected. Just because a student is looking at the screen, does not mean that he's interacting with the technology. Programs which require constant interaction and evaluate student progress based on that interaction are likely to be more effective. Researchers also commented on the importance of multimedia programs with flexible instructional design. Such programs prompt students to review when necessary, provide further instruction when necessary, allow students to move past material that is already mastered or is not challenging enough for them. They point out that though technology enhances the learning process technology itself is not the learning process and that it must not become the focus of education. Realizing that technology evolves and adapts quickly, it is important for educators to weigh the effect or value of particular piece of technology in comparison with technology which may be available in six months for half the cost. The authors identified for principals databases and research for the integration of technology into instruction and these are: choose technologies aligns with curriculum outcomes; match students instructional needs with the technology; she's technology that helps

students blended with peers; and choose the specific piece of technology which is both efficient and cost effective. (King-Sears and Evmenova, 2007)

Introduction to the special issue: insights into the effective and appropriate use of technology in special education.
Edyburn, D. L. (2003). Introduction to the Special Issue: Insights into the Effective and Appropriate Use of Technology in Special Education.Remedial and Special Education, 24(3), 130+. Retrieved March 12, 2012, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001937137

Although the use of technology within special education began with assistive technologies for students with significant sensory or physical impairments, the focus is shifting to instructional technology and universal design strategies (Edyburn, 2003). This shift is specifically helpful for students identified with learning disabilities. The authors of the study point out that reading writing and researching might look very different in the future and that we need as educators to focus on how to help students who struggle to read and write effectively. They cite the need to use productivity tools, presentation software, multimedia tools, and theme software as well as web-based activities to create classrooms that are accessible to a wide population of students within every classroom. They found that the use of integration of technology within classrooms led to higher levels of student engagement and attendance may be made clear out

Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs

Hasselbring, Ted S., and Candyce H. Williams Glaser. "Use of Computer Technology to Help Students with Special Needs." The Future of Children 10, no. 2 (2000): 102. Database on-line. Available from Questia, http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001209088. Internet. Accessed 12 March 2012. In this article the authors examine the use of technology in the regular classroom, supporting use of word processing, hyperlinks, and web-based activities which build collaboration and knowledge building. They argue that the use of multimedia environment putting hypertext can provide instruction to students who learn best through visual input. However they note that students who struggle with organization of

information can easily be overwhelmed by too much information provided by hypertext's and poorly designed multimedia environments. They discussed the barriers to use with students who have learning disabilities including: lack of training on the part of the teacher, abandonment of the technology based on their feeling different; and costs. They suggest that, technology can enhance a student's acquisition of skills and content knowledge when the computer is used to deliver well-designed and well-managed instruction, making the same point of other researchers have made that techno logy must follow best practices are will not serve to help students. Technology cannot replace good instruction. They point out significant needs of students with learning disabilities for repeated exposure to materials, opportunity for review, and the need for higher levels of immediate feedback to master basic skills. They claim that,"Technology has proven to be an eff ective method of giving such students opportunities to engage in basic drill and practice, simulations, exploratory or communication activities that are matched to their individual needs and abilities. This article supports the findings of many other researchers that three little which is new to the discussion .

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Selected Research on the Use of Instructional and Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities: An Annotated Bibliography.Research on the use of technology in education always struggles to keep up with the ever changing technology which it seeks to study.

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mental illness

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See all the wonderful things Ceri Garratt has made

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Series of healthcare books with annotated bibliographies.

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Series of healthcare books with annotated bibliographies.

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https://charterforcompassion.org/healthcare-annotated-bibliography

Bex.

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https://mentalstigmaawareness.weebly.com/uploads/2/4/3/9/24395971/annotated_bibliography.pdf

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Mental health
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED582399.pdf

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An annotated bibliography is a piece of paper work written to provided evidence of research to a bibliography as well as the individuals ruling on the data they gathered.

