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The threatening thaw: climate professor on heatwave risks to tipping point of permafrost

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Heatwaves and wildfires are not just scorching forests, they are adding to the tipping point risks in the world's vast permafrost regions, which contain three times more carbon than all the living vegetation on Earth.

This is a major concern for Gustaf Hugelius, a professor at the Bolin Centre of Climate Research at Stockholm University, Sweden, and a leading authority on the risks from thawing tundra and peatlands. In this Q&A, he explains why the world should pay attention.

Prof Gustaf Hugelius is a leading authority on the risks heatwaves pose to permafrost regions. Composite: Guardian Design/ 2See/Sören Andersson

How can it reach a tipping point?

Most often permafrost has been frozen for thousands of years and contains a lot of old plant remains. This means a lot of carbon is essentially locked in a freezer. But as humans warm the climate by burning gas, oil and coal, the permafrost starts to thaw and those plants are exposed to microbes, which eat the organic matter and then release carbon dioxide and methane. This enters the atmosphere and produces even more warming. This process can become self-reinforcing.

Can it not just refreeze later?

No, because the thaw of the tundra creates a fundamentally different landscape. There is a lot of pure ice below the ground's surface. When that melts, the water drains away and the surface collapses. This can create lakes, wetlands or river gullies. These new land forms, which are called thermokarsts, have a completely different hydrology that changes the thermal conductivity of the soil as well as snow conditions in winter. Once you pass the permafrost's threshold and the ice has gone and the landscape has changed, it is not going to come back for hundreds of years. On a human timescale, those systems have then effectively tipped into a system that will keep emitting carbon for decades or centuries.

Thermokarsts can tip land into a system that will keep emitting carbon for decades or centuries. Composite: Guardian Design/Supplied

How much permafrost loss is already baked into the climate system?

There is a time lag of decades between the climate warming and the permafrost thawing. This is because it is insulated in many parts of the tundra or boreal forest by vegetation and a thick layer of peaty soil that delays the thaw impact. On the negative side, this means that some areas of permafrost are already doomed, such as in northern Sweden and northern Finland. Even if we could stabilise the climate today, several million square kilometres of permafrost, mostly along the southern fringes of its range, is going to disappear because we exceeded its threshold a decade or more ago. On the plus side, if we could pull the temperature down again, there are large areas where the thaw might never happen. The Siberian and Canadian permafrost can largely stay intact if we are successful in UN climate negotiations.

Researchers study the ground beneath grassland. Composite: Guardian Design/Supplied

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The threatening thaw: climate professor on heatwave risks to tipping point of permafrost

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Prof Gustaf Hugelius warns wildfires could accelerate release of methane and carbon as vast regions approach irreversible thresholds

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How the story of life and our planet unfolded — together

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How the story of life and our planet unfolded — together

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Earth’s four-billion-year-long conversation with its resident life forms has shaped our world, and holds lessons for our future.

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An online resource from the Geological Society, outlining the tectonic history of the UK and how it has affected our landscape.

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How to classify a landslide - British Geological Survey

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How to classify a landslide - British Geological Survey

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Landslides are classified by their type of movement. The four main types of movement are falls, topples, slides, and flows.

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A ‘super’ El Niño could transform the Amazon. Is the world’s biggest rainforest doomed?

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A ‘super’ El Niño could transform the Amazon. Is the world’s biggest rainforest doomed?

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The Amazon rainforest might be closer to a tipping point than scientists thought. Some fear that droughts and fire could nudge it into irreversible decline.

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Sand. It’s in buildings, windows, your cell phone. But there isn’t enough in the world for everyone. And that’s created a dangerous black market.

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An interview with PEPFAR’s former chief science officer.

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Who is ‘stealing’ Bali’s water? How tourism siphoned off a prized resource

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Who is ‘stealing’ Bali’s water? How tourism siphoned off a prized resource

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Along with the rice fields, a centuries-old infrastructure that treated water as a gift to be shared is disappearing

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Where Venezuela’s Earthquakes Shifted the Ground - NASA Science

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Where Venezuela’s Earthquakes Shifted the Ground - NASA Science

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Radar data from the NISAR satellite show that La Guaira and nearby areas experienced significant ground displacement from the June 2026 temblors.

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LibGuides: UG CamGuides: What skills will I develop as an undergraduate?: Note making

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Generic academic skills useful to all students

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LibGuides: UG CamGuides: What skills will I develop as an undergraduate?: Critical reading

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Generic academic skills useful to all students

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01 Mastery Booklet_Coastal landscapes are systems

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Geographical Association - Resources and information for Geography Teachers

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Fieldwork: How much carbon have trees on the school site sequestered? - Geographical Association

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Introduction Trees capture (or sequester) carbon from the air through the process of photosynthesis. Yet different trees will sequester different amounts of carbon, depending on their species and their size. Students can calculate how much carbon is (roughly) held in trees on their school site and to what extent this offsets the carbon footprint of

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German adventurers perform high-wire walk along Old Man of Hoy

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Slackliner Alexander Schulz and team brave gusty conditions to make 180-metre crossing off Orkney island

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Daredevil walks tightrope from on of Britain's tallest sea stacks

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1967: BBC Film Crew vs the OLD MAN OF HOY | Classic Documentary | Making of... | BBC Archive

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Fieldwork involving water - Geographical Association

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The purpose of this set of resources is to provide support, guidance and ideas for teachers to carry out fieldwork involving water.

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Coastal geomorphology with Professor Larissa Naylor

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Coastal geomorphology with Professor Larissa Naylor

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An RGS podcast with Larissa Naylor on how climate change is reshaping our coastlines and what strategies can help us adapt.

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Geographical careers in coastal management

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Geographical careers in coastal management

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Find out about careers in coasts through the role of geographer Lauren, a Coastal Project Engineer at Coastal Partners.

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Dredging: an impact of development in Lagos

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Dredging: an impact of development in Lagos

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As Lagos, Nigeria's largest city, continues to expand, huge amounts of sand are being dredged from rivers to support the contruction industry.

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This makes it your best opportunity to have a positive impact on the world.

If you're fortunate enough to be able to use your career for good, but aren't sure how, our career guide can help you:

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The highest impact paths are those that put you in the best position to tackle the most pressing problems. To help you get ideas for ways to contribute, we review some common options and list some unusual but especially high-impact paths.

The series covers our most important and novel research findings about how to increase the impact of your career, including: what "doing good" even means, why reducing existential risk might be humanity's biggest and most neglected priority, and how to avoid accidentally making things worse.

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Reader stories

Katie Hearsum

Katie was working at a bank, but she had a feeling that she wanted to use her career to help others - she just wasn't sure exactly how. She spoke to an 80,000 Hours advisor who helped her realise she could have an impact by helping to improve the long-term future and connected her to a network of people working in this area. After exploring her options, Katie realised she had a strong personal fit for operations work and accepted a role in operations at Longview Philanthropy, an organisation aimed at reducing the risks of a major global catastrophe. Katie was promoted to head of operations a year later.
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Elika Somani

Elika started her career in global health, which she describes as "my first love, career wise". Over time, 80,000 Hours and the EA community helped her conclude that she could increase her expected impact by pivoting into biosecurity. She applied for, and was offered, the role of Fellow with the Department of Bioethics at the National Institutes of Health. After speaking with an 80,000 Hours advisor, she decided to accept the job. She now conducts research on neglected problems in biosecurity, and also in clinical research ethics.
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Ethan Perez was studying computer science when he came across 80,000 Hours, which convinced him that the risk from advanced artificial intelligence was a highly pressing problem. After speaking with an 80,000 Hours advisor, he decided to work full time on AI safety instead of pursuing a career in self-driving car technology. He went on to write his PhD thesis on fixing undesirable behaviour in language models and took a role as a research scientist working on AI safety at Anthropic.
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This makes it your best opportunity to have a positive impact on the world. If you're fortunate enough to be able to use your career for good, but aren't sure how, we can help

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Free Careers Education Resources For Teachers And Careers Leaders - Youth Employment UK

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The Young Professional Programme is our series of free and interactive online learning programmes designed with and for young people.

Young Professional Programmes can fit into your existing programme or be accessed independently.

Available programmes:
Young Professional: Preparing for Your Future
Ideal for 14-16 year olds who are exploring their future options.
Young Professional: Journey to Work
Ideal for 17+ year olds and young people who are closer to the world of work.

Course content helps young people to:

Understand themselves, their strengths, barriers and opportunities

Learn about the world of work through virtual work experience and impartial careers information

Understand the range of pathways available including vocational, academic and technical routes

Learn how to build their own career plan and set useful life, study and work goals

Understand the skills they will need for life and work and how to develop them

Learn how to prepare themselves for work with job searching, CV and interview preparation

Understand what being in work is like and how to progress once in work

What happens on completing a course?

On completion of each course, the Young Professional learner will receive a certificate. Their Provider can use this or our Group Management System to evidence the progress young people have made during the programme.

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Free Careers Education Resources For Teachers And Careers Leaders - Youth Employment UK

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The Young Professional Programme is our series of free and interactive online learning programmes designed with and for young people. Young Professional Programmes can fit into your existing programme or be accessed independently. Young Professional: Preparing for Your Future Ideal for 14-16 year olds who are exploring their future options.

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 4b below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. What sort of economic opportunities are available at the coast?

2. How can these economic activities affect the processes and flows of material/energy?

3. How might coastal landforms change as a result of the economic activity?

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 4a below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. Why might humans want to control landscapes at the coast?

2. What methods have humans used to control the coast and have they worked?

3. What are the consequences of controlling (or attempting to control) the coast?

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 3b below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. Why do sea levels rise when the global climate warms?

2. What do you think happens to the coast when sea levels rise?

3. How might geomorphic processes change at the coast after sea levels rise?

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Free teaching resources about Panda politics

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Everyone loves giant pandas. They come from China and are very rare. The Chinese government owns nearly all of them, and lends them to other countries as a symbol of friendship. But when it is angry with another country, it sometimes refuses to renew the loans. This happened with Japan in January 2026, and Japan had to return its last two giant pandas to China.What is the difference between soft and hard power? And can “a gift” come at a cost?

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At any given moment, about 20 volcanoes on Earth are actively erupting. Often among them is Mayon -the most active volcano in the Philippines. The nearly symmetrical stratovolcano, on Luzon Island near the Albay and Lagonoy gulfs, rises more than 2,400 meters (8,000 feet) above sea level.

Historical records indicate Mayon has erupted 65 times in the past 5,000 years, with the latest episode beginning in January 2026. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) first reported increased rockfalls near the volcano's summit and inflation of the mountain's upper slopes. On January 6, the alert level was increased to three on a five-level scale after lava began flowing from the crater and hot clouds of ash and debris called pyroclastic flows (also called pyroclastic density currents) moved down one side of the mountain.

The volcano was still puffing and lava flowing on February 26, when the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8 acquired this rare, relatively clear image. The natural-color scene is overlaid with infrared observations to highlight the lava's heat signature. On that day, PHIVOLCS reported volcanic earthquakes, rockfalls, and pyroclastic flows. The longest pyroclastic flow had traveled about 4 kilometers (3 miles) through the Mi-isi Gully on the southeast flank.

The level-three alert, which remained in place in March, prompted evacuations within a 6-kilometer (4-mile) radius of the crater, displacing hundreds of families from communities including Tabaco City, Malilpot, and Camalig. Past pyroclastic flows have proven extremely destructive, leading to more than 1,000 deaths in 1814, at least 400 deaths in 1897, and 77 deaths in 1993. More than 73,000 people were evacuated during an eruption in 1984.

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions during the current eruption have averaged 2,466 tons per day, with a peak of 6,569 metric tons measured on February 4, 2026. That is the highest SO ₂ emission level for one day in 15 years, the PHIVOLCS announced in early February. That was later exceeded on March 6, when SO ₂ emissions reached as high as 7,633 metric tons.

Multiple NASA satellites have also monitored the volcano's sulfur dioxide emissions, showing sizable plumes of the gas drifting southwest on February 4 and March 6. The Philippine volcanology institute reported a peak in other activity on February 8 and 9, with 469 rockfalls, 12 major pyroclastic flows, and ashfall in the municipalities of Camalig and Guinobatan.

NASA Earth Observatory image by Michala Garrison, using Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey. Story by Adam Voiland.

Chan, H. & Konstantinou, K. (2020) Multiscale and multitemporal surface temperature monitoring by satellite thermal infrared imagery at Mayon Volcano, Philippines. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 401, 106976.

Global Volcanism Program (2026) Mayon. Accessed March 12, 2026.

GMA News Online (2026, January 6) Six Albay towns evacuate residents amid Mayon Volcano Alert Level 3 status.Accessed March 12, 2026.

NASA Earthdata (2023, January 25) Monitoring Volcanic Sulfur Dioxide Emissions. Accessed March 12, 2026.

NASA Earth Observatory (2009, December 15) Mayon Volcano Threatens Major Eruption. Accessed March 12, 2026.

PHIVOLCS (2026, March 12) Latest volcano bulletins, advisories, updates & other issuances, or archived issuances. Accessed March 12, 2026.

PHIVOLCS (2026, February 10) Mayon Volcano Eruption Update. Accessed March 12, 2026.

Ruth, D.C.S. & Costa, F. (2021) A petrological and conceptual model of Mayon volcano (Philippines) as an example of an open-vent volcano. Bulletin of Volcanology, 83(62).

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landsat 8 / ldcm (landsat data continuity mission)

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Activity at the volcano in the Philippines sent lava and pyroclastic flows down the volcano's flanks and prompted evacuations in nearby communities.

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Mount Merapi, Indonesia 2010 - Volcanoes – WJEC - GCSE Geography Revision - WJEC - BBC Bitesize

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Learn and revise about volcanoes with BBC Bitesize GCSE Geography (WJEC).

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Applied Earth Science - A division of Applied Soil Technologies, Inc.

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Guide To Soil Liquefaction - Applied Earth Science

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Soil liquefaction is a geological phenomenon that changes the structure of the Earth’s soil. External stressors loosen the soil particles, changing the ground into a less stable base for buildings and other structures. Soil liquefaction presents risks to construction companies building in high-soil liquefaction areas, such as California. If builders construct on top of loose

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The importance of communication in hazard zone areas: case study during and after 2010 Merapi eruption, Indonesia (Chapter 10) - Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk

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Global Volcanic Hazards and Risk - July 2015

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jobs, careers, internships and volunteer opportunities at undp

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Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program

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The massive Ontakesan stratovolcano, the second highest volcano in Japan, lies at the southern end of the Northern Japan Alps. Ascending this volcano is one of the major objects of religious pilgrimage in central Japan. It is constructed within a largely buried 4 x 5 km caldera and occupies the southern end of the Norikura volcanic zone, which extends northward to Yakedake volcano. The older volcanic complex consisted of at least four major stratovolcanoes constructed from about 680,000 to about 420,000 years ago, after which Ontakesan was inactive for more than 300,000 years. The broad, elongated summit of the younger edifice is cut by a series of small explosion craters along a NNE-trending line. Several phreatic eruptions post-date the roughly 7300-year-old Akahoya tephra from Kikai caldera. The first historical eruption took place in 1979 from fissures near the summit. A non-eruptive landslide in 1984 produced a debris avalanche and lahar that swept down valleys south and east of the volcano. Very minor phreatic activity caused a dusting of ash near the summit in 1991 and 2007. A significant phreatic explosion in September 2014, when a large number of hikers were at or near the summit, resulted in many fatalities.

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Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program

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Information is preliminary and subject to change. All times are local (unless otherwise noted)

January 1969 (CSLP 04-69)

Card 0331 (10 January 1969) Eruption destroys 60 homes; three people missing

Sixty homes have been destroyed and at least three persons are missing in a volcanic eruption in Indonesia. Lava flowed down the mountainside into the town of Magerang and the village of Muntilam. A larger eruption is predicted.

Card 0332 (13 January 1969) Nuee ardentes travel 11-12 km down SW flank river valleys

Djajadi Hadikusumo provided the following report dated 9 January. "Activity of Merapi volcano increased since 8 January. From 0230 on nuee ardente d'avalanches, accompanied by lightning, continuously went down into rivers of Blongkeng, Batang, Bebeng, and Krasak (SW slope) reaching a distance of about 11 or 12 km from the summit, approximately until the village of Nganggrung on the SW slope, situated inside the prohibited zone. All of 'lava 1967' tumbled down and on its place now glare could be observed. The seismograph at Plawangan Observatory (~5.5 km S of the summit) still records volcanic tremors in high amount. At this observatory the ash layer was 2 cm thick."

Card 0333 (13 January 1969) New lava emerges at location of 8 January dome collapse

K. Fredriksson provided the following report by telephone 13 January concerning conversations with D. Hadikusumo on 11 January. Seismic acitivity has calmed down. Mt. Merapi covered by cloud since 8 January. Paroxysm on 8 January at 0230 hours. Nuee ardente of avalanche to village of Pakel, 13 km SW. Main direction of avalanche to the rivers Blongkeng and Bebeng. New lava emerged on the same spot where the lava dome has collapsed. Evacuation of people taking place in Magelang area and around the villages of Kamongan and Djombang.

Card 0334 (14 January 1969) Volcanic materials extend 13 km W of the summit

Mt. Merapi . . . is currently producing nuee ardente blasts in the direction of the Borobudur Temples near Muntilan, 35 km NW of Jogdjakarta. The status of the temples and archaeological sites is not known but volcano blasts of incandescent lava materials were ejected from the Merapi volcano in a westerly direction up to a distance of 13 km from the summit toward the towns of Magelang, Kamongan, and Djombang.

Card 0343-0344 (20 January 1969) Minor lava avalanches from new dome

The following was received from Kurt Fredriksson in Djakarta on 20 January 1969. "Herjono took me to the still hot ash flow area around Kaligesik as high as considered safe. I photographed and collected a few samples. Climbed to the Blawangan Observation Station at 1,290 m altitude. During night and early morning observed and photographed several lava avalanches. Good conditions between 0200 and 0800. The lava avalanches appear to consist of blocks or clusters of blocks, incandescent, which break loose from the growing lava dome at various places and tumble down 1-2 km or 400-500 m below summit. The material apparently accumulates in certain places and gives rise to secondary steam explosions. At approximately 0730 rather strong disturbance was observed on seismograph, not felt however, followed in few minutes by emission of dark smoke in SW of crater above new lava dome. Most steam, white continuous, seems otherwise to originate in N side of summit crater. Shock could have been caused by collapse?

"Major phase pf eruption is over. Lava avalanches from new dome appear minor. The ash flow deposit ~10 m. In the Kaligesik area (sampled) and still hot (secondary steam explosions) indicates that this is more like real 'nuee ardente' type than Mt. Mayon. No welding ocurs and channel higher up on steep slope appears to be swept clean like at Mayon."

Information Contacts:
Card 0331 (10 January 1969) George Beauchamp, U.S.A.I.D. Disaster Relief.
Card 0332 (13 January 1969) Djajadi Hadikusumo, Geological Survey of Indonesia.
Card 0333 (13 January 1969) Kurt Fredriksson, Smithsonian Institution.
Card 0334 (14 January 1969) American Embassy, Djakarta, Indonesia.
Card 0343-0344 (20 January 1969) Kurt Fredriksson, Smithsonian Institution.

February 1969 (CSLP 04-69)

Lava avalanches cause extensive damage, leaving many homeless

Card 0370-0371 (05 February 1969) January avalanches leave 2,000 people homeless

13 January 1969. Latest reports from Java said that up until Wednesday afternoon the volcano was still emitting hot air which went down the Blongkeng and Batang rivers along a stretch of 7.5 km. An observation post at Krindjing reported major and minor avalanches and ash rains to the accompaniment of thunder and lightning. Observation posts in Jogjakarta said activites of Merapi had increased in violence on 9 January. Hot air spouted from the summit of the volcano, reaching a distance of about 12 kilometers. Three officials at the Plawang post, nearest to Merapi, were said to be in excellent condition despite violent seismic activities, rains and ash rains.

Reports of the Jogjakarta municipality said thus far a total of about 180 houses had been seriously damaged. The interior of some of the houses was filled with mud, at several points as thick as 1.5 m. Most of the houses were located along the bank of the Tjode river in the center of Jogjakarta. At present a total of about 2,000 citizens have been rendered homeless. The majority came from the Prawiro dirdjan, Sajidan, Djeties, and Bintara villages. Meanwhile, drinking water supplies in Jogjakarta have now been reduced by ~50% as a result of damages to some of the vital local installations. Likewise, streets in the vicinity of the Sjuhada Mosque were cracked at several points.

Card 0372 (05 February 1969) New lava emission on 25 January; serious road damage

25 January 1969. Merapi started emitting new lava again recently after having been quiet for some time according to the latest reports of the volcanological station. The lava was estimated at 250 m in length and 150 m in width. It is called the 1969 lava.

27 January 1969. Traffic communications between Magelang and Jogjakarta have been cut off since 22 January due to serious road damages along a stretch of 200 m linking Muntilan and Tempel. Torrential rains in the vicinity of the Merapi volcano last Wednesday flooded several rivers which later swept away rocks, pebbles and sand, rendering serious damages to roads linking Muntilan and Tempel. A market in the Tulan subregency was inundated by swollen waters of the rivers. Meanwhile panic has gripped villagers at Srumbung, Dukuh, Salam, and Muntilan.

Card 0407 (17 February 1969) Three known victims of the January avalanches, but 3,800 refugees

"The eruption which took place in the summit region recently, on the night of 7-8 January 1969, resulted in avalanches of the lava dome reaching distances of 13 km down the crater rim. Since 11 January a lava flow has come down in the vicinity of Geger Buaja in the direction of Jogjakarta. Until now there are only three registered victims of the kampongs Gimbal and Ngangrang, however the number of refugees in the Jogjakarta region amounts to about 3,800 people. It seems that the activity of the volcano has quieted down since 25 January."