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Clay, A.C. (02/2003) Unraveling new media effects on children. American Psychological Association.
Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/unraveling.aspx

This article focuses mainly on the content of what children are watching, including educational shows. This article recognizes on how adolescents spend most of their time in social networks, Smartphone's This article's main focus is to warn parents and to let them understand what are the most common
It tries to really focus on two questions. The first question is how this new technology affects a children's
ability to learn, and the second question is how new technology helps children create their own identities.
It gives both the negative and positive effects. This article could help with some psychological questions and answers.

and the Internet in general. Clinton states that adolescents today don't really realize the importance
of privacy and will most likely regret something they posted in the future like pictures or things that they may
have said about themselves or others. People should focus mainly on how they could use this new world of
media in a positive way rather than only reacting to the negative.
used social media sites, the most popular being Twitter Facebook and text messaging itself. It makes them
understand that even though they can't always control what their kids are doing, they can still implement
rules for them to follow. The article also gives some tips on how parents can help their kids to be safe online.
Some tips they give is to have kids know the importance of privacy, and to tell them not to share their passwords
with anyone, and to be cautious on what they post.

Barnes, A. (06/6/2012) The effects of Social Media on Children. Communication and Social Media.
Retrieved from

Social Networking Awareness - A Must for Every Parent! (02/4/2010). BS 2Sense Worth.
Retrieved from
Clinton, C. Steyer, J. (05/21/2012) Is the Internet hurting Children? Cnn.
Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/21/opinion/clinton-steyer-internet-kids/index.html

http://bs2sense.com/social-networking-awareness-a-must-for-every-parent/

http://sites.ewu.edu/cmst496-stafford/2012/06/06/the-effects-of-social-media-on-children/

This article, like most, gives both the positive and negative effects on how media today is evolving and
affecting kids and teenagers. It starts off by saying that emerging media is nearly impossible to ignore,
especially since now there are new advances in technology and social sites. Some of the positive is that kids
and adolescents are allowed to be more creative, and these sites could be used to connect with groups from
school, church, etc. and in turn can help shier students have more input and opinions. The negative is that all
this social media can affect their lives'. They might become antisocial, be cyber bullied and could have their privacy exposed.

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Clay, A.C. (02/2003) Unraveling new media effects on children. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb03/unraveling.aspx This article focuses mainly on the content of what children are watching, including educational shows.

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Asthma
https://graduateway.com/annotated-bibliography-asthma/

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https://libguides.sonoma.edu/c.php?g=243864&p=1623022

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writing
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/annotated_bibliographies/annotated_bibliography_samples.html

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writing
https://columbiacollege-ca.libguides.com/apa/annot_bib

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Samples based on Writing and Authors:

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Suggested Resources
Style Guide Overview MLA Guide APA Guide Chicago Guide OWL Exercises

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Summary:
This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source's possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor's directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich's project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project's strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source's potential importance or usefulness for this person's own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Summary:
This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Overview

Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source's possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor's directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America. Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich's project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project's strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source's potential importance or usefulness for this person's own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide.

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Style Guide Overview MLA Guide APA Guide Chicago Guide OWL Exercises This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice. Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved.

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Zotero | Your personal research assistant

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Zotero is a free, easy-to-use tool to help you collect, organize, cite, and share research.

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Focus on what counts and power up your research with Citavi.

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Citavi - Best Reference Management Software for Writing and Note Taking

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Focus on what counts and power up your research with Citavi. Work efficiently Whether you just need a quick bibliography, you're searching a team library of 20,000 sources, or you want to keep track of notes, Citavi's tools help you work faster and more effectively.

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What should each citation include?

Your citation should include all the full bibliographic information you would use in a bibliography or reference list.

Each citation will then be followed by an annotation, which is a paragraph of between 100 and 300 words. This paragraph should:

indicate the background of the author(s) and whether that background influences the source material – eg if the material was commissioned by an organisation

sum up the contents of the source

identify the argument (research question, method, and findings) of the source

evaluate the source in terms of its relevance, authority and currency in the field, potential impact on the audience, and strengths and limitations of the method used

identify any particularly useful material in the source that will inform your work.

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An annotated bibliography is a list of citations for various books, articles, and other sources on a topic. The annotated bibliography looks like a Works Cited page but includes an annotation after each source cited. An annotation is a short summary and/or critical evaluation of a source. Annotated bibliographies can be part of a larger research project, or can be a stand-alone report in itself.

Types of Annotations

A summary annotation describes the source by answering the following questions: who wrote the document, what the document discusses, when and where was the document written, why was the document produced, and how was it provided to the public. The focus is on description.

An evaluative annotation includes a summary as listed above but also critically assesses the work for accuracy, relevance, and quality. Evaluative annotations can help you learn about your topic, develop a thesis statement, decide if a specific source will be useful for your assignment, and determine if there is enough valid information available to complete your project. The focus is on description and evaluation.