Information Contacts:
Card 0370-0371 (05 February 1969) Otto Soemarwoto, Antara News Agency, The Djakarta Times, Djakarta, Indonesia.
Card 0372 (05 February 1969) Otto Soemarwoto, Antara News Agency, The Djakarta Times, Djakarta, Indonesia.
Card 0407 (17 February 1969) G.A. De Neve, Universtas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia.

October 1972 (CSLP 67-72)

Summit explosion on 6 October

Card 1468 (18 October 1972) Summit explosion on 6 October

Babadan Volcano Observatory, some 4.2 km WNW of Mt. Merapi summit.

06 October 1972. 0720: Strong emission of whitish smoke in the upper part of Batang breach. 0729: Gas explosions; ash cloud rose to 3,000 m above summit. 0730: Rumblings of avalanches which went down into Batang River (SW) 3km distant; rock falls (of explosion) went into Trising and Apu rivers (NW). 0742: Shower of large-grain sand at the observatory; also in Telogolele village some 7 km distance from summit. 0745: Sand shower stopped; thin sand deposit at the observatory.

Some volcanic quakes were recorded about 3.5 minutes before the explosion took place and thereafter tremors of avalanches were recorded for about 8 minutes. After this Mt. Merapi was hidden by clouds. All other observatories around the volcano were unable to observe the activity due to thick clouds; only rumblings could be heard. The center of activity was located in the upper part of "1969 lava" in the Batang breach. A small part of the upper part thereof was blown off in the eruption cloud. During the following week no abnormal phenomena were observed (up to 11 October).

Information Contacts: Djajadi Hadikusumo, Geological Survey of Indonesia.

Increases in seismicity, lava dome height, and incandescent spots on dome

Activity increased in February compared to the previous month. The number of volcanic earthquakes increased, the lava dome grew higher, and red glares were observed at 2 points on the dome. The number of glowing avalanches decreased from January, however, and there was only one nuée ardente, on 4 February, that traveled about 750 m SW into the Batang River.

On 5 March at 1503, reddish white smoke emitted with strong gas pressure was observed to about 350 m above the summit. The volcano was hidden behind clouds. On 6 March, small avalanches took place continuously from 0135 until 0348, then the volcano was covered by clouds. At 1702, three avalanches were observed. From 1733 on, bigger nuées ardentes took place, interspersed with minor ones, until 13 March (table 1).

From the evening of 8 March until the evening of 9 March, when the volcano became visible from the Ngepos Volcano Observatory 11 km SW of the summit, it could be observed that the lower part of the lava dome, estimated to be about 400,000 m ³, or almost 1/3 of its volume (1.4 x 10 ⁶ m ³), had slid away. During the events on 6 and 7 March nuées ardentes moved SW, entering a tributary of the Batang River and continuing much further down stream into the rivers Sat, Blongkeng, and Bebeng. The prevailing wind blew E, depositing finer volcanic products on the E and SE flanks to a maximum distance of 37.5 km. Thickest ash falls were on the ESE flank. At 6 km from the summit the deposit apparently measured 5 mm and temporarily panicked the villagers.

Nuées ardentes caused forest fires on the upper SW flank near the tributaries of the rivers Sat, Blongkeng, and Bebeng. Roughly 580,000 m ³ of ash were deposited on the E flank, and around 300,000 m ³ of avalanche material were deposited on the upper SW flank.

Information Contacts: D. Hadikusumo, Volcanology Division, GSI.

Ash clouds rising 3 km; nuées ardentes down the SW flank

Merapi was unusually active on 6 and 7 November, emitting 3,000-m ash clouds, and nuées ardentes that moved 2.5 km down the SW flank. No casualties or serious property damage were reported. The new dome, which began growing after the March activity, had an estimated volume of 20,000 m ³ in June.

Lava dome growth continues; frequent avalanches

980°C fumaroles on N flank; increased seismicity

Merapi was visited by Haroun Tazieff in July. No eruption was occurring, but seismicity was increasing, and fumarole temperatures on the N flank reached 980°C, as compared to 400-500°C during previous periods of quiescence.

Fumarole temperatures and gas analyses

Franois Le Guern and Haroun Tazieff provided the following fumarole temperatures and gas compositions (table 2), obtained during their July visit to Merapi. Gases were analyzed with a field gas chromatograph.

Hot avalanches decline; dome growth continues

Newspaper reports state that hot avalanches from the lava dome decreased in frequency during May, after as many as 40/day had occurred in April. The May avalanches traveled as much as 1.75 km. Growth continued at the new dome, which first appeared in January 1979 and now covers the remnants of the 1973 and 1978 domes.

Dome growth continues

Lava dome growth; hot avalanches

The lava dome that began to emerge at the summit in 1979 was still growing in February and had reached an altitude of 2947 m. Lava fragments from the E and central part of the cone had moved 2.0 km toward the Batang River, and 250-500 m farther in December. Personnel at the Ngepos Observatory have counted 34 larger and 468 smaller lava avalanches in recent months; the time interval was not reported. Nuées ardentes d'avalanche occurred in November and December but were confined to the summit area. Two Minakami A-type earthquakes, the first in several months, were recently recorded by the seismograph at the Babadan Observatory (4 km from the summit). No important lahars have occurred along the Putih, Bebeng, and Krasak Rivers since the beginning of this year's rainy season.

Further Reference. Tazieff, H., 1983, Monitoring and interpretation of activity on Mt. Merapi, Indonesia, 1977-80: a practical example, Civil Defense, in Tazieff, H. and Sabroux, J.C. (eds.): Forecasting Volcanic Events, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 485-494.

Sixty percent of the summit dome destroyed; hot avalanches

A tripartite electro-seismometer at Babadan Observatory and two single-detector seismographs near the volcano recorded continuous trains of tremors and very shallow earthquakes that may have been landslide events. Continuous records of magnetic values showed no significant changes. No sharp variations in CO ₂ and H ₂ S emissions were detected. Tilt measurements showed deformation of 10-20 µrad, within the normal variation.

Heavy ashfall

Heavy ashfall that began 6 February damaged crops and halted traffic in the nearby Boyolai region, according to a press report dated 8 February.

Information Contacts: AFP.

Explosions, nuées ardentes, lahars; 1,000 evacuated

The quoted material is a report from Adjat Sudradjat.

"Merapi erupted 15 June between 0215 and 0600, accompanied by nuées ardentes that extended 7 km down rivers (the Batang, Bebeng, and Krasak) on the SW side of the volcano. An eruption plume rose to 6 km height and caused ashfall in Muntilan, Ambarawa, and Semarang, approximately 60 km N of the volcano. The eruption was accompanied by detonations. The first explosion was followed by a milder eruption producing a plume to 2 km height and a nuée ardente to 6 km distance at noon. The frequency of nues ardentes progressively decreased until the morning of 16 June. No eruptions were observed the following day. Lahar material estimated to exceed 4 x 10 ⁶ m ³ along the Bedeng, Krasak, and Putih Rivers may threaten Magelang city (population about 125,000)."

An image from the NOAA 7 polar orbiting satellite on 15 June at 1441 showed a hazy area that did not seem to be weather-related extending from 7°S to 5°S and from 110°E to the edge of the image at 106°E. The hazy area did not extend back to Merapi, nor was any tephra emission apparent at the volcano. No evidence of activity could be seen on the image returned the next day at about the same time.

Newspapers reported ashfalls at Magelang (30 km NW of Merapi) and Salatiga (35 km NE of the volcano). Visibility near Salatiga was limited to 10 m and more than a cm of ash covered roads, slowing traffic. More than 2 cm of ash fell at Solo (45 km E of the volcano) and ashfall was reported at Cilacap, on the coast 160 km SW of Merapi.

"Seismographs detected a progressive increase in seismicity from 4 counts/day on 8 June to 59 on 12 June. A warning was issued 13 June, and the evacuation of 1000 persons from forbidden zone section VI (Kemiren village) was immediately implemented. The tong-tong warning system was tested again to be sure that it was operational. The eruption was preceded by an intense lava avalanche on 13 June that caused a nuée ardente d'avalanche (nuée ardente of Merapi type)."

"As of 22 June, no volcanic A-type earthquakes had been recorded. The dominant seismicity has been continuous tremors, very shallow volcanic earthquakes, and avalanche events with multiphase signatures. Judging from this evidence, two possibilities are: (1) the 15 June eruption is the final phase of the 1969-1984 lava dome growth (effusive stage-see below); or (2) the 15 June eruption is evidence of the gas phase of a new cycle. Both possibilities would show quiescence of A-type earthquakes. The rate of dome growth, which was reported to have sharply increased 20-21 June, may tend to support the latter hypothesis if it continues."

Further References. Bardintzeff, J.M., 1984, Merapi volcano (Java) and Merapi-type nuée ardente: BV, v. 47, p. 433-46.

Zen, M.T., Siswowidjoyo, S., Djoharman, L., and Harto, S., 1980, Type and characteristics of the Merapi eruption: Buletin Dept. Teknik Geologi, Inst. Teknologi Bandung, v. I, p. 34-46.

Rockfall seismicity suggests increased lava dome growth

Between 13 and 17 October, seismographs recorded numerous local rockfall events at rates that reached 300-400/day on the 15th and 16th, suggesting possible increased growth of the lava dome. No A- or B-type shocks were detected. Seismicity declined to background after 17 October. Geologists climbed the volcano 15 October. Heavy steaming was occurring from the lava dome, but rates of SO ₂ emission had declined slightly to 70 t/d, from typical rates of 100-200 t/d. Temperatures at Woro and Gendol fumaroles remained at ~600 and 800°C.

Summit lava dome growth

Renewed growth of the summit lava dome began in early October and continued into November. As of mid-Nov, the lava dome volume was 3 x 10 ⁶ m ³. Several hundred rockfalls/day have been occurring since mid-Oct.

Lava flow from October-November dome advances onto SW flank

Aerial observations 6-7 January revealed no evidence of major new dome growth since Oct-Nov 1986. The volume of the summit crater lava dome was > 4 x 10 ⁶ m ³. From the SW base of the Oct-Nov dome, a lava flow extended through the breach in the crater wall onto the volcano's SW flank, where it continued to advance slowly. Incandescent rockfalls from the toe of the flow, and from the area where the flow emerged from the dome, were observed at night in early January. The number of earthquakes has declined since peaking in late October and early November.

Information Contacts: VSI.

Rockfall seismicity ends; dome growth probably stops

Seismic instruments recorded a significant decrease in the number of rockfall events in late January and early February, suggesting that growth of the October-November lobe of the lava dome had ceased. Rockfall seismicity remained weak through early March.

Information Contacts: VSI.

Lava dome, largest since 1973, appears stable

Merapi was inspected on 9 May. The September 1986-January 1987 lava dome remained stable and was not growing [but see 12:8]. A robust whitish gas plume containing SO ₂ continued to be emitted from fumaroles on the E side of the lava dome and from the Gendol and Woro fumarole fields. The volume of the new lava dome measured on 9 May was slightly in excess of 4 x 10 ⁶ m ³, the largest since 1973. No rockfall avalanches were noted during April, although several earthquakes/day were recorded.

Information Contacts: T. Casadevall, USGS & VSI.

Lava dome growth, but nuées ardentes de avalanche stop

Comparison of photographs taken during visits to the summit in May, July, and on 8 August, showed that the lava dome continued to increase in volume. Most of the growth seems to have occurred by addition of material to the top of the dome and in its NE sector. No perceptible new growth has occurred on the SW part of the dome. . . .

Information Contacts: VSI.

No lava dome growth from August to November

The volcano was visited by a VSI/USGS team on 19 November. Comparison of photos taken in August and November indicated no significant additional growth of the lava dome.

Information Contacts: VSI.

Large summit dome; fumaroles to 800°C; lahar alert

The volume of the summit lava dome has remained constant since January at ~6.4 x 10 ⁶ m ³. Two active solfataric vents fed a plume that rose to as much as 500 m above the summit. May 1989 temperatures at the vents were [813°C] (Gendol) and [575°C] (Woro). The number of earthquakes recorded . . . near Merapi [is shown in table 3]. No lahars occurred in February, although rainfall was increasing on the volcano's NW sector (while decreasing on the SW sector). An increased lahar alert notification has been released, especially for areas along SW-sector river valleys (K. Putih, K. Blongkeng, K. Krasak).

Information Contacts: VSI.

Large lava dome growing slowly in summit crater

The slowly growing lava dome in the summit crater reached 6.6 x 10 ⁶ m ³ by late 1989, a size described as "critical" for the collapse-prone dome. A white plume rose as much as 250 m from the crater's solfatara field, but under little pressure. COSPEC measurements showed an average SO ₂ flux of 73 t/d, up slightly from August. No lahar occurred during September, but alert status has been increased with the coming rainy season. Seismicity generally increased in September from August values (table 3). No A-type events were recorded.

Information Contacts: VSI.

Slight increase in seismicity; lava dome volume stable

Information Contacts: VSI.

Slight increase in seismicity; no apparent dome growth

Seismic activity increased slightly in early March, from two events/week to an average of 9/week. A swarm of small-amplitude (plus three large-amplitude) shallow volcanic earthquakes occurred on 10 March. The lava dome volume was stable at 6.8 x 10 ⁶ m ³, the same as reported in August 1990 (15:07).

High-temperature fumaroles; no changes evident to summit dome

No changes were visible at the summit dome, whose volume remained at ~6.8 x 10 ⁶ m ³. Diffuse to dense gas plumes rose to 450 m above the summit. Temperatures of 832 and 543°C were measured at the dome's Gendol and Woro solfataras, respectively. The temperature measured through cracks in the 1956 lava was 86°C on 20 April. There was no significant change in seismicity, although the weekly number of volcanic earthquakes briefly rose to 17 during the second week in April from the long-term average of 1-4. One multiphase event and 3-10 tectonic earthquakes were recorded/week.

Information Contacts: W. Modjo, VSI.

Continued seismicity but lava dome unchanged

Seismic activity remained unchanged, with three volcanic earthquakes recorded during the first week in May, and seven during the last week in May. No changes were visible at the summit dome.

Information Contacts: W. Modjo, VSI.

Gas plumes and seismicity

Diffuse to dense gas plumes rose 475 m in June, with SO ₂ fluxes averaging 80 t/d. The weekly number of volcanic earthquakes fluctuated, briefly rising to 33 during the third week in June, of which 28 were recorded on the 22nd. Three volcanic earthquakes were recorded below the crater at 3.0-3.5 km depth. An average of two multiphase events and 10-12 tectonic earthquakes were recorded weekly.

Information Contacts: W. Modjo, VSI.

Degassing but no apparent lava dome growth; deformation data from 1988-90 and seismicity from 1990-91

The volume of the lava dome apparently remained stable at 6.8 x 10 ⁶ m ³, and the temperature of the nearby solfatara was 806°C in early December, about the same as in November. Degassing continued, with the vapor column reaching 300 m height. December COSPEC measurements yielded SO ₂ emission rates of 73 t/d during the first week and 87 t/d the second week. Average plume velocity was 0.9-3.4 m/second. December is generally a rainy month at Merapi, and geologists were closely monitoring lahar hazards. Moderate seismicity continued to be recorded by nearby instruments (table 4).

[The following seismicity and deformation data were excerpted from 17:3] Comparison of distance measurements across the summit in June-July 1988 and September 1990, during to shortly after the later stages of the previous dome-building eruption, showed expansions that reached nearly 1 m (figure 1). Seismic data from 1990-91 show a strong increase in B-type events during the August 1990 crisis. B-type seismicity remained at increased levels through 1991 (figure 2).

Reference: Voight, B., 1988, A model for prediction of volcanic eruptions: Nature, v. 332, p. 125-130.

Hot material moves down flanks

The press reported that hot "lava" began moving down Merapi's flanks on 21 January at about midnight. There were unconfirmed descriptions of damage to plantations in one area, but officials reported no evacuations.

Information Contacts: UPI.

Ash ejection; hot flows destroy crops

At about midnight on 21 January, an eruption reportedly began with explosive ash ejection. Accompanying flows of hot "lava" traveled 1.5 km down the flanks of the volcano, destroying rice fields and other crops. A Space Shuttle photograph taken at 0700 on 24 January showed a steam plume, and apparent dusty deposits on the summit area and to the SE. Press information indicated that the volcano continued to erupt on 7 February, with reports of ashfall to ~30 km and additional hot "lava" flows. The estimated 5,000 residents living within a 14-km radius of the volcano were warned by local authorities to be ready to evacuate at any time.

Lava dome growth and pyroclastic flows

The following supersedes [16:12 and 17:1].

Increased seismicity preceded the start of summit-area lava extrusion that was first observed on 20 January. Deep (A type, 3.1-3.7 km depth) and shallow (B type,

Glowing rockfalls were first seen on 20 January between 1800 and 2000, emerging from a narrow opening between the NW crater rim (formed by the 1957 lava dome) and the 1984 dome. The rockfalls initially traveled an estimated 125 m from the summit, but they extended farther with time, to ~1,500 m on 31 January (figures 3 and 4). A new lava dome was covering the NW part of the 1984 dome when geologists from the MVO climbed the volcano on 31 January. The 1992 lava was ~50 m higher than the 1984 dome.

The first avalanche-generated pyroclastic flow occurred on 31 January at 1535, and three more were detected the next day (table 5).

The most vigorous pyroclastic-flow activity was on 2 February, when 33 were observed between 1220 and 2221, extending a maximum of 4 km from the summit. These were accompanied by small explosions that were heard 4 km NW of the summit (at Babadan Observatory). Ash rose to 2,600 m above the summit. Sulfur odors were also noted. Volcanic earthquakes were very rare during the eruption.

Pyroclastic-flow intensity then decreased; none have occurred since 2 March, but the lava dome continued to grow as of mid-March. Glowing rockfalls were nearly continuous (>1,000/day since 2 March), but relatively small, extending

Four alert levels have been established by VSI at Merapi: 1) Notifies residents of increased activity and the need for awareness and caution: 2) More serious precursors require increased awareness; local authorities are requested to prepare for hazard prevention and evacuation: 3) All persons living in the danger zone must pack valuables and items that would supply basic needs during an evacuation: 4) Evacuation required because of explosive eruption and the approach of pyroclastic flows toward inhabited areas.

During the 1992 eruption, Alert Level 1 was announced on 24 January, increasing to Level 2 on 1 February at 2215, and to Level 3 the next day at 1430. As the eruption intensity decreased, the alert level was lowered to 2 on 12 February and to 1 on 2 March.

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Continued lava extrusion; small rockfalls and avalanche-generated pyroclastic flows

Glowing rockfalls continued from Merapi's 1992 dome. They were channeled into the headwaters of rivers on the NW (Senowo), W (Putih), and SW (Bebeng) flanks, extending 300-2,000 m from the dome. The number of rockfalls and multiphase earthquakes generally decreased after late February, although they still dominated seismic records (figure 5). Occasional avalanche-generated pyroclastic flows remained relatively small and traveled a maximum of 2,000 m downslope. The plume was low (to 550 m height), relatively thin, and white. The average SO ₂ flux measured by COSPEC (figure 6) was 324 t/d through mid-April, with individual measurements ranging from 32 to 419 t/d, the highest on 2 April. As of mid-April, Merapi remained at a Level-1 Alert (see 17:2 for details of the alert system), with summit climbs by the public prohibited.

[1988 and 1990-91 seismicity and deformation data were moved to follow 15:7]

Information Contacts: B. Voight, Pennsylvania State Univ.

Continued lava dome growth and rockfalls

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Growing lava dome spawns avalanches; summit gas data

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Pyroclastic flows follow earthquakes and rainfall; gas data

Gas at the Gendol solfatara field, on the S part of the summit, has been sampled since May 1992 (table 6). The gas analysis from 23 July shows a sharp increase in O ₂ + Ar, N ₂, CO ₂, SO ₂, and HCl, and a decrease in H ₂ O. Concentrations had returned to previous values by the 8 September sampling. VSI geologists noted that the increase in volcanic gases may have been related to pyroclastic flows generated by dome collapse. Blue sublimates were observed around the Gendol G.13 solfatara field during fieldwork at the summit on 8 September.

Shallow earthquakes (1.8 km depth) occurred beneath Merapi on 26 August at 1314 and 1325, with magnitudes of 1.1 and 1.5, respectively. Pyroclastic flows started at 1331, 1335, and 1341, flowing 2.5 km WNW down the upper Senowo River. Volcano observation stations at Selo (~5 km NNE) and Babadan (~4.5 km NW) reported 21 and 14 mm of rainfall, respectively, in the 2 hours before the pyroclastic flows. There were additional smaller pyroclastic flows on 28 August at 1715, 1909, and 1929. Geologists believe that the pyroclastic flows may correlate with rainfall, volcanic gas activity, and seismicity.

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Pyroclastic flows from growing summit lava dome

The growing 1992 lava dome continued to generate incandescent pyroclastic flows. These advanced down the SW-W flank (along the upper Senowo, Sat, and Bebeng Rivers) to a maximum of 1 km from the base of the dome. White vapor rose 450 m above the dome's summit. SO ₂ emission measured by COSPEC (from Plawangan Observatory) was 120-230 t/d. No lahars were reported, although rainfall recorded at five volcano observatories around Merapi totaled 160-191 mm/week (in 10-17 episodes/week totaling 1,082-1,580 minutes) during the period ending in early December. No A- or B-type earthquakes have been detected at Merapi for the past 3 months. Multiphase events occurred at rates of 40-50/week, and avalanche tremors at 966-1,108 times a week.

Information Contacts: W. Modjo, VSI.

Pyroclastic flows from growing summit lava dome; highest plume rises 1500 m

Incandescent pyroclastic flows generated by the growing 1992 lava dome continued to advance down the Bebang river in late 1992 and early 1993. Some of the larger rockfalls overflowed into the Bedog and Boyong rivers on the S flank. Pyroclastic flows were visually observed between the end of December and 6 February 1993. On 3 February, the longest pyroclastic flow of this period traveled 4 km WNW down the Senowo and Sat rivers, and the highest plume, rising 1,500 m, occurred at 2200-2206. Rainfall recorded between 1515 and 2310 that same day at five volcano observatories around Merapi totalled 58-94 mm. There has been no increase in seismicity of volcanic gas concentrations (table 6). Blue sublimates are no longer seen around the G.13 solfatara field.

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Avalanches decrease; and seismic spectra for tremor and avalanches

Seismic and visual activity have decreased since the beginning of 1993. In the interval from May-Nov VSI staff reported only 3-10 avalanches/month, as compared to 10 avalanches/day during dome growth in 1992 and early 1993. Some specific cases of tremor, and tremor with avalanche, are depicted on figures 7 and 8.

About a week after the rainy season began at the end of November 1993, both the tremor rate and the volume of released gas increased. In early December the amplitudes of volcanic tremor rose to 2-3x higher than in previous months.

As of November the VSI supported seven seismic receiver stations at Merapi and the Geophysical Laboratory of GMU supported three. Most of the stations consisted of a vertical-component seismograph with a 1.0 Hz natural frequency. Starting in April 1993 GMU also studied Merapi using a portable 3-component system with a 0.2 Hz cut-off frequency. The portable system collected good quality data at two sites on Merapi: a) Klathakan, 1.8 km WNW of the summit between 1,200-1,300 m elevation (in the interval 1240-1600, 3 June 1993) and b) At Puncak, 0.5 km N of the summit (in the interval 0730-1530, 14 October 1993).

At Puncak, particle analysis on multiple tremor records revealed azimuths that ranged WSW-SW, occasionally swinging to ESE. From these results researchers suggested two possible tremor sources may lie at depth beneath the summit region: one offset slightly toward the W, another toward the E.

At Klathan the seismic record included intervals with tremor and little other noise (figure 7, top). The seismic record also included an interval of tremor coincident with an avalanche, which tumbled and bounced down the W flanks (figure 8, top). These two different signal sources were characterized using spectral response (figures 7 and 8, bottom); both produced spectra with a broad peak centered near 6 Hz. The broad 6 Hz peak is largest for the case of the tremor. But the case of the coincident tremor and avalanche yielded substantial peaks in the low-frequency range (centered near 0.25 Hz and at or below 0.1 Hz).

On the broad 6-Hz peaks the three components differ slightly, particularly with respect to individual spikes on the peaks. For the case of the tremor without the avalanche (figure 7, bottom), the spikes often correspond between the vertical and N-S horizontal (approximately radial), but the spikes of these components often differ from those on the E-W horizontal (approximately tangential). For the case of the tremor and avalanche, the largest spikes occur mainly to the low-frequency side of the broad peak (figure 8, bottom).

These results suggest that for some cases at Merapi an avalanche accompanied by tremor can be discriminated from tremor alone by looking at the low-frequency content of the signal. Other cases, such as typical earthquakes at Merapi, are not discussed here, but it is conceivable that advancing avalanches can be detected seismically as one means of early warning.

Hazard status up: sharp increases in pyroclastic flows, glowing rock falls, and tilt

The number of pyroclastic flows, glowing rock falls, and tilt increased sharply in the past several months (table 7). Both pyroclastic flows and rockfalls with substantial incandescent components traveled as far as 1.8 km (more typically, 0.5-1.0 km) down the SW slopes. In March, the number of these falls increased 1,550-fold over the background value at an undisclosed time (table 7).

Tiltmeters were installed in November 1992 on the crater rim near the contact with the 1992 dome. Beginning in July 1993 they showed a consistent outward rotation of ~5 µrad/day, achieving a change of 1,200 µrad overall through the end of March 1994. A measure of seismic power output (RSAM) also showed cumulative increases during November 1993-Mar 1994, indicating heightened seismic activity (table 7). During this interval the SO ₂ flux data were less compelling, but also showed both overall and generally progressive increases in the smallest values measured for any one interval (table 7).

Based on these monitoring data VSI proposed a shift in the hazard status, from "Normal Activity" to "First Alert Level."

Increased deformation precedes a nuee ardente

A nuée ardente erupted around 1400 on 16 July 1994, an event preceded by a clear increase in tilt several days before the eruption. Figure 9 shows tilt measurements during the interval 1-18 July. One set of measurements came from a site on Merapi's summit (Goa Jepang, ~2,900 m elevation); the other set of measurements came from a cave on Merapi's S flank (~1,000 m elevation).

The daily temperature variation in the cave is<1°C, suggesting little influence from temperature there (left-hand scale). The daily record of tilt varied significantly less at the cave site (typically <100 µrad) than at the summit site (typically ~150 µrad), an observation consistent with the more stable temperature in the cave.

Tilt began increasing at both sites roughly five days prior to the eruption. During this interval the tilt at both sites correlated consistently overall, and moderately at the finer-scale. Tilt ceased to track consistently near the end of the eruption, when the flank site underwent a dramatic decrease, a turn-around that began prior to the end of the eruption. Summit tilt measurements in January 1993 were similar to those presented here but then measurements at the cave site were a rarity, leaving the increased tilt without confirmation.

Two new broad-band seismometers detect long-period pulses and tremor

Two STS2 broad-band seismometers were deployed on 27-29 July by collaborators of the Geophysical Laboratory of GMU and Martin Beisser of GFZ-Potsdam. The researchers investigated signal coherency at different points on the volcano to find suitable sites for a multi-station seismic array that will make permanent records at a 50-Hz sampling rate. The researchers measured Merapi seismicity at a base station located at Klathakan (1.8 km WNW of the summit between 1,200-1,300 m elev), the site of a seismic station for the last eight years. The second station was mobile and GPS-equipped; however, for the following comparisons and discussion the mobile site remained 400 m N of the base station.

Figure 10 shows amplitude data for three components of volcanic shock from the mobile station. The volcanic shock event that began at 1750 and 37 seconds on 27 July is here termed Event A. Figure 11 shows the arriving signals and allows for a visual comparison of the coherency in the vertical component (top two plots), and two orthogonal horizontal components (lower four plots). From visual inspection, the best coherency appeared in the vertical-component data. Some other types of events received appeared to show less coherency between the two sites.

Figure 12 shows three components of a previously undetected tremor type, a tremor preceded by or superimposed on a long-period pulse. On the record, the interval of greatest short-period amplitude came after the pulse's maximum. Examples of this kind of tremor were seen three times in 12 hours. Whether these events are common on Merapi and elsewhere still remains uncertain.

[The reported low-frequency signal was later found to be caused by instrumental problems not recognized at the time of submission.]

Pyroclastic flows on 22 November kill at least 41 people on the SSW flank

Collapse of the active summit dome on 22 November produced pyroclastic block-and-ash flows and glowing surges that traveled SSW up to 7.5 km from the summit (figure 13). As of 28 November, 41 people had died and another 43 were at hospitals in serious condition. All of the victims lived in areas near the banks of the Boyong River. That river flows off Merapi's S flanks and, at ~28 km map distance from the summit, passes through the city of Yogyakarta (population ~50,000). The threats to areas on Merapi's S flank were noted in February 1994, when rockfalls were first observed and reported along the Boyong River. Every month since March, the possibility of SW-flank destruction had been mentioned in Berita Merapi (Merapi News) informing local governments, including Sleman Regency (where this disaster took place), of hazards posed by nuées ardentes. Rockfalls from the dome have recently traveled down the Boyong and other rivers for distances of 500-1,500 m.

The eruption was preceded by low-frequency earthquakes on 20 October. Multiphase seismic events and rockfalls continued to be recorded at normal levels, with occasional low-frequency events, but one tremor episode occurred on 3 November. On 4 November this change in seismic behavior was reported to the Chief of Regencies. During 21-22 November, a team from MVO climbed to the summit to observe dome development and to install an extensometer station to measure the offset along cracks.

The first nuée ardente was recorded instrumentally at 1014 on 22 November, and was observed visually from the Plawangan, Ngepos, Babadan, and Jrakah observation posts. The team at the summit saw a vertical plume that originated from a location somewhere on the S part of the dome.

The intensity of the nuées ardentes increased at 1020, prompting the observer at Plawangan to send a warning to the forestry officer at Kaliurang (figure 13), a well-known tourist resort. The officer then yelled a warning to the local people. Five minutes later (1025) MVO instructed all observation posts and radio stations of the Regional Task Force that the alert status had been raised to the highest level (Level 4), and that evacuations should begin. At 1045 the observer at Plawangan sent a message to the Chief of Pakem District, but he was already in the field, probably because he had heard the previous warning. Another evacuation warning was radioed to regional task forces at 1100. By 1215 the first victim had been discovered. The Plawangan observation post was abandoned at 1508 and the personnel temporarily moved to Kaliurang. The nuées ardentes had diminished by 1720 that evening.

A NOAA/NESDIS volcano hazards alert stated that at 1346 on 22 November a plume rose to ~10 km. At that time winds aloft were toward the W at 18 km/hour. These same points were repeated in an aviation safety alert (NOTAM).

A UNDHA report on 23 November stated that 25 of 40 employees building a water treatment facility were still missing, while 15 were found dead. Evacuees totalled 6,026 from the neighboring villages in the subdistrict of Pakem. Evacuation and emergency response measures had been undertaken by the local authorities and community members. The UNDHA reported that local volcanology officials advised authorities and local people to remain on alert for seven days.

A 23 November Tokyo Kyodo broadcast (in English) reported "Indonesia's team for disaster safety in Yogjakarta said ash rain has reached Temanggung, ~45 km NW of Merapi." A UPI news report stated that, on the morning of 23 November, an official of the natural disasters office in Sleman said that 118 people were in three hospitals suffering from serious burns. The report further stated that "hundreds of homes have collapsed and thousands of cattle were buried by ash." On 26 November UPI reported that >4,700 people remained in evacuation centers.

According to press accounts and other information collected by the U.S. Embassy and issued on 23 and 25 November, most of the casualties occurred when superheated gases swept through two small villages (Desa Purwobinangun and Desa Hargobinangun in the Sleman district). The eruption ignited ~500 hectares of rainforest near Kaliurang, which press reports said had been damaged by ashfall. Embassy reports on 25 November stated that an estimated 34-200 people were still missing (there had been no communication with some affected villages on the slopes of the volcano). Well over 500 injured persons had been treated at local hospitals. The 25 November Embassy report said that "Local authorities are now concerned about an accumulation of volcanic material [on Merapi's flanks]. It is feared that the approaching rainy season could dislodge this material (estimated in the range of 11 million m ³) causing dangerous [mudflows] in the villages below. City officials in Yogyakarta . . . are reported to be constructing a third catchment dam to regulate volcanic material entering the Code river, which runs through the city."

A 23 November Reuters press report stated that "The official Antara news agency said that despite warnings, local people were reluctant to leave the area, regarding the volcano as sacred and likely to offer some supernatural signs if it were to cause a major disaster."

Pyroclastic flows continue through 7 December

Collapse of the active summit dome on 22 November sent pyroclastic flows down the SW flank (19:10), overrunning several villages. Although no eruption column was described by VSI observers, aviation warnings on the 22nd stated that ash rose to 10 km; satellite analysis the next day indicated that the plume was a low-level feature well below 6 km. As of 7 December, the UNDHA had confirmed 58 deaths; an Antara news report on 19 December placed the number at 60. Indonesian and Japanese medical teams conducted life-saving plastic surgery on 22 critically injured burn victims.

Continuing small eruptions through 7 December sent pyroclastic flows up to 1.5 km down the Boyong River. An estimated 1 x 10 ⁶ m ³ of pyroclastic sediment has been deposited along the Boyong River, while another 12 x 10 ⁶ m ³ remains on the slopes near the crater. Geochemical analysis in late November indicated increased SO ₂ emissions of up to 44 t/d.

Most of the >6,000 evacuees were allowed to return home in early December. However, local authorities decided that 2,700 evacuees from five villages within 5 km of the summit in Sleman District (Turgo, Kinahredjo, Kaliadem, Tritis, and Ngandong) would be resettled locally. Although pyroclastic flows had damaged the spring-water source that supplies clean water to the Kaliurang Hill Resort, part of it was reopened on 19 December; the W part was not reopened because it was still considered dangerous.

Residents along the Code River (15,000 people in 11 villages) in Yogyakarta were alerted to the possibility of evacuation, because heavy rainfall in the Boyong River drainage could trigger cold lahars. Existing lahar control works and sabo dams have been constructed on the W side of the volcano in the Magelang District. The Boyong River has only two sabo dams with a capacity of 400,000 m ³. The Indonesian government plans to construct three sabo dams of 350,000 m ³ capacity each, downstream from the Boyong River.

Seismic data associated with the 22 November 1994 dome collapse

Workers at the GMU Geophysical Laboratory and Martin Beisser of GFZ-Potsdam recorded seismic data during the [summit lava dome] collapse from their station at Klathakan, 1.8 km WNW of the summit. Their broad-band seismic instrument showed the associated disturbance beginning on 22 November at 1007 and 32 seconds (radial-component data shown on figure 14). So far as the GMU and GFZ workers know, the wide dynamic range of their broad-band instrument preserved the event with a minimal amount of high-amplitude signal "clipping." Also, in their interpretation, the collapse and seismic disturbance began simultaneously. In other words, the initial displacement at the beginning of the seismic record is thought to correspond to the arrival of signals from the inception of the collapse.

The collapse-related seismic event lasted for almost an hour (figure 14). The initial signals were set against a moderately quiet background, and maximum amplitude generally increased with time. Highest-amplitude signals were received ~40 minutes after the event began. These largest signals had amplitudes that reached approximately 30 mm/second, whereas at the beginning of the collapse the maximum amplitudes were only ~0.05 mm/second. Thus, on the seismic records, amplitudes ultimately grew to 600x as large as the initial signals.

The eruption and collapse also appear in a 200-hour time window showing measured seismic amplitude in specified wavelengths (figure 15). The figure was prepared using signal processing techniques, which for the high frequency (0.1-1.0 Hz) data involved significant averaging of the maximum values (to once an hour). These depictions show that one or two noteworthy seismic disturbances took place at ~150 and 180 hours prior to the collapse (cause unknown). Compared to the other seismic disturbances on these records, the collapse and eruption induced larger amplitude and much more sustained signals. The post-collapse signals were also followed by an interval of at least 10 hours of elevated background (most noticeable in the 1-12 Hz range).

Using the available data, the investigators failed to find any clearly related premonitory seismic signals for the collapse. Sufficient collateral data (for example, teleseismic and meteorological data) might help constrain detected collapse and eruption earthquakes, or shed light on the cause of the pre-collapse seismic disturbances.

Since our last report (19:12), continued dome building occurred at Merapi. On 5 January another collapse brought 1 x 10 ⁶ m ³ of debris downslope. This collapse produced a small pyroclastic flow on the S slope.

Pyroclastic flows travel down two river drainages

During August-October 1995 pyroclastic flows ("glowing avalanches") continued flowing down the Boyong River; others entered the Krasak River and reached ~1-1.5 km from the source. Seismic activity was dominated by multiphase and lava-avalanche (rockfall) earthquakes. The number of multiphase earthquakes increased in October to 793 events, compared to 186 in September. Earthquakes associated with lava avalanches or rock falls gradually decreased from 1,195 events in August to 806 in September and 605 in October (figure 16). Shallow volcanic (B-type) earthquakes (~1 km depth) were recorded on 25 October and a deep volcanic (A-type) earthquake (2.7 km depth) was detected on 30 October. Observations in October indicated an inflation associated with 40 µrad of tilt. Measurement of SO ₂ by COSPEC indicated that the emission rate during October fluctuated between 18 and 112 t/d (average 63).

Information Contacts: W. Tjetjep, VSI.

Increased seismicity related to lava avalanches and rockfalls

During November-December 1995 glowing avalanches down the Boyong, Krasak, and Bebeng rivers reached up to 2.5 km from the source. Seismic activity was dominated by multiphase earthquakes, low-frequency earthquakes, and lava avalanches (rockfalls). The number of multiphase earthquakes decreased from 924 in November to 152 in December; low-frequency earthquakes also decreased from 74 in November to 42 in December. Seismicity associated with lava avalanches and rock falls increased from 816 events in November to 1,078 in December (figure 17). A deep volcanic earthquake (A- type) and two tremor events were recorded in November, three shallow volcanic earthquakes (B-type) occurred in December.

Inflation increased since 17 November from 2.5 to 10.8 µrad/day. Tilt data collected at two stations in the summit area during November and December indicated inflation of 60 and 320 µrad, respectively. The geomagnetic intensity in early December was -14.5 nTs; it then decreased to -1.5 nTs by the end of the month. The emission rate of SO ₂ during November fluctuated between 27 and 275 t/d, averaging 95 t/d, and the plume velocity was ~3.2-3.5 m/s. In December the emission rate decreased to 70 t/d, fluctuating between 18 and 156 t/d; plume speed was slightly higher at 3.3-3.6 m/s.

Increasing eruptive activity prompts preparations for evacuation

A news report in early August noted that emission of thick clouds from the crater had increased significantly. Emitted clouds and "glowing lavas" reportedly blackened the peak of the mountain. Villagers living on the slope of Merapi were apparently told to make preparations for possible evacuation.

On 13 September a pilot report from Qantas Airlines stated that an ash cloud had been observed above Merapi to ~6 km altitude. In a communication with the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center, the Merapi Volcano Observatory reported no significant change in the eruptive status, consisting of small ash clouds being produced. No plume was evident on satellite imagery.

Peak in volcanism on 31 October results in over 15 pyroclastic flows

Sometime between 1417 and 1930 on 9 August, a pyroclastic flow traveled 3.5 km from the summit down the SSW flank, reaching the upper parts of the Krasak and Boyong rivers. No casualties were reported, and neither A- nor B-type volcanic earthquakes were recorded.

During September white plumes rose above the summit solfarata field. From the second week of September, multiphase volcanic earthquakes, which are dominant at Merapi, rose sharply to 1,398 events/day. This seismic increase accompanied growth of the lava dome. After the 9 August pyroclastic flow, the volume of the remaining lava dome was ~100,000 m ³. The dome volume was estimated at 4.5 x 10 ⁵ and 7.5 x 10 ⁵ m ³ on 24 September and 11 October, respectively, based on Celestron photographs. The growth rate of the lava dome was estimated at 17,050 m ³/day on 11 October, much higher than usual (3,000-5,000 m ³/day).

Multiphase earthquakes again increased with 3,804 events registered on 24 October. These earthquakes showed harmonic patterns, which had never been recorded before at Merapi. At 1533 on 24 October, four pyroclastic flows descended toward the upper reaches of the Krasak and Boyong rivers, and traveled a maximum of 2.5 km from the summit. No casualties were reported.

Between 0000 and 1800 on 27 October, multiphase earthquakes suddenly decreased with only 32 events recorded. However, multiphase earthquakes increased again on 30 October with 693 events during a period of six hours. From Celestron photographs on 29 October, it was estimated that the lava dome was 11 x 10 ⁵ m ³ in volume with a daily growth of 17,500 m ³. The height of the dome also increased from 42 to 48 m during 11-29 October. At 1813 on 28 October, a pyroclastic flow descended into the upper part of the Krasak River, and the next day (0133 and 1633 on 29 October) two more pyroclastic flows followed. At 0714 on 30 October one pyroclastic flow was observed to move down toward the upper part of the Sat River from the 1992 lava dome. The tiltmeter at Station 2 indicated increasing deformation (>310 µrad) from 9 August to late October, consistent with increasing seismic and eruptive activity.

Volcanic activity reached a peak on 31 October. At 1544 a series of pyroclastic flows began to be observed. They traveled from the summit to the upper reaches of the Bebeng, Krasak, Boyong, and Kuning rivers. From 1544 to 1650, seventeen pyroclastic flows were recorded. The biggest ones occurred at 1637 and 1640, respectively, with a maximum runout of 3 km. Between 1718 and 2117, dense clouds hampered direct observations, but seismic information indicated nine small pyroclastic flows. During 2125-2155 thin ashfall (0.5 mm in thickness) was reported at Babadan Observatory (4 km W of Merapi). From 2130 to 2352 seven pyroclastic flows descended into the Krasak, Bebeng, and Boyong rivers, with a maximum runout of 3 km.

Pyroclastic flows decreased the next day (1 November) and ceased on 2 November. Five pyroclastic flows were observed to travel 1 km from the summit between 0000 and 0514 on 1 November. From 2 November, the lava dome showed no signs of significant growth, and the number and released energy of multiphase earthquakes also declined. However, rock-fall avalanches slowly increased.

Pyroclastic flows and vigorous plumes noted in first half of 1997

The Societe Volcanologique de Geneve (SVG) reported that on 11 January a member of the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) noticed the emplacement of ~ 400,000 m ³ of material on the dome. On 14 January, at 0930 the first of many pyroclastic flows was observed. During the following 10 hours 81 pyroclastic flows ran down the flanks, reaching as far as 4 km. Tremors and volcano-tectonic earthquakes were recorded. On 17 January a strong explosion threw a 4,000-m-high column above the crater and another pyroclastic flow raced down the slopes at 1040.

The National Coordinating Board for Disaster Management (BAKORNAS PB) of the Indonesian Government later announced that an eruption took place at 1035 on 17 January. Heavy rains on 17 and 18 January in surrounding areas could have caused mudflows. Reuters reported that about 5,000 people living near Merapi were evacuated from their villages after the volcano started spewing burning ash and hot lava. By 18 January the volcanic activity started decreasing. On 24 January the volcano began spewing hot clouds again; many of the evacuees returned home despite the warnings. According to local newspapers, six people were missing, several were injured, and many had been blinded by the heat clouds, but none were dead. Damage included hundreds of hectares of crops burned.

SVG also reported that a new crater had formed within the 1992 lavas and the early- 1997 lavas. A new dome was growing inside this crater; its volume was estimated to be 160,000 m ³. On 22 March and 29 June 1997 Qantas flights over Merapi reported ash at ~ 6.1 and 10 km altitude, respectively. In both cases, however, satellite imagery failed to confirm the plumes because of high clouds.