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An annotated bibliography:

Describes the source of the content.

Summaries the main argument.

They demonstrate your knowledge of the area and show good research skills.

It demonstrates an ability to identify arguments and to evaluate the usefulness to your project.

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definition: It is a list of citation to books, articles and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (150 words) descriptive evaluative paragraph, the annotation.
Purpose:
Inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy and quality of the sources cited.
parts of annotated bibliography:
- A citation to the article, chapter and other works.
- qualification of authors.
- mention of the methods the authors used.
- a summary of the argument and/or findings.
- evaluation of words.

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What Is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.

Annotations vs. Abstracts

Abstracts are the purely descriptive summaries often found at the beginning of scholarly journal articles or in periodical indexes. Annotations are descriptive and critical; they may describe the author's point of view, authority, or clarity and appropriateness of expression.

The Process

Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a variety of intellectual skills: concise exposition, succinct analysis, and informed library research.

First, locate and record citations to books, periodicals, and documents that may contain useful information and ideas on your topic. Briefly examine and review the actual items. Then choose those works that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.

Cite the book, article, or document using the appropriate style.

Write a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme and scope of the book or article. Include one or more sentences that (a) evaluate the authority or background of the author, (b) comment on the intended audience, (c) compare or contrast this work with another you have cited, or (d) explain how this work illuminates your bibliography topic.

Critically Appraising the Book, Article, or Document

For guidance in critically appraising and analyzing the sources for your bibliography, see How to Critically Analyze Information Sources. For information on the author's background and views, ask at the reference desk for help finding appropriate biographical reference materials and book review sources.

Choosing the Correct Citation Style

Check with your instructor to find out which style is preferred for your class. Online citation guides for both the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) styles are linked from the Library's Citation Management page.

Sample Annotated Bibliography Entries

The following example uses APA style ( Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition, 2019) for the journal citation:

Waite, L., Goldschneider, F., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults. American Sociological Review, 51(4), 541-554.
The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.

This example uses MLA style ( MLA Handbook, 9th edition, 2021) for the journal citation. For additional annotation guidance from MLA, see 5.132: Annotated Bibliographies.

Waite, Linda J., et al. "Nonfamily Living and the Erosion of Traditional Family Orientations Among Young Adults." American Sociological Review, vol. 51, no. 4, 1986, pp. 541-554.

The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.

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LibGuides: How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography: The Annotated Bibliography

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An annotated bibliography is a list of the sources you've used in your research with brief "annotations" for each that describe the source's content and summarise its main argument.

They are usually used in research projects to provide a comprehensive but focused overview of the critical discussions on a topic.

When compiling an annotated bibliography you should make sure that:

your selected sources demonstrate your knowledge of the subject area and demonstrate good research skills

your annotations demonstrate your ability to identify arguments and evaluate their usefulness for your project

you use the referencing style of your department eg Harvard, APA, MLA - find out more about referencing at Leeds.

Keeping track of which information came from where, can be a challenging. As an alternative to EndNote, try online referencing tools such as Citavi and Zotero. They are useful for inserting citations and references, but they also help to organise your sources into categories, and you can make notes and highlight key quotes.

How do they look?

To find out how they work in practice, take a look at these two examples of annotated bibliographies created by an English tutor a the University of Leeds.

How are they different to ordinary bibliographies?

Ordinary bibliographies are lists of the sources that have been cited or used in your work (report, essay, or another form of assessment). They allow the reader to find the sources if they want to read in more detail.

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An annotated bibliography is a list of the sources you've used in your research with brief "annotations" for each that describe the source's content and summarise its main argument. They are usually used in research projects to provide a comprehensive but focused overview of the critical discussions on a topic.