From 12 to 15 April a field party from the European Volcanological Society (SVE) observed the volcano, from Kaliungarang village, ~6 km from the dome; later they moved to closer positions. They reported pyroclastic flows and rockfalls with frequencies of 5-10 events/hour; the longest runout distances were 2 km from the summit. Of these rockfalls, only a few were made of incandescent materials, indicating that the others involved remobilized older material. A plume was almost always present at the summit.

Information Contacts: M. Vigny and P. Vetsch, Societe de Volcanologie Geneve (SVG), B.P. 298, CH-1225, Chenebourg, Switzerland; Reuters; Department of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations, Palais de Nations 1211 Geneva, Switzerland; Henry Gaudru and Patrick Barons, European Volcanological Society (SVE), C.P. 1, 1211 Geneva 17, Switzerland; Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, P.O. Box 735, Darwin NT 0801, Australia.

Intermediate hazard status posted during September 1997

The following summary from the Merapi Volcano Observatory (MVO) describes the situation in September 1997. The alert status was "Waspada Merapi," the second of four progressive stages of alert, for all of September.

Visual accounts of activity were made from five observation posts surrounding Merapi, usually in the morning. A thin, white plume rising under low pressure was seen consistently. The plume rose 400 m above the summit in the first part of the month but attained heights of up to 1,000 m later in September. Low- and moderate- energy rockfalls containing glowing material occurred on the SW flanks, in the Sat, Krasak, Bebeng, Boyong, and Senowo river valleys, running to a maximum of 2.5 km from the summit. A persistent red glow was observed at the dome. No pyroclastic flows were reported in September.

Seismicity decreased in frequency in early September compared to August (table 8). Shallow earthquakes, such as multi-phase and rockfall types were most common. Data from tiltmeters indicated inflation in most areas in the first week of September. No significant changes were seen later in the month. Photographic evidence suggested no major change in the dome volume.

On 9 January 1998 the Associated Press reported a warning of potentially dangerous eruptive activity at Merapi. The warning followed observation of a significant amount of fresh lava at the summit. Local experts warned nearby residents to prepare for quick evacuation to avoid the effects of nuées ardentes and of the danger of debris slides following heavy rain.

Information Contacts: Mas Atje Purbawinata, Director, Merapi Volcano Observatory, Jalan Cendana 15, Yogyakarta 55166, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Increasing activity culminates in mid-July pyroclastic flows

Seismic activity and avalanches increased significantly at Merapi beginning in June, and reached a climax in mid-July. According to Xinhua News Agency reports, pyroclastic flows and ashfall near populated areas caused concern among Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) scientists and civil authorities; evacuations were considered. VSI ranks alert status as follows, in increasing level of concern: Normal, Waspada, Siap, and Awas.

Increasing eruptive activity during the last week of June prompted officials to increase the alert level to Waspada on 2 July. As activity progressed to more dangerous levels, the alert status increased to Siaga at 0500 on 8 July, eventually reaching Awas at 0438 on 11 July, before returning to Siaga at 1200 on 12 July. A solfatara plume was observed during late June and early July; gases escaped with varying pressure to form a thin (or sometimes thick) white cloud attaining maximum heights of 1,400 m above the summit in the first week of July, and 2,000 m by 11 July. Avalanches extending as long as 1.5 km coursed through the upper portions of the Senowo river, and others were seen in the Lamat, Krasak/Bebeng and Boyong rivers (figure 18). Glowing at the summit resumed in late June. During the reporting interval seismic activity showed a significant increase; specifically, the number of shallow volcanic (B-type), multi-phase (MP), low-frequency (LF), and rockfall events increased sharply (table 9).

The amount of measured deformation also increased (although the summit tiltmeter station was rendered inoperative after 8 July). Explosions on 11 July could be heard as far away as 20 km S in the city of Yogyakarta. VSI noted, "lava was seen ejecting from the crater." In addition, and presumably with undue exaggeration, Xinhua news reporters claimed that some areas near the volcano were under 1.5 m of ash that blanketed crops and plantations.

On 19 July, Babadan Observatory located 4 km W of the summit reported three 'guguran' (pyroclastic flows resulting from dome collapse in the crater). These occurred between midnight and 0600, some reaching as far as 2,500 m down the Lamat River. VSI also noted a "thick white solfataric ash plume"; it stood 50 m in height and was observed from Kaliurang beginning at 0545. Pyroclastic flows during the remaining morning ran 5,000 m down the Lamat River valley, and an eruptive column rose up to 4,500 m above the summit. Between 0600 and 1313, seismic stations recorded 347 multiphase (MP) events. Tremor occurred between 1325 and 1503 and was accompanied by five pyroclastic flows that reached 2,000-5,000 m from the summit. At 1330 VSI ordered workers on the W sector of the volcano to leave the area. At 1501 Merapi erupted violently; several pyroclastic flows traveled 5,500 m down Lamat River and an eruptive column rose up to 6,000 m above the summit by 1507. At about 1615 ash showered the W side of the volcano, accumulating up to 2 mm in Muntilan. Ash also fell in Purworejo (42 km W of Yogyakarta) and Temanggung (35 km NW of the crater). Shallow volcanic earthquakes at 1625 were followed by small tremor. As many as 25 pyroclastic flows continued until 1800, some causing ash showers in nearby villages. There were B-type events (16), MP events ( 399 ), pyroclastic flows (119), and some glowing rockfalls throughout the afternoon.

Activity had subsided by 21 June, although fog obscured the summit area. Thick white ash rose to 460 m. Glowing rockfalls sometimes ran 1,250 m down the Lamat River valley.

This hazardous stratovolcano is located 70 km SE of Dieng and immediately N of Yogyakarta, a city of half a million people. In 32 of its 67 historical eruptions, nuées ardentes took place-more than known at any other volcano in the world-and 11 of them have caused fatalities. The volcano is carefully watched by several VSI observatories and heavily monitored instrumentally.

Details of July eruptions, new monitoring equipment

The relative calm in seismic, gas, and rockfall activity at Merapi ended in late June (BGVN 23:07). Activity since November 1994 had been concentrated on the S of the volcano, but activity in July occurred mainly on the W slopes. Further details of the July eruptions are reported below, followed by an account of new monitoring equipment.

Changes in the measured tilt began in early June on the W flank, forecasting an increase in activity. Tilt increased at the end of June and an extension of 1 m was detected by electronic distance measurement during the first week of July. Also, the tilt measured by station ST3, located at the crater rim near the active dome, showed strong inflation at extraordinarily high rates of up to 200 µrad/hour. This high tilt rate was likely influenced by heat radiated from the new dome; an accurate estimate of tilt with this effect removed remains problematic. After the nuée ardente of 8 July, no further signals from ST3 were recorded and an early August field trip failed to find any remnants of the station.

Increases in accumulated seismic energy indicated an approaching change in the eruption regime. Soon after a small explosion on 30 June a plume emerged from the summit and a glowing avalanche rushed down the W slope. The explosion opened at least one hole on the W slope close to the summit. New lava was squeezed out of the opening "like toothpaste" without friction or pressure; the volcano seemed to be partially open. During the next week, avalanches connected to new dome building were observed from Babadan on the W slope. Based on observation of these avalanches, the nuée ardente on 8 July was expected. The daily number of rockfalls increased strongly from a few, to dozens, and then to more than 100; some rockfalls were glowing.

Seismicity (especially multi-phase events) strongly increased in early July (figure 19) before peaking on 11 July when 37 nuées ardentes occurred between midnight and 0500. The most powerful eruption that day happened at 0445; volcanic material flowed 4 km from the summit. The plume reached a height of ~4 km and ash was distributed 15-20 km away. During 11-19 July, 128 nuées ardentes were seen, including a final strong pyroclastic ash-and-block flow at 1500 on 19 July. Seismic activity, except the number of rock falls, decreased after 19 July. Four episodes of volcanic tremor were recorded in July (usually during vigorous eruptive activity), indicating magma movement. The dome grew briskly without special seismic activity, although much of the new lava collapsed, causing hundreds of daily avalanches. Many local residents watched huge glowing rockfalls at night on the W slope.

Explosion sounds were heard only close to the dome (for example, in Klatakan but not in Babadan). On 30 June a seismologist working on the W slope in Klatakan on an active seismic experiment heard a sharp noise at about 1130 that preceded both a plume and pyroclastic flows.

Some W-side stations were covered with more than 2.5 cm of ash. Pyroclastic-flow deposits filled parts of a valley on the W slope, almost reaching the town of Jerung Jeru, 7 km from the summit. The total amount of material erupted during July was estimated to be 8.8 x 10 ⁶ m ³. The huge amount of ash released during July suggested an explosive process rather than gravity collapse, as happened in November 1994 when far less ash was emitted.

New seismic warning installations. German scientists Joachim Wassermann and Juergen Gossler installed an infrasonic network at Babadan on the W slope. Three clusters, each with four microphones installed in tubes directed at the summit, collect infrasonic noise.

Infrasonic noise was recorded beginning three days before the events of 19 July. The data showed a good correlation between seismicity and infrasonic signals during avalanche and lahar activity. A signal recorded before the main pyroclastic flow could have been a precursory event. A volcanic explosion was recorded before 19 July by a member of the active seismic experiment group during fieldwork at Klatakan. No event was heard in Babadan at that time, but the subsequent avalanche was recorded. A few explosions may have occurred earlier in the month, but no acoustic signals were detected, probably because Babadan is too far from the source.

A broad-band seismic station was installed on Pasar Bubar, on a plateau just below the summit, to complement the three stations on the slopes of Merapi. A program is under development that would select different signals automatically and thus enable a "quasi-online calculation" for the hypocenters and epicenters of volcanic events. Infrasonic data together with seismic data could be sent to the Volcano Technical Research Center (Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kegunungapian, "BPPTK") of VSI to improve the early warning system. Combined data from the same site would help in locating volcanic events and could provide information about source mechanics.

Information Contacts: Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Bandung, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Mas Atje Purbowinata, Merapi Volcano Observatory, Jalan Cendana 15 Yogyakarta 55166, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); A. Brodscholl, BPPTK, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia; J. Gossler, GeoForschungs Zentrum (GFZ), Potsdam, Germany; J. Wassermann, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany.

Frequent lahars, lava avalanches, and pyroclastic flows during March-May

Merapi remained active throughout the reporting period of 9 March through 24 May. Although no deaths were reported, the volcano continually threatened surrounding populated areas with lahars, lava avalanches, and pyroclastic flows. Throughout the period, Merapi exhibited weakly pressured, thick, white, sulfur-tinted ash plumes extending 100-700 m above the summit.

During the week of 9-15 March a vigorous "white ash plume" was observed, weakly pressured, with 550 m maximum height above the summit. Observers additionally identified lava glowing along the SW flank, in the direction of the Blongkeng, Lamat, and Sat drainages (the maximum run-out distance was 0.8 km). On 11 March a small pyroclastic flow was noted traveling SW with 0.8 km of run-out distance. During this week multiphase events dominated seismic activity, presumably resulting from the emission of lava and glowing debris. A small lahar traveled down the Sat drainage on 13 March.

During 16-22 March, ash emissions and lava avalanches continued. Avalanches again traveled SW, with maximum run-out distances of 0.4 km. Glow at the lava dome was weak. Surface shocks (assumed to be from lava avalanches) dominated seismicity. From 23 to 29 March the lava avalanches continued in the direction of the SW-flank rivers with 1.8 km maximum run-out distances. These drainages glowed at night. On 24 March a small pyroclastic flow started at the edge of the lava dome, moved in the direction of the Sat River, and attained a 0.6 km run-out distance; no glow was observed at the dome. Seismicity was dominated by surface events mostly interpreted as lava avalanches.

During the week of 27 April to 3 May, sulfur-tinted ash plumes reached their highest point during the recording period, 700 m above the summit. Lava avalanches continued in the direction of Blongkeng, Sat, and Lamat with 0.9 km run-out distances; again night glow was observed in these drainages. In contrast, the body of the lava dome lacked glowing areas. A small pyroclastic flow from the edge of the 1998 lava moved downslope SW for a distance of 1.3 km. Surface events continued to dominate seismicity. A small lahar buried two trucks and a digging machine at Putih on 1 May; no injuries were reported.

Lava avalanches during 4-17 May continued towards the SW-flank drainages with 1-km maximum distances each week. There was a weak glow on the lava dome during the first week and none the second. There was one small pyroclastic flow each week from the edge of the 1998 lava, which again moved SW out to 1 km distance. From 18 to 24 May lava avalanches had 1.8 km run-out distances. Glow within cracks on the lava dome was weak. Seismicity during May continued to be dominated by multiphase shocks and surface events identified as lava avalanches.

Information Contacts: Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Consistent gas plume; lava avalanches and landslide; new lava dome and fractures

During June 1999-July 2000, Merapi consistently emitted a low-density, sulfur-rich, light-colored gas plume that ranged from 150 to 1,500 m above the summit. Frequent lava avalanches toward the nearby Blongkeng, Lamat, Sat, and Senowo River drainages reached maximum distances of 2 km. Lava avalanches glowed at night, although no incandescence could be observed inside the summit's lava dome. Tiltmeters lacked significant deformational changes, although a summit visit on 13 May 2000 revealed that the 1998 lava dome was growing. Lava avalanches and multi-phase earthquakes dominated seismicity. No lahars were observed during the period.

At the end of July 2000 low-intensity glow from the lava dome was observed. Seismicity increased in the first week of August with a few deep (A-type) and shallow (B-type) earthquakes. Emissions remained similar in consistency to those of the previous months, and rose 160 m above the summit. The hazard level was raised from 1 to 2 (on a 1-4 scale). The following week seismicity continued to increase, exemplified by a M 2.8 B-type event. Gas emissions rose up to 385 m above the summit. During the third week of August, volcanic and seismic activity continued to increase with gas emissions rising 460 m and greater numbers of A- and B-type earthquakes. Surficial events still dominated the overall seismicity. Plumes rose up to 700 m in the final week of August.

Activity remained similar to the previous weeks during September-October. Emissions continued to rise from 250 to 650 m high. The volume of emitted material was estimated to be 169 tons/day at the end of September. Seismicity changed little until late October, when volcanic tremor was recorded.

On 31 October a team from the Merapi Volcano Observatory (MVO) performed summit observations. The team noted that lava avalanches from the 1957 dome had filled the upper stream beds of the Senowo and Trising Rivers. The active 1998 lava dome was lifted on its W side and split in half. A newly formed dome between the two older sides had an elongated E-W-trending shape. Concentric and radial fractures were observed on the N and SW portions of the summit crater, and some fractures showed significant dilation. Radial fractures N of the summit crater and on the floor of Puncak Garuda appeared to have been sutured and then redeveloped to form a normal fault with a total offset of 30 cm. A fracture located between the 1957 and 1948 domes opened 20.5 cm during 14 May-1 November 2000.

High rainfall during the second week in November caused a landslide at the source of the Boyong River near Kaliurang, causing one death. At the end of November, Merapi still emitted a gaseous plume from its summit. Seismographs continued to register A- and B-type earthquakes, although multi-phase earthquakes dominated the record. The volcano remained at Hazard Level 2.

Information Contacts: Dali Ahmad, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Dome failure and growth during January 2001; over 30 pyroclastic flows

Eruptive activity increased markedly at Merapi during the period of 26 December 2000-22 January 2001. Instrumental monitoring first recorded a significant increase in seismicity, expressed in both shallow and deep volcanic earthquakes, during 26 December-1 January. Visual observations were hindered during this time because of hazy conditions, and VSI maintained a hazard status of 2 (on a scale of 1-4) for Merapi.

Activity continued to increase during 2-8 January. Atmospheric conditions were clearer, allowing observation of a 1,500-m-high plume above the summit. Lava avalanches flowed ~1 km from the summit down to the Sat River. Seismicity remained high, again with a significant number of shallow and deep volcanic earthquakes, and was dominated by multi-phase and avalanche earthquakes.

During 9-15 January, activity again increased with respect to the previous week. Accordingly, VSI elevated Merapi's hazard status to 3. Observers noted a light-colored, variable-density, low-pressure ash plume that rose 500 m above the summit. Glowing lava avalanches flowed into the headwaters of the Lamat, Sat, and Senowo Rivers, up to 2 km from the summit. On 14 January, 29 pyroclastic flows traveled down the volcano's flanks into the three above-mentioned rivers and reached up to 4 km from their source. During the week, lava avalanches and pyroclastic flows occurred with an average interval of 0.5-1 hours.

Visual observations from several post observatories during 16-22 January revealed ash eruptions, glowing lava flows and avalanches, and pyroclastic flows. Merapi ejected a dense, light-colored ash plume under medium to high pressure. Ash rose 850-1,300 m above the summit, with an estimated emission volume of 95 metric tons/day. Ashfall occurred on the surrounding areas of Babadan, Kaliurang, and Ngepos. Glowing lava avalanches, with more than 150 occurring per day, reached as far as 3.5 km from the summit into the Bebeng, Sat, and Senowo Rivers. Observers suggested more than one source vent for these flows. More than 20 pyroclastic flows occurred daily during the week, sending ash and gas a maximum of 3 km down the Bebeng River, 4.5 km down the Sat River, and an unreported distance down the Senowo River.

The Darwin VAAC issued an ash advisory on 19 January to advise pilots of ash emanating from Merapi. The advisory reported an ash plume up to an altitude of ~3,400 m. Prevailing winds were projected to carry ash to the E or SE; cloud cover prevented any further descriptions.

A new lava dome, termed "2001," grew on top of the 1998 dome that had collapsed around 16 January. Growth appeared continuous with the glowing dome visible at night. Researchers speculated that the failure of the 1998 dome and the instability of the new dome accounted for the high frequency and volume of pyroclastic flows.

Failure of 1998 lava dome on 10 February causes major eruption

Renewed unrest began on the night of 27 January with continuous pyroclastic flows and hot lava avalanches, which lasted up to two hours. Since mid-January a Level 3 hazard status has remained in effect for the volcano. The Volcanological Society of Indonesia (VSI) reported that on 28 January 2001 Merapi's "2001" lava dome (BGVN 25:12) partially collapsed resulting in pyroclastic flows and hot lava avalanches with recurrence intervals of ~2-5 minutes. Pyroclastic material flowed down to the Sat, Bebeng, and Senowo Rivers, to the SW, SW, and W of Merapi, respectively. Their maximum runout distance occurred in the Sat River drainage, where flows reached ~4.5 km from the source. A plume, thick with sulfurous ash, rose 2 km above the summit. The eruption generated ashfalls within a radius of 15-20 km; ash fell on the Dukun, Srumbung, Salam, Ngluwar, and Muntilan Districts surrounding Merapi.

VSI geophysicist Ratdomopurbo reported that the unstable lava dome was actively growing taller and larger; continued magma chamber injection had caused the pyroclastic flows and lava avalanches at the surface. Magma migration was indicated by increased deep volcanic (A-type) and shallow volcanic (B-type) earthquakes since August 2000. On 31 January pyroclastic flows occurred continuously, reaching up to ~3.5 km from the summit and flowing mainly into the Sat River, but also into the Senowo and Bebeng Rivers. At Babadan Observatory, located 4 km from the summit, a seismograph recorded earthquakes related to pyroclastic flows that exceeded the instrument's scale for up to 60 seconds during the interval of 1601-1822. Ashfall continued within 15 km of Merapi. A recent photograph showed a new active vent on Merapi's summit. VSI scientists engaged in Merapi research remained uncertain whether the vent in the photo had only emitted gases or had also emitted lava and tephra.

Pyroclastic flows and lava avalanches continued through 5 February (figures 20 and 21). Approximately 25 pyroclastic flows occurred daily and moved down the flanks to the Sat, Bebeng, and Senowo Rivers with a maximum runout distance of 4.5 km. Lava avalanches flowed down to the Lamat River, W of the volcano, in addition to the three above-mentioned rivers; lava avalanches reached a distance of 3.5 km from Merapi's summit, falling 1 km short of flows from the previous week. Ashfalls continued, and heavy rain on 3 February caused a minor lahar that initiated at 0430. Summarizing observations, Syamsul Rizal Wittiri stated that Merapi's lava dome continued to grow larger with the addition of ~45,000 cubic meters of material per day; lava dome volume as of 6 February was 1 million cubic meters. On 9 February at 2100 a continuous pyroclastic flow occurred for ~1 hour.

A major eruptive episode occurred on 10 February (figure 22). At 0200 purported magma migration toward the surface was associated with a medium-sized, 30-minute-long pyroclastic flow. At 0330 failure of the 1998 lava dome sent an ash cloud billowing 5 km above the summit and generated sizable pyroclastic flows that extended up to 7 km from Merapi in the direction of the Sat River and 4.5 km in the direction of the Lamat River. At 0530 Merapi's alert was raised from 3 to 4, the highest level, for the first time since July 1998 (BGVN 23:07). The ash plume from the eruption spread 60 km toward the E over the communities of Klaten, Solo, Sukoharjo, and Boyolali. Ashfall produced an ash layer with a maximum thickness of 1 cm at a 5 km radius from the volcano. Stations recorded high seismicity accompanying the eruption. Instrumentation detected decreasing magnetic intensity near the summit, indicating high heat and magma near the surface.

Syamsul Rizal Wittiri predicted that Merapi's activity will continue and potentially increase because the 2001 lava dome, which attained a volume of 1.4 million cubic meters, is unstable due to the collapse of the 1998 dome. Merapi's alert level remained at 4 as of 14 February.

Volcanism continues at decreased intensity; Alert reduced from 4 to 2

After the large 10 February eruption (see BGVN 26:01), volcanic activity, including lava avalanches and pyroclastic flows, continued but decreased in intensity. Pyroclastic flows entered the Sat, Lamat, Senowo, and Bebeng rivers to a maximum runout distance of 2-3 km. High fumarole temperatures around the summit indicated that magma remained near the surface. The W and S sides of "lava dome 2001" grew and covered "lava dome 1997" to the S. Several fumaroles appeared to mark a fracture in the area of the 10 February eruption. Fractures formed in a similar manner prior to the November 1994 eruption.

The hazard status was at its highest level, 4 (on a scale of 1-4), through the week of 21-27 February 2001. The Alert Level was reduced to 3 the following week, and then to 2 during 7-13 March, where it remained through August.

Over the interval 14 February to 28 August, ash emissions rose up to ~150 m above the summit, and fumaroles emitted gas that rose up to ~950 m above the summit. Superficial earthquakes dominated the seismicity, though over time they continued to decrease in number and amplitude. Observations on 10 and 17 March revealed that high-pressure fumaroles appeared on most of the dome's surface. An observer reported that on 13 April a small amount of ash fell around the Babadan Post Observatory ~7 km W of the volcano. Activity at Merapi increased during 23-29 April, with reports of several medium-sized pyroclastic flows. Table 10 provides a more detailed description of weekly activity at Mt. Merapi from 14 February through 28 August.

14 Feb-20 Feb 2001

Lava and pyroclastic flows continued but decreased in intensity, pyroclastic flows entered the Sat, Lamat, Senowo, and Bebung rivers. Maximum runut 2-3 km. Flows traveled 1.5-2.5 km to the WSW for 1-2 hours. High temperatures around Merapi indicated that magma was near the surface; the W and S sides of "lava dome bgvn_2001" grew and covered "lava dome 1997" to the S; several fumaroles appeared to mark a fracture along where the 10 February eruption occurred.

21 Feb-27 Feb 2001

Volcanic activity decreased. Daily ash emissions rose to ~150 m above the summit.

07 Mar-13 Mar 2001

Volcanic activity decreased, 100 avalanches per day. Maximum runout of 2.3-2.5 km SW. On 6 March a pyroclastic flow deposited material up to 1.5 km down the Sat river.

14 Mar-20 Mar 2001

Volcanic activity continued, hot avalanches continued to enter the Sat, Senowo, Bebeng, and Lamat rivers. Maximum runout of 2.5 km in the Sat river, pyroclastic flows up to 2.75 km down the Sat, Senowo, and Bebeng rivers. Superficial earthquakes dominated the seismicity but decreased. On 19 March high-pressure fumaroles appeared on most of the dome's surface.

21 Mar-27 Mar 2001

Volcanic activity continued. hot avalanches continued to enter the Sat, Senowo, Bebeng, and Lamat rivers. Maximum runout of 3 km in the Sat river. Pyroclastic flows traveled up to 1 km down the Sat, Senowo, and Bebeng rivers. Superficial earthquakes dominated the seismicity but decreased. On 17 March a summit visit revealed that high-pressure fumaroles remained on most of the dome's surface.

11 Apr-17 Apr 2001

Volcanic activity continued. Lava avalanches continued to enter upstream areas of the Sat, Senowo, Lamat, and Bebeng rivers. Maximum runout of 2.5 km in the Sat river; an observer reported that 10 pyroclastic flows traveled down the Sat, Senowo, and Bebeng rivers, reaching as far as 2.3 km in the Sat river. Fumaroles emitted steam and gas up to 950 m above the volcano's summit; number and amplitude of earthquakes was high but decreasing, seismic activity was dominated by avalanche earthquakes.

18 Apr-24 Apr 2001

Lava avalanches continued to fill the upstream areas of the Sat, Senowo, Lamat, and Bebeng rivers. Maximum runout of 2 km in the Sat river; 11 pyroclastic flows entered the Sat and Lamat rivers, reaching as far as 3 km. Avalanche earthquakes dominated the seismicity but their amplitude and frequency decreased; on 13 April a small amount of ash fell around the Babadan Post Observatory ~7 km W of the volcano.

25 Apr-1 May 2001

Lava avalanches continued to flow down the Sat, Senowo, Lamat, and Bebeng rivers. Maximum runout of 2 km. Fumaroles emitted gas that rose up to 500 m above the summit, seismic activity dominated by earthquakes.

02 May-08 May 2001

Activity increased, with reports of several medium-sized pyroclastic flows. Four pyroclastic flows were observed traveling into the upper reaches of the Sat, Senowo, Lamat, and Bebeng rivers. Maximum runout of 1.8 km in the Sat river; lava avalanches traveled up to 2.5 km down the Sat river. Superficial earthquakes dominated the seismicity.

11 Jul-17 Jul 2001

Lava avalanches. Maximum runout of 2.5 km SW. Low-pressure emissions from fumaroles rose 700 m above the volcano.

18 Jul-25 Jul 2001

52 lava avalanches. Maximum runout of 2.8 km SW. Emissions from low-pressure fumaroles rose to 755 m above the summit.

22 Aug-28 Aug 2001

Lava avalanches. Maximum runout of 2.8 km to the SW. Seismic activity dominated by avalanche earthquakes.

Information Contacts: Dali Ahmad, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin VAAC, Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0811, Australia; Australian Broadcasting Company; Associated Press; Meteorological and Geophysical Agency of Indonesia (Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika, BMG), Jalan Angkasa I/2 Kemayoran, Jakarta Pusat 10720, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bmg.go.id/).

Dome collapses and lava avalanches August-November; two unconfirmed deaths

Our last report (BGVN 26:07) covered activity from 14 February through 28 August 2001. The first portion of this report was provided by John Seach, who visited Merapi during 17-20 August 2001. The latter portion came from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI); their reports discussed activity during late August through early November 2001.

Unconfirmed reports from volcano guides encountered at Babadan Observatory stated that two tourists were killed by dome collapse phenomena in early August after walking into the S-flank danger zone.

Activity was dominated by regular dome collapse and lava avalanches. On 17 August at 0735 an eruption of Merapi occurred, visible from the city of Yogyakarta. A dark brown plume was observed above the summit followed by a lava avalanche down the S side of the volcano. During the evening of 18 August, glowing avalanches were observed flowing down the SW side of the volcano at regular intervals. Runout distances were ~5 km.

On 19 August, observations were made from a location 220 m below the N-flank summit. Ascent to the summit area above the lava dome was not possible due to the continuing explosions of the dome. During the climb glowing avalanches continued down the SW flank. After dawn a white plume was continuously emitted to 200 m above the lava dome. About every 30 minutes there was an emission of light brown ash, indicating dome collapse. At 0930 burning vegetation was observed on the SW flank at an elevation of 1,400 m, presumably set alight by lava.

That evening, observations were made from Babadan Observatory on the SSW side of the volcano, 4 km from the summit (elevation 1,300 m). Between 2130 and 2330 there were 25 lava dome collapses. Lava was observed to extrude from the dome vertically and then collapse, producing thousands of glowing boulders that rolled 4 km down the flank (figure 23). The larger eruptions were accompanied by rumbling noises and earthquakes.

On the morning of 20 August a dense white plume was visible rising 300 m above the summit. Occasional brown emissions rolled down the SW slope indicating continuing dome collapse.

The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) reported that during late August through at least 4 November seismic activity at Merapi was dominated by avalanche earthquakes (table 11). During the week of 27 August-2 September, one low-frequency earthquake was registered. Table 11 also summarizes a white, thin, low-pressure fumarolic plume reported at various heights above the volcano throughout the report period. Lava avalanches were ongoing, traveling mainly in the headwaters upstream of the Lamat river, with a maximum runout distance of 2.75 km (see table 11). On 8 October at 1729 a minor pyroclastic flow traveled ~2 km toward the Sat river; on 24 October, four minor pyroclastic flows again traveled 2 km toward the Sat and Senowo rivers. Despite heavy rain at times, no lahars were reported. Merapi remained at Alert Level 2 (on a scale of 1-4) throughout the 27 August-4 November report period. Fumarolic temperatures at the Gendel and Woro craters varied by ten's of degrees Celsius during 27 August through 4 November (table 12).

Heightened lava dome activity from August 2001 through at least February 2002

During November 2001 through at least February 2002, seismic activity at Merapi was dominated by avalanche earthquakes. Generally white, thin, low-pressure plumes rose as high as 1.3 km above the summit. COSPEC-measured SO ₂ emission rates ranged from 66 to 225 ton/day (table 13).

Date

Avalanche signals

Tectonic earthquakes

Multiphase earthquakes

Plume height (above summit)

Average SO ₂ flux (tons/day)

Rainfall was heavy at times; during early and late November the maximum weekly rainfall rate was 44 mm/hour, and during 12-18 November the maximum rainfall rate was 78 mm/hour. Despite the heavy rainfall, no lahars were reported. Fumarole temperatures in the Gendol crater during November ranged from 430-570°C.

Incandescent lava avalanches traveled distances of 2.5 to 3 km and flowed toward the headwaters of the Sat and Bebeng rivers and, to a lesser extent, the headwaters of the Lamar and Senowo rivers. During 28 January-3 February 194 of these avalanches occurred.

A pyroclastic flow on 18 December traveled ~1 km toward the headwaters of the Bebeng river. Minor pyroclastic flows were reported throughout the remainder of the report period. During 4-10 February, 7 pyroclastic flows traveled 2.7 km to the Sat river and 2.5 km to the Bebeng river. During 11-17 February, 7 low-frequency earthquakes were recorded and the following week 1 low-frequency event was recorded. Merapi remained at Alert Level 2 throughout the report period.

Information Contacts: Dali Ahmad, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Pyroclastic flows and lava avalanches occur during February-June 2002

From 25 February through 16 June 2002 a generally white, variably dense, low-pressure plume rose 150-820 m above the summit of Merapi. Seismicity was dominated by avalanche earthquakes (table 14). During the week of 25-31 March, one shallow volcanic earthquake was reported. The Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) reported that Merapi emitted varying amounts of SO ₂ (table 15).

In total, 69-108 lava avalanches per week were observed during mid-February through late March. The avalanches generally traveled 2.5-2.75 km towards the upstream ends of the Senowo, Sat, and Lamat rivers, and partly to the Bebeng river. During 25 February-3 March, a total of four minor pyroclastic flows traveled to the upstream part of the Bebeng river to a maximum distance of 1.0 km (3 on 25 February and 1 on 3 March). Field observations of the summit on 28 February revealed very thin solfatara sublimation at Gendol and Woro craters. Temperatures at the craters were 354-755°C (table 14). No further pyroclastic flows occurred until 29 and 30 March, when 7 and 2 flows, respectively, traveled 1.8 km down to the upstream ends of the Sat and Senowo rivers. Low-frequency (LF) earthquakes, which had been recorded during the previous few weeks, increased (table 14), and high-intensity rain fell but did not trigger lahars.

Table 15 shows Merapi's SO ₂ fluxes. The molar concentrations of volcanic gases from Gendol crater on 28 February were as follows: 0.21% H ₂, 0.02% (O ₂ + Ar), 0.54% N ₂, 3.87% CO ₂, 0.01% CO, 1.00% H ₂S, 5.49% HCl, 88.86% H ₂ O. One pyroclastic flow was reported during 25-31 March.

During early April, two minor pyroclastic flows traveled 1.3 km toward the Sat river. Activity at Merapi increased significantly; LF earthquakes reached 135 events within the week. The most intense rain was ~65 mm/hour near the Babadan post observatory on 4 April, but it did not trigger lahars. On 14 April, two minor pyroclastic flows reached 1.8 km maximum distance. Seismicity began to decrease but was still higher than normal. Deformation data from Reflector 4 at the Babadan post observatory indicated 7 mm of deflation, and the lava dome morphology did not change.

No further pyroclastic flows were reported through at least mid-June. Seismicity and general activity at Merapi was reportedly decreasing. Merapi remained at Alert Level 2 throughout the report period.

Information Contacts: Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Frequent lava avalanches; plumes up to 550 m above summit

During 17 July-1 September, seismicity at Merapi was dominated by avalanche earthquakes. SO ₂ emissions varied, and generally white, thin, low-pressure plumes rose up to 550 m above the summit. Glowing avalanches traveled 2.6 km, moving towards headwaters of the Sat, Lamat, Senowo, and Bebeng rivers (table 16). On 2 July two pyroclastic flows traveled 0.5 km toward the upstream of the Sat river. One low-frequency earthquake occurred during late August. The temperature of Gendol crater was 734-755°C, and the Woro crater was 418-435°C. Merapi remained at Alert Level 2.

Information Contacts: Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).

Infrared satellite data show continuous activity through mid-January 2002

During late July-1 September 2002, the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) reported frequent lava avalanches and plumes up to 550 m above the summit of Merapi (BGVN 27:09). No further reports were issued by VSI through at least March 2003.

MODIS thermal alerts during 2001 and 2002 indicated continuous activity through mid-January 2002 (figures 24 and 25). This period was characterized by dome collapse and hot avalanches (BGVN 26:01, 26:07, 26:10, and 27:02). Pyroclastic flows occurred too frequently to correlate them with the MODIS alerts, for which data are collected only about once per day (weather permitting). There were no alerts detected during the rest of 2002 except for late March-late May, which corresponded to a temporary renewal of pyroclastic flows before a quieter second half of the year (BGVN 27:06 and 27:09).

Mid-2006 brings multiple pyroclastic flows that kill two, and travel up to 7 km

Seismic activity at Merapi began to increase on 19 March 2006, leading the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) to raise the Alert Level from 1 to 2 (on a scale of 1-4). Ten thousand residents were warned to prepare for possible evacuation.

On 10 April, authorities banned mountain climbing due to reports of increased tremor. Unverified preliminary reports indicated "lava" reportedly flowing near Pasar Bubar village, ~ 350 m from the volcano's crater. At 1500 on 12 April, CVGHM raised the Alert Level from 2 to 3. No one was permitted within 8 km of the summit.

During 21-25 April, seismicity remained elevated; several seismic signals associated with rockfalls were recorded. The SO ₂ flux measured from Merapi was 175 metric tons on 22 April. On 22 and 23 April, fumarolic emissions rose 400 m above the summit. On 25 April, two rockslides from lava-flow fronts were heard from nearby observatories. According to news reports, about 600 of the approximately 14,000 people living near the volcano had been evacuated by 24 April.

According to news reports, on 27 April nearly 2,000 villagers were evacuated from Sidorejo and Tegalmulyo villages. That day, small amounts of ash fell in Gemer village about 5 km from the summit.

On 28 April, CVGHM reported volcanic material traveling ~ 1.5 km SW to the Lamat River. Seismicity that day was dominated by multi-phase earthquakes; but signals from landslides, rockfalls, and low-frequency events were also recorded.

On 6 May, gas plumes rose to 800 m above the summit and eighteen incandescent avalanches of volcanic material were observed. On 7 May, 26 incandescent avalanches that extended ~ 100 m were seen during the morning. On 6 and 7 May, the lava dome continued to grow and seismicity was dominated by multi-phase earthquakes. Shallow volcanic earthquakes and signals from landslides and rockfalls were also recorded. On 8 May, the Darwin VAAC reported that CVGHM warned of a plume rising to ~ 3.7 km, but no ash was visible on satellite imagery.

According to the Darwin VAAC, gas plumes that rose ~ 600 m above the summit were visible on satellite imagery on 11 May. Avalanches of incandescent material extended 200 m SE towards the Gendol River, and 1.5 km SW towards the Krasak River. Several small incandescent avalanches of volcanic material were visible from observatory posts. The new lava dome at the volcano's summit had grown to fill the gap between the 1997 and 2001 lava flows on the W side of the summit, and had reached a height about the same as the 1997 lava flows. Seismicity was dominated by multi-phase earthquakes and signals associated with avalanches.

At 0940 on 13 May, the Alert Level was raised from 3 to 4, the highest level, and ~ 4,500 people living near the volcano were evacuated.

On 15 May pyroclastic flows traveled as far as 4 km to the W. By 16 May, more than 22,000 people had been evacuated, according to figures posted at the district disaster center; about 16,870 people were evacuated from three districts in Central Java Province, and more than 5,600 others were evacuated from the Slemen district. On 17 May, pyroclastic flows traveled as far as 3 km. Local volcanologists reported that the lava dome continued to grow, but at a slower rate than during previous days.

Pyroclastic flows to the SW and SE reached 4 km on 19 May and 3 km on 20 May. On 22 May, the lava dome volume was estimated at ~ 2.3 million cubic meters. The Darwin VAAC reported that low-level emissions continued during 18-19 and 23 May. CVGHM recommended that residents who lived in valleys on the NNW flanks near Sat, Lamat, Senowo, Trising, and Apu Rivers and on the SE flank near Woro River be allowed to return to their homes. Residents remained evacuated from villages within a 7 km radius from the volcano's summit and within 300 m of the banks of the Krasak/Bebeng, Bedog, and Boyong Rivers to the SW, and the Gendol River to the SE.

According to news reports, an eruption produced a cloud of hot gas and ash on 17 May. Witnesses said the size of the plume was smaller than ash-and-gas plumes seen on 15 May. On 18 May, a representative for Merapi from the Center for Volcanological Research and Technology Development (part of CVGHM), reported new ashfall.

On 24-25 May, lava flows were observed moving SW towards the Krasak River and SE towards the Gendol River. News reports indicated that on 27 May a M 6.3 earthquake that killed about 5,400 people resulted in a three-fold increase in activity at Merapi. A M 5.9 earthquake coincided with pyroclastic flows of unknown origin that extended 3.8 km SW. During 28-30 May, multiple pyroclastic flows reached 3 km SE and 4 km SW. Gas plumes reached 500 m above the summit on 25 May, 1,200 m on 26 May, 100 m on 29 May, and 900 m on 30 May.

From 31 May to 6 June, SO ₂-bearing plumes were observed daily; on 1 June they reached 1.3 km above the summit. According to the Darwin VAAC, low-level emissions were visible on satellite imagery on 1 and 6 June. Multiple pyroclastic flows reached ~ 4 km SE toward the Gendol River and 3.5 km SW toward the Krasak and Boyong Rivers. CVGHM reported on 31 May that lava avalanches moved W for the first time during the recent eruption.

According to a volcanologist in Yogyakarta, lava-flow distances and dome volume had both approximately doubled since the 27 May M 6.2 earthquake. On 6 June, people living near the base of the volcano began to move into temporary shelters. Activities remain restricted within a 7 km radius from the volcano's summit and within 300 m of the banks of Krasak/Bebeng, Bedog, and Boyong Rivers to the SW, and Gendol River to the SE.

On 8 June, the lava-dome growth rate at Merapi was an estimated 100,000 cubic meters per day and the estimated volume was then ~ 4 million cubic meters. An estimated volume loss of 400,000 cubic meters on 4 June had been due to a partial collapse of the S part of the Geger Buaya crater wall, which was constructed from 1910 lava flows.

On 8 June, a pyroclastic flow, lasting 12 minutes, reached a distance of ~ 5 km SE toward the Gendol River, the predominant travel direction since the M 6.2 earthquake on 27 May. According to a news report, this event prompted approximately 15,500 people to evacuate from the Sleman district to the S and the Magelang district to the W. On 13 June, the Alert Level was lowered from 4 to 3 but renewed pyroclastic-flow activity the next day prompted a return to Alert Level 4.

Gas plumes were observed almost daily during 7-13 June and reached ~ 1.2 km above the summit on 10 June. The Darwin VAAC reported small ash plumes visible on satellite imagery; minor ashfall was reported to the S at an observatory outpost, and in Yogyakarta, about 32 km away.

Gas plumes emitted on 14 and 15 June reached 900 m above the summit. On 14 June a dome collapse lasting ~ 3.5 hours produced pyroclastic flows that reached 7 km SE. Two volunteers on a search-and-rescue team assisting with evacuation efforts were trapped in an underground refuge in Kaliadem village and died, the first fatalities of the current eruption. Stone (2006) wrote that the volunteers had ". . . sought refuge in a bunker, one of several on the mountain built for that contingency. The blast door was slightly ajar when rescuers dug down to the bunker the next day. The men had burned to death."

On 15 June, pyroclastic flows reached a distance of 4.5 km SE along the Gendol River. Pyroclastic flows continued during 16-19 June as a new dome grew. The Alert Level remained at 4.

During 21-25 June, seismic signals at Merapi indicated almost daily occurrences of rockfalls and pyroclastic flows. Due to inclement weather, pyroclastic flows were only observed on 24 June and reached a distance of 4 km SE along the Gendol River and 2.5 km SW along the Krasak River. Gas plumes were observed during 22-25 June and reached 1.5 km above the summit on 24 June.

Reference. Stone, Richard, 2006, Volcanology?Scientists steal a daring look at Merapi's explosive potential; Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), v. 312, pp. 1724-6.

Fewer pyroclastic flows during July; ASTER thermal data

During mid-March through July 2006, scientists at Merapi noted variations in seismicity, the number and size of explosions, and the abundance of pyroclastic flows and incandescent rockfalls. This led to changes in Alert Levels and, during April and May, thousands of evacuations. The source of in-situ information for this report was Merapi Volcano Observatory and the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM; formerly VSI, the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, and still informally referred to in that way). Satellite images collected by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Infrared and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) complemented the ground observations.

Although events of 28 April to 22 June 2006 were previously discussed in more detail (BGVN 31:05), they are presented here in the context of ASTER and summaries of CVGHM field reports. CVGHM observations from 28 June to 25 July revealed an interval of limited significant rockfalls, sparse pyroclastic flows (only one was reported, to 3 km runout distance), and modest gas plumes.

Activity during 28 April to 22 June 2006. About eight images from 28 April to 22 June were collected over Merapi by the ASTER satellite and processed by Michael Ramsey. Temperatures over the lava dome and flanks were extracted from daytime and nighttime images; in some cases the contents of plumes were assessed. The temperature and distribution of thermal anomalies were consistently in agreement with ground observations from CVGHM.

ASTER consists of three instrument sub-systems covering fourteen bands over three wavelength regions with various spatial (pixel) resolutions. Three visible and near-infrared (VNIR) bands cover 0.52-0.86 ?m at 15 m spatial resolution. Six short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) bands cover 1.60-2.45 ?m at 30 m resolution. Five thermal infrared (TIR) bands cover 8.125-11.65 ?m at 90 m resolution.