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Children and young people (5 documents)

BLUM, R. W. (2007) Youth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 230-238.
Sub-Saharan Africa is going through rapid social, political, and economic transformations that have a profound impact on youth. The present review explores trends and outcomes as they relate to education, family formation and sexual and reproductive health and the interrelationships among these areas. It is based on both published and unpublished reports. Over the past 20 years, school enrollment has increased for much of the subcontinent; although the gender gap has narrowed, females remain educationally disadvantaged. Likewise, marriage is occurring later today than a generation ago, posing new challenges of out-of-wedlock births, clandestine abortions, and an increased likelihood of engaging in premarital sex. So, too, although there has been a slowing of the population growth in much of the region, in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the population is doubling every 30 years. Although acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is the predominant cause of death among youth, maternal mortality remains a major risk of death for youth-in some countries 600 times greater than that of peers in the industrialized world. (Abstract by author/s)

LALOR, K. (2004) Child sexual abuse in sub-Saharan Africa: a literature review. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 439-460.
This article reviews the English-language literature on child sexual abuse in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The focus is on the sexual abuse of children in the home/community, as opposed to the commercial sexual exploitation of children.
Document available online

UN (1989) The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
The UNCRC was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 November 1989. The Convention has been ratified by 191 out of 193 countries, territories and states, making it a truly global bill of rights. The UK ratified the UNCRC on 16 December 1991. On ratification, a country becomes a State Party to the Convention, obliged to review its national law to ensure full compliance with the articles of the Convention. Compliance is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, based in Geneva. State Parties must submit a national report two years after ratification and thereafter every five years.

The Convention consists of 54 articles. A "child" is defined as every human being below the age of 18. The key provisions of the Convention are that:
All rights apply to all children without exception or discrimination of any kind (article 2).
That the best interests of the child must be a primary consideration in all actions concerning children (article 3).
That States have an obligation to ensure that as much as possible every child's survival and development (article 6).
Children's views must be taken into account in all matters affecting them (article 12).
Document available online

UNICEF (2006) The State of the World's Children Report 2006: Excluded and Invisible. New York, UNICEF. Document available online

UNICEF (2007) The State of the World's Children Report 2007. New York, UNICEF. Document available online

Parents, Home and Community (3 documents)

LLOYD, C. B. & BLANC, A. K. (1996) Children's Schooling in sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others. Population and Development Review, 22.
Document available online

ROSE, P. (2002) Community Participation in school policy and practice in Malawi: balancing local knowledge, national policies and international agency priorities. Compare: a journal of comparative education, 33, 47 - 64.
Community participation has become increasingly formalised in international and national educational policy-making in recent years. The concept has, however, been interpreted in particular ways in the context of the post-Washington consensus, with implications for the success of its implementation. Drawing on research in Malawi, the article explores the extent to which publicly-stated policy commitments towards community participation are realised in practice. In particular, it finds that the main motivation for 'participation' is extractive rather than a genuine attempt to encourage local ownership and accountability. Furthermore, marketisation of com munity participation is evident, signifying the entrenchment of individual responsibility for meeting social needs which was previously associated with advocacy for user fees during the Washington consensus era. (Abstract by author/s)

ZIMMERMAN, F. J. (2003) Cinderella Goes to School: The Effects of Child Fostering on School Enrollment in South Africa. Journal of Human Resources, 38, 557-90.
Effects of the common practice of fostering were examined for 8,627 South African children. Foster children were not less likely to attend school; they tended to move from homes where they have difficulty enrolling to those where they can. Net effect of fostering is to reduce the risk of nonattendance by up to 22%.

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Children and young people (5 documents) BLUM, R. W. (2007) Youth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 230-238. Sub-Saharan Africa is going through rapid social, political, and economic transformations that have a profound impact on youth.

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The paper "Psychology: Culture And The Self" is a wonderful example of an annotated bibliography on psychology.

Chua, Hannah Faye., Leu, Janxin., and Nisbett, Richard E. "Culture and Diverging Views of Social Events." Society for Personality and Social Psychology.
The article by Chua, Leu, and Nisbett makes an important comparison of the East Asians' and Americans' views of everyday social events in order to find out the influence of culture on the diverging views of social events. One of the major findings of the research conducted is that the Americans tend to focus more on the self and to have a greater sense of personal agency than East Asians. The study also analyzed how these two groups differed in their understanding of social events. Ultimately, the study makes a significant contribution to the understanding of "the cultural differences in perceptions of physical stimuli, artificial social stimuli, and recollection of events concerning the self."
Hong, Ying-yi., Ip, Grace., Chiu, Chi-yue., Morris, Michael W., and Menon, Tanya. "Self Cultural Identity and Dynamic Construction of the Self: Collective Duties and Individual Rights in Chinese and American Cultures."
In their study reported in this article, the authors examine the effects of cultural identity activation on Chinese and North Americans' spontaneous self-concepts, using the dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. They specifically manipulate the salience of individual self ("I"), collective self ("we"), and cultural identity in order to make their conclusions. Significantly, they conclude that "lay theories of social organization in a culture should be regarded as latent knowledge structures, which can be activated by cues in the environment. When cultural identity is activated, individuals coming from cultures with markedly different conceptions of social organization would form different spontaneous conceptions of the self."
Singelis, Theodore M. and Brown, William. "Culture, Self, and Collectivist Communication; Linking Culture to Individual Behavior."
This article by Singelis and Brown offers a theoretical framework and corresponding methodology to connect the important variables at the culture level to the individual level and, ultimately, to the specific outcome variables. The authors maintain that if there should be the advancement in theory about culture's influence on communication, it is important to examine how culture affects individual-level processes and how these processes affect communication. Therefore, the various discussions and the findings of this research have great implication with regard to the understanding of culture's influence on communication and the relationship between culture and self.