A temperature data point from a pixel is the average temperature for that 30 x 30 m (SWIR) or 90 x 90 m (TIR) pixel area. Temperature data are extracted from the TIR region, unless the pixels are saturated (temperatures greater than 100°C over the 90 m pixel). In those cases, temperatures are extracted from SWIR images. Cross-track pointing of the sensors ? 116 km from nadir allows for repeat times of less than sixteen days. For a target near the equator at a 24° pointing angle, repeat times can average four days. During the Merapi crisis, investigators tasked the satellite to collect more frequent images.

A nighttime TIR image from 28 April showed a weak thermal anomaly over the summit. Approximately 8 pixels were thermally elevated above background, to a maximum temperature of ~ 25.9°C. Further processing of the emissivity spectra from the hottest pixels demonstrated that over 5% of the sub-pixel temperatures may be on the order of 100's of degrees C. SWIR data from the same time showed temperature of no more than ~ 200°C. One small anomaly was visible ~ 650 m SW from the summit. CVGHM reported that volcanic material traveled ~ 1.5 km SW towards the Lamat River on 28 April.

On 12 May, a daytime SWIR image demonstrated increased activity with a larger thermal anomaly than the 28 April image and a pixel average maximum temperature of 213°C. Emissivity spectra collected in the TIR region corroborated the temperature data in the SWIR region. On 11 May, CVGHM reported a sharp increase in eruptive activity and on 13 May, raised the Alert Level from 3 to 4 (the highest level). As noted in BGVN (31:05), about 4,500 people living near the volcano were evacuated.

A significant thermal anomaly was present in the 14 May TIR and SWIR nighttime images. Three pixels in the SWIR region had a maximum average pixel temperature of 442°C. An area of elevated temperature to the SW was interpreted as a pyroclastic flow. On 15 May, CVGHM reported that pyroclastic flows had traveled as far as 4 km W.

A clear nighttime SWIR image acquired on 30 May showed a maximum derived temperature of 447°C and 11 pixels with temperatures greater than 400°C. Two zones of thermally elevated pixels were evident about 600 m SE of the dome and 2 km SW of the summit. Consistent with the imagery, CVGHM reported that during 28-30 May, multiple pyroclastic flows reached a maximum of 3 km SE toward the Gendol River and 4 km SW toward the Krasak and Boyong Rivers.

On 6 June, daytime VNIR, nighttime SWIR, and TIR images were collected. The daytime image shows a large ash-rich plume extending SW over 40 km from the summit (figure 26). Preliminary analysis of the plume by Vince Realmuto (using a decorrelation stretch of the daytime TIR data) indicated a mixture of ash and steam, and low SO ₂ content. Thermal anomalies over the summit and on the flanks (outlined in white), interpreted as possible pyroclastic flows, extended~ 3 km SE and SW, and ~ 1 km NW. SWIR temperature data showed a maximum average pixel temperature of 420°C and two summit pixels over 400°C. According to CVGHM, on 6 June lava avalanches and two pyroclastic flows reached ~ 2 km SE and lava avalanches traveled 2 km SW.

A thermal anomaly, interpreted as cooling pyroclastic flows, that extended ~ 6.4 km S of the summit region was evident on a TIR and SWIR image set acquired on 22 June. The SWIR data showed two pixels greater than 425°C over the summit similar to the 6 June data. Based on interpretation of seismic data, CVGHM reported almost daily occurrences of rockfalls and pyroclastic flows during 21-25 June. Visual observations were mostly inhibited by cloud cover.

Activity during 28 June-25 July 2006. Pyroclastic flows and rockfalls decreased in frequency and intensity during 28 June-4 July. Pyroclastic flows were observed during 28-30 June and reached a maximum distance of 3 km SE along the Gendol River. Gas plumes were observed during 28 June-1 July and reached a maximum height of 1 km above the summit (~ 4 km altitude) on 28 June.

During 5-11 July, gas plumes reached a maximum height of 1.2 km above the summit on 6 July. Due to a decrease in activity, on 10 July the Alert Level was lowered one level to 3 in all areas except the S slope.

Incandescent material reached a maximum distance of 2 km SE along the Gendol River from 12 to 18 July. Gas plumes were also observed daily and reached heights of 1 km above the crater (~ 4 km altitude) On 17 July, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level to 3 for the S slope. During 19-25 July, gas plumes reached maximum heights of 400 m above the summit (~ 3.3 km altitude). Flows of incandescent material were observed daily, advancing at a maximum distance of 1.5 km SE toward the Gendol River. Pyroclastic flows were not observed during 12-25 July.

March-July 2006 volcanic crisis; May earthquake killed ~5,800

Merapi, one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world owing to its perched lava dome and location in populous central Java, underwent vigorous dome growth during early to mid-2006, and its increasingly unstable summit dome released numerous pyroclastic flows and incandescent avalanches. Thousands of residents evacuated and the volcano became prominent in international news. The longest pyroclastic flows of mid-2006 took place on 8 and 14 June, with respective run-out distances from the summit area of ~ 5 and 7 km. Merapi's summit lies 32 km N of the large city of Yogyakarta.

This report contains summary notes on activity during 7 March to 1 July 2006. These notes were assembled and reported by scientists from the Merapi Volcano Observatory and the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), formerly the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, and augments material presented previously (BGVN 31:05 and 31:06).

The USGS provided a satellite image with labels showing key drainages and features near the summit (figure 27). The dome's instability leads to pyroclastic flows and various kinds of rockfalls and other mass wasting episodes down the labeled drainages. During the 7 March to 1 July reporting interval, pyroclastic flows followed the headwaters of the Gendol , Krasak, Boyong, and Sat rivers, which trend to the SE, SW, SSW, and W, respectively.

Tectonic earthquake on 27 May 2006. The tectonics of Java are dominated by the subduction of the Australia plate to the NNE beneath the Sunda plate with a relative velocity of ~ 6 cm/year. The Australia plate dips NNE from the Java trench, attaining depths of 100-200 km beneath the island of Java, and depths of 600 km to the N of the island. The earthquake of 27 May 2006 occurred at shallow depth in the overriding Sunda plate, well above the dipping Australia plate.

The pace of volcanism and the intensity of the regional crisis increased after 27 May 2006. At 0553 that day, a destructive M w 6.3 earthquake occurred leaving damage across central Java's southern coastal and inland areas (figure 28). The earthquake occurred at 10 km focal depth. The epicenter (at 7.962°S, 110.458°E) was 20 km SSE of Yogyakarta (population, 511,000; 6 million in the larger metro area). Some initial estimates put the earthquake at MR 5.9; this was later revised and even the newer (above-stated) seismic parameters are preliminary.

A US Geological Survey (USGS) summary stated that the earthquake caused 5,749 deaths, 38,568 injuries, and led to as many as 600,000 people displaced in the Bantul-Yogyakarta area. The shaking left more than 127,000 houses destroyed and an additional 451,000 houses damaged in the area, with the total loss estimated at ~3.1 billion US dollars. Modified Mercalli intensities were as follows: at Bantul and Klaten, IX; at Sleman and Yogyakarta, VIII; at Surakarta, V; at Salatiga and Blitar, IV; and at Surabaya, II. The earthquake was felt in much of Java and at Denpasar, Bali. The website of the US Geological Survey's Earthquake Hazards Program features a large number of photos (captioned in English) depicting various aspects of the earthquake.

Events during 7 March-1 July 2006. Tables 17 and 18 summarize some of the details during the reporting interval. Merapi's activity had increased to include volcanic earthquakes and deformation of the summit area a year earlier (in July 2005). Although the number of daily lava avalanches and pyroclastic flows had increased almost a week earlier, a tectonic earthquake, MR 6.3 (Richter scale magnitude), at 0555 (local time, WIB) on 27 May was followed by another significant increase in those events for another week (tables 17 and 18). Pyroclastic flows and lava avalanches between 10 May and 30 June were rare in the W-flank Sat drainage (31 May, 2 June, and 10 June), and did not descend into the Boyong drainage (SSW) after 4 June (table 18). The Krasak river drainage (SW) had material entering it on an almost daily basis after 27 May, except for a brief time during 14-19 June, with maximum run-out distances of 4 km. The Gendol drainage (SE) also experienced daily pyroclastic flows and lava avalanches starting on 28 May. Most of these flows to the SE did not extend more than 5 km, but on 14 June a pyroclastic flow descended 7 km.

Because of the vigor of activity, the Alert Level rose in several steps as follows: 19 March (Green to Yellow), 12 April (Yellow to Orange), and 13 May (Orange to Red). The step to Red (which is the highest alert level, and sometimes also referred to as Level 4) followed clear deformation at the dome during elevated seismicity. On 28 April, a new lava dome emerged. By 20 May, pyroclastic flows several kilometers long were regularly seen passing down several key drainages (table 18). Figure 29 shows a 15 May pyroclastic flow (seen two days after the alert status rose to red).

Volcano enthusiasts and photographers Martin Rietze and Tom Pfeiffer viewed Merapi on the morning of 27 May, during the destructive earthquake, from a high-elevation parking area ~ 4 km S of the summit. Prior to the earthquake, Rietze took several spectacular photos of incandescent avalanches pouring down avalanche shoots (figure 30 A-B). During the earthquake, he described horizontal swinging motion and dull rumbling sounds lasting perhaps 20 seconds. Dust rose from the volcano. Plants rubbing together also produced a rustling noise. Cries and engine noises in the background came from distant residents responding to the earthquake. At ~1-minute intervals, Merapi emitted about six pyroclastic flows and a substantial ash cloud grew overhead, reaching several kilometers in altitude above them. The photo in figure 30 C depicts the scene on Merapi around that time (which Rietze lists as 0555 on 27 May). His companion, Tom Pfeiffer, also took photos just after the large earthquake (e.g., figure 30 D).

During early June the activity level of Merapi remained at red and on 4 June, the increase in volume of the new lava dome had caused the southern part of the crater wall called Gegerbuaya (1910 lavas) to collapse. Prior to its collapse, Gegerbuaya had functioned as a barrier to prevent pyroclastic flows moving southward from entering the Gendol River, which they did later in June.

On 8 June, multiple pyroclastic flows reached 4 km from the Krasak and Boyong Rivers and up to 4.5 km down the Gendol River. On 9 June, ash drifted W and NW and accumulated as ashfall ~ 1.5 mm thick. Pyroclastic flows traveled as far as 4 km toward the Gendol River. Figures 31 and 32 show pyroclastic flows on 7 and 10 June.

In the period after the hazard level was raised to red, the lava dome grew and by 22 May its volume was ~ 2.3 million cubic meters. The M 6.3 earthquake in S-Central Java on 27 May triggered additional activity at Merapi. The dome's growth rate increased from the previous rate of around 100,000 cubic meters/day, leading to a lava dome volume on 8 June 2006 of ~4.3 million cubic meters. That lava dome stood 116 m above the nominal summit elevation of Merapi's peak (Garuda peak).

Dome collapse created the longest pyroclastic flow of the reporting interval, which took place on 14 June 2006. That pyroclastic flow attained a run-out distance of 7.0 km (table 18, figures 33 and 34, and previously reported in BGVN 31:05).

At least in part owing to loss of topographic relief at the Gegerbuaya ridge along the S crater wall (figure 27), the 14 June pyroclastic flow took a different path. It crossed the former barrier and descended the Gendol drainage. As previously noted (BGVN 31:05), the 14 June pyroclastic flow took two lives when the underground bunker where the victims sought refuge was buried by the pyroclastic flow.

The bunker overridden on 14 June resides in Kaliadem village (~ 5 km SE of the summit). News stories showed pictures of the rescue attempt with initial digging commencing using picks and shovels, with the excavation by soldiers wearing dust masks and standing on boards or wooden platforms, presumably to reduce the heat flow from the fresh deposit. The article also noted that the soldiers wore heat-retardant clothes. A report from the Taipei Times of 16 June 2006 and credited to the Associated Press said that "The fierce heat melted the troops' shovels and the tires on a mechanical digger brought in to plow through more than 2 m of volcanic debris covering the bunker, built for protection from volcanic eruption . . .." Later news reports noted that authorities unearthed the bunker, which lay beneath more than 2 m of steaming pyroclastic flow deposit. The two bodies had suffered burns and the facility's door was ajar. A BBC report showed deeper portions of the hole being excavated by a large backhoe. They also noted that upon deeper excavation a probe into the deposit with a hand-held digital thermometer apparently indicated temperatures reached ~ 400°C. Several grim photographs circulated in the press showing the excavated entrance of the bunker and a team in the process of removing the victim's bodies. No report has been found discussing the exact reason for the bunker's failure, although several comments in the press suggested it was not designed to withstand burial by a pyroclastic flow.

Prior to that, on 13 June, the alert status dropped to orange, but it rose back to red again the next day after the pyroclastic flow and increases in multi-phased earthquakes. Activity remained stable but high through June 29 but began to decrease after 30 June. During July the intensity and frequency of pyroclastic flows and rock falls decreased. On 10 July, authorities reduced the alert status to orange on all but the S slopes. By the end of July 2006, pyroclastic flows had ceased.

Merapi's long-term dome growth continued at low to modest levels during the rest of 2006 and early 2007. The Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center noted a plume to 6.1 km altitude drifting NE on 19 March 2007. These later incidents will be discussed in more detail in a forthcoming issue of the Bulletin.

MODVOLC Thermal Alerts. The Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology MODIS Thermal Alert System web site lacked any thermal alerts for over a year preceding May 2006. Thermal alerts over Merapi began 14 May 2006 and extended through early September 2006 on nearly a daily basis. The alerts continued intermittently into 2007.

Reference. United Nations, 2006, Indonesia Earthquake 2006 Response Plan: United Nations, OCHA Situation Report No. 5, Issued 31 May 2006, GUDE EQ-2006-000064-IDN, 42 p.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); United Nations-Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), United Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA; National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey, PO Box 25046, Denver Federal Center MS967, Denver, CO 80225, USA (URL: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/advisories/); John Pallister, Volcano Disaster Assistance Program, USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory, 1300 SE Cardinal Court, Suite 100, Vancouver, WA 98683-9589, USA (URL: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/); Tom Pfeiffer and Martin Rietze, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.decadevolcano.net/), http://www.tboeckel.de/); Tarko Sudiarno, Agence France Presse (AFP) (URL: http://www.afp.com/english/home/); Taipei Times (URL: http://www.taipeitimes.com/); Associated Press (URL: http://www.ap.org/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

Lava dome growth with intermittent ash plumes and rock avalanches

Our last report on Merapi (BGVN 32:02) described vigorous dome growth during March-July 2006. The increasingly unstable summit was the scene of numerous pyroclastic flows, avalanches, and volcanic earthquakes. According to the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Merapi's long-term dome growth continued at low to modest levels during the rest of 2006 and early 2007.

Activity in May 2006 included dome growth (figures 35 and 36) and pyroclastic flows (figure 37). According to CVGHM, as a result of decreasing activity, the Alert Level was lowered to 3 (on a scale of 1-4) for all areas on 17 July 2006 and to Level 2 on 3 August 2006. Nearly continuous thermal anomalies were measured by the MODIS/MODVOLC satellite system during the period 14 May-5 September 2006, and small anomalies were noted on 29 November 2006 and 5 January 2007. No thermal anomalies for Merapi have been measured by MODIS since 5 January 2007. The Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) noted a plume to 6.1 km altitude drifting NE on 19 March 2007 (table 19).

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), University of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI (URL: http://hotspot.higp,hawaii.edu); Discover Indonesia Online (URL: http://www.indahnesia.com/); Tom Pfeiffer, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://decadevolcano.net/).

Eruption started 26 October 2010; 386 deaths, more than 300,000 evacuated

This report represents a preliminary discussion of the deadly eruption at Merapi that started on 26 October 2010. That eruption included weeks of instability that generated pyroclastic (block-and-ash) flows, which became particularly vigorous and numerous in early November, with at least one surge reportedly traveling along the Gendol drainage to 15-16 km from the summit dome. Of particular note from a hazards perspective, the path of some of these deposits differed at times from those of the recent past (but we have yet to find maps showing the flow directions and associated dates). An abstract by Lavigne and others (2011) reported the volume of tephra erupted in the 2010 eruption at over 100 x 10 ⁶ m ³, ~10-fold higher than similar deposits after typical eruptions in the past few decades, and among the factors why ongoing lahars are likely to be a hazard.

Our summary covers events into late 2010, with recognition of ongoing seismicity, weaker emissions, and repeated lahars in early 2011. The bulk of this report is based on those from the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) and their observatory dedicated to Merapi (MVO). According to CVGHM, the 2010 eruption was the biggest since the 1872 eruption. Eruptions in 1930 killed around 1,300 people. The last eruption of Merapi occurred during March 2006-August 2007 ( BGVN 31:05, 31:06, 32:02, and 33:10). A table appears near the end of this report summarizing some key events and observations. Fatalities and scale of evacuations are discussed in a separate subsection below. Another subsection notes that at least one commercial airliner sustained serious in-flight engine damage.

Regional background and prior eruptive patterns. Merapi (figures 38, 39, and 40) is located in the central part of Java, and this region and the island as a whole have extremely high population density (roughly double that of Japan or Thailand). Substantial numbers of people live or vacation on the mountain. The most densely settled part of the mountain is the dangerous S side (figure 39).

Figure 38 provides a summary of block-and ash-flow deposits from 1954-1998 (Hort and others, 2006; Schwarzkopf, 2001). The eruptions starting in October 2010 sent pyroclastic flows and possible surges at least 15 km in the volcano's W to S quadrant. Block-and-ash flows are pyroclastic flows formed by dome collapse and containing a substantial amount of broken dome fragments.

The inset map at the lower left shows Merapi with respect to the city of Yogyakarta (30 km SSW). Although the metro area of that city has a population of 1.6 million residents, the Indonesian statistical bureau estimated the 2010 populations of the ~30 km ² city of Yogyakarta at ~396,000 residents, and the broader region at ~3.5 million residents.

Figure 39 shows the summit and S part of Merapi, plotting population data by village at distances up to 20-25 km from the summit. This side of the volcano is by far the most densely populated, and was also crossed by numerous pyroclastic flows both historically and in the 2010 eruptions.

Figure 40 illustrates critical processes in Merapi's mode of eruption in the recent past. A significant portion of the dome is unconfined by the summit crater and the S side is free to descend the volcano's upper slopes endangering residents below. In the recent episode, CVGHM benefitted from daily access to satellite radar imagery that reliably depicted dome morphology despite weather and steam clouds. Vöge and Hort (2008) and Hort and others (2006) discuss monitoring dome instability using Doppler radar.

Monitoring and lead-up to the 26 October 2010 eruption. Since 2007, short swarms of volcanic earthquakes occurred (eg., on 31 October 2009, 6 December 2009, and 10 June 2010). Monitored parameters, including earthquakes, deformation, and gas emmisions increased significantly during September 2010. Steeper increases in seismicity appeared during 15-26 October with the main ramp-up during 20-26 October.

Figure 41 shows several histograms that depict Merapi seismic data and summarize the variations in hazard status. The CVGHM scale, which stretches from 1 (low) to 4 (high), makes a complete ascent and partial descent through the full range of those levels during the date range shown. The heavy vertical line between Alert Levels 3 and 4 took place on 25 October, slightly before the onset of the major eruption on 26 October.

Figure 41. Three histograms describing Merapi seismicity during 1 September 2010 to 6 March 2011. Horizontal scale marked in weeks and extends from 1 September 2010 to 5 March 2011. Words along the top line show hazard status (on an increasing scale starting from 1 [Normal] and extending to 2 [Waspada]), to 3 [Siaga]), and finally to 4 [ Awas] and then declining). The top panel contains seismically inferred rockfalls and avalanches ( guguran in Indonesian). The middle panel shows multiphase (MP) earthquakes (shallow source, dominant frequency ~1.5 Hz). The bottom panel shows volcanic earthquakes of both A- and B-type (where VTA represents deep volcano-tectonic earthquakes, 2.5-5 km below the summit; VTB represents shallow volcano-tectonic earthquakes, less than ~1.5 km below the summit). Taken from CVGHM report of 7 March, with minor revisions by Bulletin editors.

Figure 42 presents typical waveforms for various types of earthquakes and tremor signals previously recorded at Merapi (Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet, 2000). Both multiphase (MP) and volcanic type-A (VTA) showed strong peaks in seismicity prior to the 26 October eruption's onset. Rockfalls on upper panel (labeled guguran) and type-b events on bottom panel both peaked on or near 26 October.

The onset of the 26 October explosion occurred ~19 hours after an M 7.7 tectonic earthquake along the trench near the Mentawai islands adjacent to Central Sumatra, 1,200 km NW of Merapi. This earthquake was followed by several aftershocks, including two prior to the eruption (M 6.1 and 6.2) and one after the eruption (M 5.8). One or more of these earthquakes triggered tsunamis that hit the remote Mentawai islands, sweeping entire villages to sea and killing at least 428 people. There, too, thousands of people were displaced. The two near-simultaneous crises taxed authorities, NGOs, and the natural hazards community (figure 43).

Except for the close timing and regional proximity, the linkage between the M 7.7 earthquake and the eruption remains ambiguous. However, many researchers have noted that tectonic earthquakes can seemingly trigger volcanic responses (eg., Delle Donne and others, 2010; Lowenstern, JB, Smith, RB, and Hill, DP, 2006; Manga and Brodsky, 2006).

In early September 2010, the pattern of increased volcanic seismicity began to appear with MP earthquakes averaging 10/day and VTA and VTB averaging 3/day, with a total daily seismic energy of 603 x 10 ¹² erg.

Gas analyses in August 2010 showed concentrations of HCl of 0.8 % mol and H ₂O of 80 % mol. Declining levels of H ₂ O (less than 90 %) and increased levels of HCl (>0.5 %) were interpreted to indicate increased activity.

In September, summit inflation increased markedly. Seismicity also increased beginning on 12 September, when an M 2.5 VTA earthquake and pyroclastic flows/avalanches occurred. On 13 September, VTA earthquakes occurred twice, and white plumes rose 800 m above the crater.

During 23-26 October, there were small steam-and-ash emissions. Inflation increased sharply on 24 October to a rate of 420 mm/day. The next day, CVGHM raised the Alert Level to 4, and recommended immediate evacuation for several communities within a 10-km radius. A Reuters photo by Dwi Oblo taken at sunrise on 26 October looking up at the dome and the prominent S-trending avalanche channel revealed comparatively calm conditions, with emissions consisting of a thick white steam plume blowing W from the dome.

Initial October eruptions. The first eruption occurred at 1702 on 26 October 2010, an event characterized by explosions and multiple pyroclastic flows that traveled S ~8 km down the Gendol and Kuning drainages, and to some extent WSW down the Bedog drainage. Most of the pyroclastic flows lasted 2-9 minutes, but the eruptions associated with the final two each lasted 35 minutes. The event killed 35 people including the renowned mystical guardian of Merapi, Mbah Mbahmarijan, at 7 km distance.

Figure 44 shows an exposed ridge affected by pyroclastic flows in a photo taken on 27 October.

Figure 44. An exposed ridge at Merapi as it appeared the day after the 26 October eruption. Pyroclastic flows had reduced forest to stumps, leaving stripped and fallen trees. Courtesy of The Boston Globe website of Merapi photos (Ulet Ifansasti/Getty Images).

According to the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), an ash plume rose to an altitude of 18 km, followed by extrusion of lava in the summit crater.

By 27 October the lava dome had sustained damage and a new 200-m-diameter crater had formed at the summit. After that, lava extrusions built a small dome in the crater. A space-based estimate made from the ozone monitoring instrument (OMI) indicated the eruption on the 26th vented at least 3,000 metric tons of SO ₂ gas. According to the Darwin VAAC, ground-based reports indicated that another explosion occurred on 28 October 2010. Cloud cover prevented satellite observations.

Following the eruption and continuing through 4 November, intense tremor took place. It was felt by people up to 20 km from the volcano.

CVGHM reported that two pyroclastic flows occurred on 30 October following an early morning explosion, the third since 26 October. According to a news article, ash fell in Yogyakarta, 30 km SSW, causing low visibility. CVGHM noted four pyroclastic flows on 31 October.

Stronger eruptions in November. According to CVGHM, during 31 October-4 November, a lava dome grew rapidly within Merapi's summit crater. Collapses from the S side of the dome fed minor pyroclastic flows that extended several hundred meters into the upper part of the Gendol valley.

On 1 November, an explosion began mid-morning with a low-frequency earthquake, and avalanches occurred. About seven pyroclastic flows occurred during the next few hours (figure 45), traveling SSE a maximum runout distance of 4 km, and in another (possibly later) case that day, 9 km. The Darwin VAAC reported that the explosion produced an ash plume that rose to an altitude of 6.1 km. News reports noted flight diversions and cancellations in and out of the airports serving Solo (40 km E) and Yogyakarta.

On 2 November, an ash plume was seen in satellite imagery drifting 75 km N at an altitude of 6.1 km. On the same day, CVGHM reported 26 pyroclastic flows. On 3 November, observers stationed at multiple posts reported ash plumes from pyroclastic flows. One pyroclastic flow traveled 10 km, prompting CVGHM to extend the hazard zone from a radius of 10 km to 15 km, and they recommended evacuations from several more communities. Another pyroclastic flow traveled 9 km SE later that day. Figure 46 shows a 2 November view of Merapi.

Figure 46. Incandescent material spilled from Merapi's dome glows orange-red in colored versions of this long-exposure photograph taken on 2 November 2010 from ~25 km SSE of the summit (Klaten district). Condensate droplets in the thin (lenticular) clouds over the summit also reflect considerable light. Courtesy of The Boston Globe (Boston.com website); photo credit to Sonny Timbelaka (AFP/Getty Images).

CVGHM reported that, during 3-8 November, the eruption from Merapi continued at a vigorous pace, characterized by incandescent avalanches from the lava dome, pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and occasional explosions.

Visual observations were often difficult due to inclement weather and eruption plumes. To overcome these challenges, people working on the crisis gained regular access to satellite radar data of high resolution (RADARSAT2). That data was made available 25 October through an agreement called the International Charter Space and Major Disasters.

According to the NASA Earth Observatory website, the strongest explosion during the 2010 eruption took place on 4-5 November, lasting more than 24 hours, when plumes rose to ~18 km altitude and drifted 110 km W. They claimed that some surges of pyroclastic material reached an 18 km runout distance (direction and damage unstated and several kilometers longer than some other observations). They also said that, according to local geologists, this explosion was the most violent one at Merapi since the 1870's. They noted that, by some estimates, the 4-5 November eruption was five times more intense than the one on 26 October.

A CVGHM report on the 4-5 November eruption stated that 38 pyroclastic flows had occurred before it ended. Although dense fog hampered visual observations, a CVGHM observer from Kaliurang post (~7 km S of the summit) saw 19 of those 38 flows travel ~4 km S. Another traveled 9 km SE. Ashfall was noted in some nearby areas. Satellite data indicated this explosion released much more SO 2 than previous recent Merapi eruptions, ~300,000 metric tons.

Residents in towns up to 240 km away reported that 'heavy gray ash' blanketed trees, cars, and roads. On 5 November, rumbling sounds were heard in areas 30 km away, and pyroclastic flows continued to descend the flanks. Ash fell in Yogyakarta and "sand"-sized tephra fell within 15 km. CVGHM recommended evacuations from several more towns within a 20-km radius. Observations shortly after the 5 November eruption showed that the large lava dome of the previous week had been destroyed, and the summit crater had enlarged to a diameter of 300-400 m. However, by 6 November, another lava dome had grown, amassing, according to RADARSAT images 11 hours apart, at a rate of ~35 m ³ per second.

Activity remained very intense on 6 November. Pyroclastic flows continued to descend the flanks; one flow traveled 4 km down the Senowo drainage to the W. Incandescent flashes from the lava dome were reported from observations posts, and incandescent material was ejected above the crater. Incandescent avalanches traveled 2 km down multiple drainages to the SSE, S, and SSW. The Darwin VAAC reported that ash plumes seen in satellite imagery rose to an altitude of 16.8 km on 5 and 6 November.

During this period, ashfall was heavy on Merapi's flanks, and was observed in multiple surrounding areas, including the villages of Selo (~5 km NNE) and Magelang (26 km WNW). In Muntilan village (18 km WSW), tephra and ash accumulated up to 4 cm. At the volcano, a new dome formed during 6-7 November 2010; it stood ~240 m in a NW-SE orientation, 140 m wide, and 40-50 m high.

On 7 November, the number of pyroclastic flows increased from the previous day. An explosion was heard, and ash plumes rose 6 km and drifted W. Lightning was seen from Yogyakarta. Pyroclastic flows traveled 5 km, and lava avalanches moved 600 m S and SW. The next day, ash plumes rose to altitudes of 6-7 km and were accompanied by rumbling sounds. According to the Darwin VAAC, satellite imagery during 7-8 November showed ash plumes at an altitude of 7.6 km drifting 165-220 km W and SW.

Figure 47 shows Merapi's erupted SO ₂ in the atmosphere during 4-8 November 2010. On 9 November, an SO ₂ cloud was seen over the Indian Ocean at altitudes of 12-15 km.

Figure 47. SO ₂ concentration-pathlength (in Dobson units, with 100 DU as darkest colors) during 4-8 November 2010, as observed by the OMI on NASA's Aura spacecraft. OMI data provided courtesy of Simon Carn (Michigan Technical University). Courtesy of Natural Hazards NASA Earth Observatory website (image by Jesse Allen, and original caption by Michon Scott).

The European Space Agency (ESA) has created updates on SO ₂ gas retrieval from their Envisat, Eumetsat's MetOp, and NASA's Aura satellites. For the interval 4-13 November 2010, the peak atmospheric loading of SO ₂ appeared on 8 November at 227 kT SO ₂. The estimates can be seen presented as animations that depict complex rotating dispersal patterns. As seen in figure 47, significant portions of the gas blew over Western Australia. In Norwegian Institute for Air Research models shown in the article, many of the Merapi plumes centered around 15 km altitude, with tops and bottoms ~5 km above and below that height.

ESA (2010) quoted Andrew Tupper as saying, "The updates from ESA have been very useful to Darwin VAAC [Volcanic Ash Advisory Center] when received in real time, and we expect that in the post-event analysis we'll be able to show lots more potential value." The SO ₂ maps can help the aviation community avoid dangerous emissions from volcanoes.

ESA (2010) noted that they send SO ₂ email alerts in near-real time. The alerts link to a web page with a map showing the location of the sulphur dioxide peak.

Reduced eruptive vigor; lahars. Eruptions and seismicity generally dropped during mid-November 2010 into March 2011, but lahars became a problem. On 9 November, CVGHM noted a reduction in the intensity of activity; a single pyroclastic flow occurred in a 6-hour period. Rumbling sounds were accompanied by an ash plume that rose to an altitude of 4.5 km, and ashfall was reported in Selo (~5 km NNE). Lava-dome incandescence was again observed, and lava avalanches moved 800 m SSE.

During 10-11 November, seismicity continued to decrease. Lahar deposits were seen in multiple drainages, at a maximum distance of 16.5 km from the summit. On 10 November, plumes generally rose 0.8-1.5 km above the crater. Heavy ashfall was reported in areas to the WSW and WNW. A 3.5-km-long pyroclastic flow and a 200-m-long avalanche both traveled S in the Gendol drainage. Incandescence from the crater was observed through a closed-circuit television system at the Merapi museum (in the village of Kaliurang, ~7 km S of the summit). On 11 November, roaring was followed by light ashfall at the Ketep Merapi observation post, ~9 km NW of the summit. Plumes, brownish-black at times, rose 800 m above the crater and drifted W and NW, and one plume rose 1.5 km. Avalanches again proceeded S in the Gendol drainage.

According to the Darwin VAAC, during 12-21 November, ash plumes rose as high as 7.6 km and drifted in multiple directions. The SO ₂ concentration at high altitudes decreased. About 300,000 residents also began to return home after the "danger zone" was reduced in some areas due to decreased activity.

Between 10 November and 1 December, lahar deposits were seen in multiple drainages and in all rivers flowing from Merapi. CVGHM noted that several bridges had been damaged. On 29 November, a narrow tongue of lava was observed, and light-colored flow deposits extended S down several narrow channels (Gendol and Kuning drainages) at least 5 km from the summit.

According to CVGHM, seismicity declined further during 1-3 December, in number of volcanic earthquakes and their associated energy. Deformation measurements were either stable or did not show significant changes. Although fog often prevented visual observations, gas plumes were seen rising 500 m above the crater and drifting W. SO ₂ plumes were no longer detected in satellite imagery. On 4 December, the Alert Level was lowered to 3.

On 9 January, as seismicity continued to decrease, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level to 2. Plumes continued to rise above the crater and, on 12 January, avalanches descended the Krasak drainage, traveling 1.5 km SW. Lahars and high water during 15-23 January damaged infrastructure and caused temporary road closures. On 22 January, plumes rose 175 m above the crater and drifted E.

According to a news account ( vivanews.com), Merapi spewed thick white plumes as of the first week of February 2011. CVGHM reported that gas plumes rose from Merapi during 28 February-6 March. The highest plume, on 5 March, rose 100 m and drifted E. The number of MP earthquakes was slightly lower compared to the previous week.

Analysis of the lahar problem emerged as this issue went to press. According to Lavigne and others (2011) the volume of pyroclastic debris from the 2010 eruptive episode was in excess of 100 x 10 ⁶ m ³, ~10-fold higher than similar deposits after more conventional eruptions. These deposits and subsequent lahars filled most of the protective Sabo-dam structures. The eruption coincided with the onset of the rainy season, an interval that usually brings 4 m of rain but due to La Niña conditions, is predicted to bring more rain than usual. The 50-year absence of lahars in Kuning and Woro drainages altered the perception of risk in residents there. Thousands of sand miners work in the riverbed of all lahar-prone channels.

Fatalities and scale of evacuations. As previously noted, on 26 October, pyroclastic flows killed ~35 people who 7 km from the summit. They had refused to evacuate the village of Kinahejo (Kinahrejo).

According to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) (quoting the Government of Indonesia's National Disaster Management Agency-Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana or BNPB), the 2010 eruptions killed 386 people, injured 131 people, and displaced initially more than 300,000 residents (USAID, 2011). According to Relief Web, the 11,000 displaced remained unable to return to their homes at least as late as January 2011.

Lahars followed the eruptive processes and caused at least one additional death and one injury. An 11 January IRIN News article stated that " . . . more than 300,000 people have been able to return home, another 11,000 remain displaced, living with family or in camps, according to the government's National Disaster Management Agency."

According to the UN's Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN News), a source of humanitarian news and analysis, rainfall triggered lahars on Merapi's flanks on 3 and 9 January 2011. This caused damage to houses, farms, and infrastructure in multiple villages in the Magelang district, 26 km WNW of Merapi. One death and an injury were reported. The flooded area reportedly affected an estimated 3,000 residents but the number evacuated was unstated. The flooding on 9 January was more intense and, according to IRIN News, the Red Cross evacuated dozens of people trapped in their homes.

Referring to the larger 2010 eruption and evacuees, the same 11 January IRIN article stated that " . . . more than 300,000 people have been able to return home, another 11,000 remain displaced, living with family or in camps, according to the government's National Disaster Management Agency." This article also quoted the same agency with regard to the 386 reported deaths and the 131 injuries from the 2010 eruption.

Airlines affected. According the Jakarta Post, a total of 13 international carriers stopped their flights to Jakarta on 6 November, citing concerns about volcanic ash in the air that could cause damage to their aircraft and engines, and thus jeopardize safety. They included Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia, Singapore Airlines, Emirate, Ethihad, Turkish Air, Japan Airlines, Lufthansa, and KLM.

Andrew Tupper at the Australian Bureau of Meteorology notified us that Indonesian media reported that a plane encountered a volcanic cloud N of Java ascribed to Merapi on 28 October 2010. The suspected ash-plume encounter occurred at altitudes in the range 9.1-11.6 km. An engine stall message alerted the crew, who also noted a strong burning odor that disappeared as the plane descended from 9.1 to 6.1 km altitude.

According to another news account ( Kompas.com), possibly reporting the same incident, on 28 October, a Garuda Indonesia airplane with 383 passengers from Solo, Central Java, landed safely at Hang Nadim Airport, Batam, a scheduled refueling stop. Enroute, volcanic ash from Merapi had been sucked into the left engine of the Airbus 330 aircraft, disrupting the engine. Richard Wijaya, Operational Duty Manager of Garuda Indonesia in Batam, explained that the pilot had notified ground staff of the disruption before landing, and as soon as they landed in Batam, the engine was checked. The crew cancelled the next leg of the scheduled flight to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

On 2 November, an unspecified number of international airlines had to cancel flights to airports at Solo and Yogyakarta, as plumes blackened the sky. Poor visibility and heavy ash on the runway caused the cancellations. According to an ABC news report, Yogyakarta airport reopened on 20 November after being closed for ~2 weeks.

Data table. Table 20 summarizes currently available CVGHM reports on Merapi's behavior during September to 1 December 2010. In the first row, it presents some background values commonly seen at Merapi during non-eruption conditions. Seismic terminology in the table is equivalent to that seen in figure 42 (Ratdomopurbo and Poupinet, 2000). Note the rise in seismic energy on 19 September, various changes in Alert Level, and major events in bolded type. Comparative calm prevailed after early November, but lahars became a problem (see text). The table is intended to give readers an overview of the eruption rather than capture all the details.

References. Delle Donne, D., Harris, AJL, Ripepe, M, and Wright, R., 2010, Earthquake-induced thermal anomalies at active volcanoes, Geology, Sept. 2010; v. 38; pp. 771-774 [DOI: 10.1130/G30984.1].

European Space Agency (ESA), 2010, Satellites tracking Mt Merapi volcanic ash clouds, ESA News (online; 15 November 2010) (URL: http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMY0Y46JGG_index_0.html).

Hort, M, Vöge, FM., Seyfried, R, and Ratdomopurbo, A, 2006, In situ observation of dome instabilities at Merapi volcano, Indonesia: A new tool for volcanic hazard mitigation, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 154, no. 3-4, p. 301-312.

Lavigne,F, de Bélizal, E, Cholik, N, Aisyah, N, Picquout, A, and Wulan Mei, ET, 2011, Lahar hazards and risks following the 2010 eruption of Merapi volcano, Indonesia, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 13, EGU2011-4400, 2011, EGU General Assembly 2011.

Lowenstern, JB, Smith, RB, and Hill, DP, 2006, Monitoring super-volcanoes: geophysical and geochemical signals at Yellowstone and other large caldera systems, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 15 August 2006, v. 364, no. 1845, p. 2055-2072.

Manga, M. and Brodsky, E, 2006, Seismic triggering of eruptions in the far field: volcanoes and geysers, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 34, p. 263-291 [DOI: 10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125125].

Ratdomopurbo, A, and Poupinet, G, 2000, An overview of the seismicity of Merapi volcano (Java, Indonesia), 1983-1994, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 100, no. 1-4, p.193-214 (DOI: 10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00137-2).

Schwarzkopf, L, 2001, The 1995 and 1998 block and ash flow deposits at Merapi volcano, Central Java, Indonesia: implications for emplacement mechanisms and hazard mitigation. Ph.D. Thesis, University at Kiel, Kiel, Germany.

USAID (U.S. Agency for International Development), 2011 (February 4), Indonesia - Tsunami and Volcano, Fact Sheet 2, Fiscal Year 2011.

Vöge, FM, and Hort, M, 2008, Automatic classification of dome instabilities based on Doppler radar measurements at Merapi volcano, Indonesia: Part I. Geophysical Journal International, v. 172, no. 3, p. 1188-1206 (DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03605.x).

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); Merapi Volcano Observatory (MVO); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); NASA Earth Observatory (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) (URL: https://www.usaid.gov/); Antonius Ratdomopurbo, Nanyang Technological University, Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore (URL: http://www.earthobservatory.sg/); Andrew Tupper, Australian Bureau of Meteorology (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/); European Geosciences Union (URL: http://www.egu.eu/); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB - Indonesian National Disaster Management Agency) (URL: http://dibi.bnpb.go.id/); Relief Web (URL: https://reliefweb.int/); Kompas News, Jakarta, Indonesia (URL: http://www.Kompas.com); The Jakarta Post (URL: http://www.thejakartapost.com/); Reuters (URL: http://www.reuters.com/); Vivanews.com (URL: http://vivanews.com/); ABC News (Australia) (URL: http://www.abc.net.au/); The Boston Globe (URL: http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/11/mount_merapis_eruptions.html); IRIN News (URL: http://www.IRINnews.org/).

Recovery; intermittent activity; damaging lahars

A VEI 4 (Volcanic Explosivity Index) eruption began at Merapi volcano on 26 October 2010. Within the last 100 years, this volcano had not produced such large-magnitude explosions (Surono and others, in review; Andreastuti and others, 2011). The eruption and secondary events affected areas in all directions around the volcano; pyroclastic flows reached 4 km to the N, 11.5 km to the W, 7 km to the E, and ~15 km to the S, and explosive bombs reached 4 km from the summit in all directions (Jousset, 2010). These events included explosive central vent eruptions that caused significant changes in the summit morphology (figure 48) and according to Act Forum Indonesia, triggered evacuations of communities within a 20 km radius of the summit. In BGVN 36:1/2 we reported on preliminary damage assessments that included significant fatalities and damaged infrastructure.

The explosive events of 2010 represent a break in Merapi's iconic style of activity (Surono and others, in review). "Merapian" is a term often assigned to volcanic events characterized by hot pyroclastic block flows generated during the collapse of growing viscous lava domes (Schmincke, 2004). Standard eruptive activity at Merapi includes "continuous degassing and extrusion of andesitic lava domes whose collapses generate block avalanches and gravitational pyroclastic flows" (Allard and others, 2011).

At least 17 VEI = 2 events have occurred since the catastrophic 15 April 1872 eruption (Siebert and others, 2010). While explosive activity is characteristic of past behavior, assessments of data from 2010 confirm that the 26 October eruptive sequence did not begin with lava extrusion (typical of past eruptions). Instead, intense explosions initiated activity that lasted for ~5 weeks (Surono and others, in review).

During the Merapi special session at the EGU General Assembly held in April 2011, Andreastuti and others (2011) concluded that "the rate of magma extrusion [during the peak of Merapi's 2010 activity] was as much as 17-to 21-times higher [than] the 2006 eruption and the distance of pyroclastic flows in the same drainage (Gendol River) reached 15 km in 2010 and only 7 km in 2006."

This assessment and others (e.g. Alder and others, 2011) linked the highly explosive eruptions of October-November 2010 to elevated and variable gas emissions.

On 4 December 2010, after 40 days of maintaining the highest alert, the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) downgraded the hazard Alert Level from 4 to 3 ("Awas," Red Alert to "Siaga," Watch). The Alert Level was reduced again on 19 January 2011 from 3 to 2 (to "Waspada," Advisory). The Alert Level remained at Level 2 into June 2011.

In this report we review the recovery efforts, Merapi's intermittent activity, and the long-term lahar crisis from March to June 2011. We also include a review of intervals of gas geochemistry data recorded prior to the 26 October 2010 disaster that recently became available.

Recovery efforts. Since October 2010, of the ~300,000 people evacuated, 11,000 were still displaced as of January 2011 ( Jakarta Post and IRIN). Authorities had set up nine camps within the city of Yogyakarta and ~70 camps were located farther away within Central Java. On 2 May 2011 the head of Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), Indonesia's National Disaster Management Agency, reported: "With almost all the displaced having moved to temporary shelters, our focus now is how to rebuild communities affected by the disaster" (IRIN, 2011).

In May 2011 the Indonesian government sought international aid (including the International Red Cross and United Nations) and international non-governmental organizations were working in Indonesia for relief efforts. The Jakarta Post reported on 12 May 2011 that Australia had agreed to help Indonesia establish a Disaster Relief Center for disaster management training; the location will be in Sentul, West Java and will serve members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ten countries currently belong to ASEAN). BNPB had called upon the World Bank to begin a Risk Transfer scheme, allowing the local government to focus aid specifically on reconstruction programs.