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Psychology: Culture And The Self Example | Topics and Free Essays

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The paper "Psychology: Culture And The Self" is a wonderful example of an annotated bibliography on psychology. Chua, Hannah Faye., Leu, Janxin., and Nisbett, Richard E. "Culture and Diverging Views of Social Events." Society for Personality and Social Psychology.

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Alexander, R. J. (2008) Towards Dialogic Teaching. Rethinking Classroom Talk (4th edition), York: Dialogos, UK.
This succinct booklet represents an overview of theoretical and empirical research into classroom talk. In the words of the blurb it, 'presents the case for dialogic teaching not as another transient educational fad, but as the necessary outcome of decades of research on language, thinking, learning and teaching, by scholars working in diverse disciplines and cultures. The publication then sets out the principles on which dialogic teaching is based, identifies specific classroom indicators to guide the development and evaluation of professional practice, reports interim findings from classroom-based development projects, and offers suggestions for further reading and support'.

Alexander, R.J. (2008) Essays on Pedagogy, Abingdon, Routledge.
What is unusual about this book is that it places classroom talk in the wider contexts of pedagogy, curriculum and educational aims and values. The book makes a case for dialogism as an underpinning principle for all educational activity, demanding that we look outwards from the school as well as inwards at classroom processes. It is underpinned by a strong international perspective which draws on the author's comparative research on culture, pedagogy and classroom discourse.

Bakhtin, M. M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination, Austin TX: University of Texas.

Littleton, K. and Howe, C. (2009) Educational Dialogues: Understanding and promoting productive interaction, London: Routledge.

Mercer, N. (1995) The guided construction of knowledge: talk amongst teachers and learners, Abingdon & New York: Routledge
Mercer introduces readers to the notion of knowledge as not only an 'individual mental possession' but a 'joint possession' that can be created 'though joint mental effort' and shared (p.1). Combining teaching and learning, he coins the phrase 'the guided construction of knowledge' a process mediated by language which he describes as 'a social mode of thinking'.

Mercer, N. (2000) Words and Minds, London: Routledge.
This book explores the function of language in different contexts, including schools. Guy Cook describes it as 'a clear and exciting introduction to language as a vehicle for collaborative thought, and an authoritative survey of research taking this view. [...] it is full of original and exciting insights of its own, making it one of the most important books on discourse analysis to have been published in the last decade'.

Mortimer, E.F. and Scott, P.H. (2003) Meaning Making in Secondary Science Classrooms, Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Swaffield, S (Ed) Unlocking Assessment: Understanding for reflection and application, London & New York: Routledge.
A number of chapters explore the links between questioning, dialogue and assessment practices associated with 'assessment as learning'.

Wolfe, S. and Alexander, R. J. (2008) Argumentation and dialogic teaching: alternative pedagogies for a changing world, London: Futurelab Download from http://www.robinalexander.org.uk/docs/wolfealexander.pdf

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centre for education and international development

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centre for research on play in education

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research for equitable access and learning

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Alexander, R. J. (2008) Towards Dialogic Teaching. Rethinking Classroom Talk (4th edition), York: Dialogos, UK. This succinct booklet represents an overview of theoretical and empirical research into classroom talk. In the words of the blurb it, 'presents the case for dialogic teaching not as another transient educational fad, but as the necessary outcome of decades of research on language, thinking, learning and teaching, by scholars working in diverse disciplines and cultures.