According to reports from the Jakarta Globe in April 2011, the recent disaster and long history of volcanism at Merapi prompted the Indonesian government to implement an extensive recovery plan for the Yogyakarta province. They prioritized the development of spatial planning maps, expansion of the Merapi National Park, large-scale reforestation (approximately 1,300 hectares), and allocation of 1.35 trillion Rupiah ($155 million) to improve housing, infrastructure, social efforts, and economic stimulation plans. New mapping in the province will reassign land-use and designate relocation sites for former residents. In general, residential areas lying within 10 km of the summit will remain off limits (Sayudi and others, 2010). The Jakarta Post noted these maps also highlight where reforestation will occur. Impacts were substantial to Merapi National Park which lost up to 2,800 hectares out of 6,410 hectares of forest due to the recent eruptions. The Volcano Technical Research Center (BPPTK) reassessed zones in the Sleman region, the area hardest hit by volcanic activity, and will release a map indicating hazard zones. "[These maps] will show which areas are safe, unsafe and suitable for habitation," stated Sleman administration spokeswoman Endah Sri Widiastuti (Jakarta Post).

A controversial location within the 10 km exclusion zone is the village of Kinahrejo, the former home of spiritual leader Mbah Maridjan, called the guardian of Merapi. Working with a team of 17 respected community members, he preserved traditional ceremonies and local culture for Merapi residents. Pyroclastic flows covered the village on 26 October 2010, taking the life of the guardian and other inhabitants who did not evacuate.

The new guardian is Mbah Maridjian's son, Asihono (his new name: Mas Lurah Suraksosihono). During Merapi's disastrous eruptions of October and November, Asihono cooperated with the local government and agencies including the Volcanology and Geological Disaster Mitigation Agency (PVMBG) and BPPTK. On 4 April 2011 Sultan Hamengku Buwono X elected Asihono from a group of eight candidates. In an interview with Jakarta Globe on 5 April 2011, the new guardian explained: "I'm not just going to take a cultural approach based on the dreams or guidance from the spirits, but I will also coordinate with the authorities to protect human life and the environment on Mount Merapi and anticipate the fall of victims to future eruptions."

New dome growth. Seismicity was variable and intermittent explosions were observed at Merapi at least every month through June 2011 since the main eruptive events of October and November 2010. This activity kept local residents vigilant and caused some alarm when incandescence suddenly appeared on Merapi's summit on 25 March and 13 April (figure 49). On these two occasions, a bright glow on the crater's E side was recorded on closed circuit television (CCTV).

The point of incandescence was a location of concentrated degassing. In the aftermath of the eruption in 2010, fumaroles became well established and BPPTK intends to resume gas monitoring. They reported that a new dome was growing in the crater: "The final phase is usually marked by eruption of lava dome growth. However, we won't lower the [alert] status as long as the condition of Merapi is still volatile," reported Subandriyo of BPPTK on 11 April 2011 ( Kompas News). Since 19 January 2011, the Alert Level was at 2, Advisory.

Gas monitoring. From ultraviolet correlation spectrometer (COSPEC) measurements, BPPTK reported continuous SO ₂ emissions for both 1992 through early 2009 (BPPTK, 2011b) and January 2005-January 2010 (figure 50). Other data resulted from sampling with Giggenbach bottles; a method of condensate retrieval requiring evacuated alkaline-solution-filled bottles (Williams-Jones and Rymer, 2000). Gas species such as CO ₂, SO ₂, H ₂ S, and HCL were analyzed during June 2003-June 2010 (figure 51).

SO ₂ ranged from ~75 metric tons/day (t/d) to ~285 t/d and appeared to peak mid-year in 2005 and 2006 (figure 50). A sudden decrease of 50 t/d in January 2007 preceded an increasing trend that ended in mid-2008. These fluxes also had fewer sustained peaks around March 2008 and declined until the available record ends around March 2009.

The SO ₂ peak of ~200 t/d generally correlated with the 2005 mid-year episode of elevated seismicity that prompted the BPPTK (at that time called the Directorate of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, "DVGHM") to raise the Alert Level from Normal to Advisory (from 1 to 2). However, there were no additional reports of plumes or increased dome activity then ( BGVN 32:02).

In 2006, the Alert Level was raised to the highest level on 13 May due to intense dome growth and earthquake activity ( BGVN 31:05), a time when SO ₂ reached ~225 t/d.

According to information recorded in Bulletin reports, the abrupt decrease of SO ₂ in late 2006-early 2007 did not appear to correlate with significant volcanism in that time interval. The gradual increasing-and-decreasing trend in SO ₂ flux from 2007 until the end of the record was marked by rare ash plumes (e.g. 19 March 2007, 9 Aug 2007, and 19 May 2008), and modest dome growth ( BGVN 32:02). Bulletin reports also noted incandescence and ashfall had continued during 23 May-29 May 2007. MODVOLC thermal anomalies became rare after 5 September 2006 ( BGVN 33:10).

Intermittent activity during 18 April-1 May 2011. Unrest at Merapi since the 2010 crisis was characterized by intermittent increases in seismicity as observed from 18 to 24 April 2011 (figure 52). Over the course of that week, rockfall signals doubled from the previous observation period and 39 multiphase events were recorded.

BPPTK also reported that ground deformation was variable throughout this time period as EDM (Electronic Distance Meter) measurements were recorded across the summit. Measurements made on 18 April 2011 compared with those recorded on 25 April 2011 from the monitoring post of Selo showed the following changes: a difference in distance amounting to +8 mm (R1) and a change in movement amounting to 0.1 mm per day.

Measurements carried out on 18 April 2011 compared to those of 24 April 2011 from Jrakah monitoring post indicated the following changes: a difference in distance amounting to -4 mm (R1) with a change in movement amounting to 0.5 mm per day, and a difference in distance of +6 mm (R2) with a movement of 0.7 mm per day.

Plumes of ash and gas reached an altitude of ~800 m on 24 and 25 April. Communities near Merapi's flanks reported ashfall on 29 April, 30 April, and 1 May 2011. (BPPTK Activity Report 25 April-1 May 2011).

Ongoing hazards. The recent weekly report by BPPTK (20 March to 12 June 2011), described plumes of gas and ash that occurred regularly. As measured from above the summit, the average height of these plumes was ~500 m; a maximum height of 900 m was recorded on 20 April. The tallest plume was accompanied by a ramping up of earthquakes and the regular occurrence of lahars, some hot enough to steam while racing through river drainages (figure 53).

A large amount of volcanic ash fell from Merapi's explosive eruptions in 2010; this has aggravated slope stability and led to increased lahar hazards. In an interview on 11 April 2011 for Kompas News, Subandriyo, the Head of the BPPTK explained that "only about 30 percent" of the material that fell on Merapi's flanks has been remobilized by erosion. "Therefore, the threat of [lahars] will occur two to three years ahead."

As of June 2011, 15 major lahars had occurred since November 2010. The worst occurred on 23 January 2011 along the eroded banks of the Putih river. The major highway between Magelang and Yogyakarta was cut off when a 60 m wide section of blacktop was torn away by torrential mudflows. As a result, hundreds of homes within 12 different villages near the river were inundated forcing 5,000 people to flee. There were three fatalities.

Major infrastructure was also affected; 52 levees were damaged and 14 bridges were destroyed. Intense lahar damage was also reported along the SE rivers: Blongkeng, Batang, Progo, Code, and Gendol.

References. Allard, P., Métrich, N., and Sabroux, J.-C., 2011, Volatile and magma supply to standard eruptive 549 activity at Merapi volcano, Indonesia. EGU General Assembly 2011, Geophysical 550 Research Abstracts 13, EGU 2011-13522 (2011).

Andreastuti, S., Costa, F., Pallister, J.,Sumarti., S., Subandini, S., Heriwaseso, A., Kurniadi, Y. , Petrology and pre-eruptive conditions of the 2010 Merapi magma. EGU General Assembly 2011, Geophysical 550 Research Abstracts 13, EGU2011-5150 (2011).

BPPTK, Volcano Technical Research Center, 2011a, Geochemistry of Merapi. (URL: http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/aktivitas_merapi.php?page=aktivitas-merapi&subpage=geokimia)BPPTK, Volcano Technical Research Center, 2011b, Monitoring of Geochemical and Temperature of Merapi. (URL: http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/pages.php?page=geokimia-dan-suhu)

Schmincke, H.-U, 2004, Volcanism, Berlin:Springer, 324 pp.

Jousset, P., 12/6/10, Centennial Eruption at Merapi volcano: October/November 2010, MIAVITA, European Commission. (URL: http://miavita.brgm.fr/Documents/MIAVITA-Merapi-eruption.pdf)

Sayudi, D.S., Nurnaning, A., Juliani, DJ., Muzani, M.; 2010, "Peta Kawasan Rawan Bencana Gunungapi Merapi, Jawa Tengah Dan Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta 2010," (The map of the Rawan Bencana Gunungapi Merapi Region, Central Java: Yogyakarta Special District 2010), Volcano Technical Research Center (Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kegunungapian, "BPPTK"). (URL: http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/peta/2011/04/KRBGMerapi2010FINALcopyright_78a74b.jpg)

Siebert L., Simkin T., and Kimberly P., 2010, Volcanoes of the World, 3rd edition, University of California Press, Berkeley, 558 p.

Surono, Jousset, P., Pallister, J., Boichu, M., Buongiorno, M.F., Budisantoso, A., Costa, F., Andreastuti, S., Prata, F., Schneider, D., Clarisse, L., Humaida, H., Sumarti, S., Bignami, C., Griswold, J., Carn, S., Oppenheimer, C., ( in review), 100-year explosive eruption of Java's Merapi volcano, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research.

Williams-Jones, G. and Rymer, H., 2000, Hazards of Volcanic Gases, in Sigurdsson, H., ed., Encyclopedia of Volcanoes: San Diego, California, Academic Press, p. 997-1004.

Information Contacts: Volcano Technical Research Center (Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kegunungapian, "BPPTK") (URL: http://www.merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/index.php); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB- Indonesian National Disaster Management Agency) (URL: http://dibi.bnpb.go.id); Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); IRIN News (URL: http://www.IRINnews.org); Jakarta Globe (URL: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com); The Jakarta Post (URL: http://www.thejakartapost.com); KompasNews, Jakarta, Indonesia (URL: http://www.Kompas.com); Mitigate and Assess risk from Volcanic Impact on Terrain and human Activities project (MIAVITA) (URL: http://miavita.brgm.fr/default.aspx); Act Forum Indonesia (URL: http://www.actalliance.org/); Relief Web (URL: https://reliefweb.int/).

During June 2011 to December 2014, several eruptions and elevated seismicity

This report details activity and monitoring at Merapi from 13 June 2011 through December 2014.

The last major eruption at Merapi was in 2010 as discussed in the previous two reports. As noted in BGVN 36:01 (covering 26 October 2010 to January 2011), Merapi began to erupt on 26 October 2010 and continued erupting throughout the interval, causing ~400 fatalities. BGVN 36:05 (26 October 2010 to 12 June 2011) further discussed this eruption detailing new dome growth and how lahars damaged infrastructure.

During the current reporting interval (13 June 2011 through December 2014), Merapi erupted regularly amid elevated seismicity. This report chiefly derives from three sources: (1) Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kegunungapian (BPPTK), (2) Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG; here referenced as CVGHM which stands for Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), and (3) the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

Activity during 2011.The hazard status for Merapi from 13 June 2011 onwards was Alert, Level II (on a scale of I-IV), before it decreased during 12-18 September 2011 and remained at Normal, Level I. Several minor avalanches occurred, with noted incidents on 2, 4, 6, 7, 14, and 25 July; 2, 7, and 15 August; and 4 and 8 September. Merapi also released several plumes, most of which consisted of white, thin or thin-to-thick clouds that rose to a maximum of only a few hundred meters above the summit (table 21).

The non-tremor seismicity at Merapi in 2011 (figure 54) was categorized into four types of earthquakes, each of which had different patterns on the time-series plots. The seismicity was also described in terms of Real-time Seismic Amplitude Measurement (RSAM), (not shown here). In 2011, avalanche earthquakes and multiphase earthquakes dominated the record.

A key means of measuring changes in linear length at Merapi consisted of surveys employing Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) instruments (figure 55). The instruments computed the distance from several reflectors positioned on Merapi's slopes to fixed points at surrounding observatory posts. Figure 56 (below) provides the location of the posts and reflectors mentioned. Length changes were generally in the range of a few centimeters.

Activity during 2012. A thin, white plume rose to a maximum of 150 m above the crater at 1910 on 6 January, and storms and heavy clouds covered Merapi's summit. On 9 January at an unstated time, a photo from CCTV Deles (discussed by BPPTK) showed Merapi amid clear weather with a white billowing cloud rising from the crater area. A few days later, at 1835 on 15 January, Merapi ejected a thin, white plume, rising to a maximum of 100 m above the summit, heading W.

Thin, white plumes were also observed above the crater to 50 m, heading E on 1 February at 1720; to 500 m at 1745 on 11 February; and to 400 m at 1800 on 13 February.

During 30 July to 5 August 2012, BPPTK referred to thick, white plumes drifting from the volcano. One plume reached a maximum of 600 m above the crater at an unstated date around this time.

For the intervals in 2012 discussed above, the hazard status remained constantly at Normal (I). Furthermore, during 2012, the BPPTK recorded the seismicity (figure 57) and the EDM linear length (figure 58).

Activity during 2013. A thick plume blew W and reached a maximum of 450 m above the crater at 1750 on 3 February. The hazard status was at Normal (I).

On 22 July at 0415, BPPTK observed an ash eruption with brown-to-black color, reaching 1 km above the crater. A roar was heard within a radius of 6-7 km around Merapi, and ash fell to the SE, S, and SW. The hazard status remained at Normal (I); the Aviation Color Code was at Orange. According to a news article (Yahya, 2013), the eruption caused hundreds to temporarily evacuate; they returned to their homes later the same day.

On 29 October 2013, BPPTK observed a white, thin-to-thick plume that reached 150 m above the summit, heading W.

On 18 November 2013, Merapi erupted. A news article in the Jakarta Post discussed the event extensively quoting BPPTK staff (Muryanto and Ayuningtyas, 2013). The article said that the eruption began at 0453 LT forming a plume that rose to 2 km above the crater. Ash fell until about 1000 that day, with noticeable amounts found up to 60 km to the E. The news report also noted that ~600 families "in Kalitengah Lor, Kalitengah Kidul and Srune hamlets, and in Glagaharjo village, Sleman regency, Yogyakarta, had immediately gathered to be evacuated" and that "villagers in Turgo village, Turi district, Sleman, located on the western flank of Mount Merapi, also fled their homes, [returning] a few hours later as the situation returned to normal." The eruption followed an M 4.7 tectonic earthquake detected in Ciamis, West Java earlier that day and was more powerful than a previous eruption on 22 July 2013 (Muryanto and Ayuningtyas, 2013).

Based on a Darwin VAAC report at 2025 LT on the same day (18 Nov), the eruption formed a plume that reached ~12.2 km altitude. The Aviation Color Code was increased to Red. By 2104 on the 18th, VAAC satellite analysis no longer detected the high altitude volcanic plume, but the VAAC reported a lower plume at ~4.6 km altitude. At 0300 on 19 November, the low level plume had extended to ~46 km E. However, by 0735, the plume had completely dissipated, and the Aviation Color Code returned to Orange.

BPPTK noted the seismicity (figure 59), the EDM linear length (figure 60), and the tilt (figure 61). In 2013, seismicity was dominated by avalanche earthquakes (figure 59). The only major change in linear length was the distance to Kaliurang 2 which had a gradual upward trend for most of the year, before a comparatively rapid downward trend in mid-October (figure 60). The two tiltmeter records showed broad consistency, with mild increases in the middle to late part of the year that reverted near to the original tilt (figure 61). The temperature graph had a broad peak in August 2013 that could account for some of the increase in tilt, but the BPPTK report did not discuss this in any detail. (For the location of the tiltmeter stations mentioned, see figure 62.)

Activity during 2014. BPPTK noted that on 17 January at 1615, a white plume rose to 50 m above the summit, heading E.

At 1854 LT on 10 March 2014, Merapi erupted forming an ash plume that blew W. The event was captured on an automated closed-circuit video (CCTV Pasarbubar) and was followed by two more blasts within a minute (the first at 1855). At 1908, BPPTK noted a volcanic earthquake (with a maximum amplitude of 20 cm). Another video monitor (CCTV Bubar) recorded brown eruptive columns that rose straight up, reaching up to ~1.5 km above the summit. During 1925 to 1930, the eruption gradually stopped. Around this time, ash fell on several villages including Umbulharjo, Kepuharjo, Sidorejo, and Balerante, areas located ~6-7 km to the S of Merapi.

During 14-20 March 2014, thick gas plumes rose to ~600 m above the summit. On 17 March, the BPPTK recorded one such event at 0530.

On 27 March 2014, an eruption lasted from 1312 to 1316 LT. The VAAC detected volcanic ash to ~9.8 km altitude, using multi-spectral MTSAT-2 imagery, and the Aviation Color Code was raised to Red. A pilot reported that the "large ash cloud [was] moving NW." Darwin VAAC received a SACS SO2 alert at 2150 for the plume, and atmospheric SO2 gas was detected SE of Merapi. By 2232, the volcanic ash appeared to be dissipating; the advisory was terminated at 0830 on 28 March.

The 27 March eruption was the subject of a Jakarta Post news article by Muryanto and Ayuningtyas (2014), who indicated that ash fell in the Kemalang and Balerante Klaten regency and that it was 1 mm thick in some areas. The article also noted an M 5.4 tectonic earthquake that struck ~115 km SE of Malang regency, East Java on 23 March. The ash discharge had apparently been occurring regularly since the 2010 eruption but authorities had not taken this as a sign of an escalation in activity, and they urged locals to remain calm. However, according to the article, Sukiman, a resident of the nearby Deles district, said villagers responded to half an hour of ash falling by hitting "kentongan [bamboo drums] to warn others of the danger."

On 15 April, BPPTK reported that a thick white plume rose to a maximum of 300 m above the summit.

Several tectonic earthquakes occurred in April 2014. On 18 April at 2033, BPPTK recorded tectonic earthquakes 151 km SW of Merapi at a depth of 10 km. On 19 April, four more tectonic earthquakes occurred between 0800 and 2000, and an earthquake lasting 20 minutes was recorded at 0421 from a station on the peak of Merapi. On 20 April from 0426 to 0440, rumbling could be heard within a radius of 8 km around the volcano.

The BPPTK reported that on 20 April at 1600, an ash plume traveled W towards the village of Sewukan, amid foggy conditions. The associated eruption was followed by a widely heard roar and a later thin-to-thick plume rose to 400 m above the summit at 1800. The activity ultimately led to ashfall in Sewukan and in sectors to the SE, S, and SW, up to 15 km away from Merapi's summit.

The ash from this eruption was also detected by Darwin VAAC, who stated that the ash plume rose to ~10.7 km and extended ~260 km W to NW. The ash was difficult to distinguish from meteorological clouds, and at 1004 LT on 21 April, the VAAC terminated the advisory. In a news article, Minggu (2014) added further details on the eruption omitted here.

The BPPTK conducted a field expedition on 22 April to Merapi's crater. The expedition found that the eruption on 20 April had changed the summit crater morphology (figure 63). The slit that cut through the lava dome trending NE had widened by 70 m to the W, and reddish material that the team judged as indicative of oxidation was visible around the center of the lava dome. They also found new eruptive products along the crater's W side and evidence of new growth at the lava dome.

The BPPTK reported that monitoring outposts heard as many as 47 thumping sounds between 25 April and 1 May 2014, 20 sounds between 2 and 8 May, and 22 sounds between 9 and 15 May. On 25 April at 0740, a white, fumarolic plume rose to a maximum of 450 m above the summit, heading W, and the hazard status was raised to Alert (II). White, thin-to-thick plumes rose above the summit to 650 m on 2 May at 0700; to 350 m on 12 May at 0606; to 450 m on 22 May at 1924; to 300 m, heading W, on 27 May at 1854; and to 400 m on 31 May at 2010. The hazard status was lowered to Normal (I) during 21-27 May.

On 4 July 2014 at 1754, BPPTK observed thin-to-thick white plumes rising to 450 m above the summit.

On 10 September at 2008, thin, white plumes rose to 200 m above the summit, according to BPPTK.

During 10 to 16 October, Merapi released a thin white plume to ~200 m above the summit. The Darwin VAAC noted that small rock avalanches extended for ~1 km.

For 2014, BPPTK noted the seismicity (figure 64), EDM linear length (figure 65), and tilt (figure 66).

Background. Several detailed maps of Merapi have been published by various sources. Handisantono and others (2002) contains a topographic hazard map of Merapi. The map includes the location of several villages mentioned in this report, as wells as rivers and other geological landmarks. BNPB also published a map of Merapi (figure 67). The map highlights the location of the W/SW/S-flank drainage systems, which have the potential to funnel lahars to local infrastructure such as bridges and into inhabited areas.

A detailed analysis of Merapi's history and periods of activity is documented by CVGHM (2014). The ongoing magmatism and volcanism at Merapi are considered consistent with documented copper, zinc, and lead enrichment as well as zonation there (Nadeau and others, 2013).

References.

Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), date unknown, Peta Zonasi Ancaman Banjir Laha Dingin, Relief Web (URL: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/E0676C85D7612CE1852578340054FD68-map.pdf) [accessed in April 2015]

CVGHM, 2014, G. Merapi, Jawa Tengah, 03 June 2014, Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/index.php/gunungapi/data-dasar-gunungapi/542-g-merapi) [accessed in April 2015]

Hadisantono, R.D., Andreastuti, M.CH.S.D., Abdurachman, E.K., Sayudi, D.S., Nurnusanto, I., Martono, A., Sumpena, A.D., Muzani, M., 2002, Peta Kawasan Rawan Bencana Gunungapi Merapi, Jawa Tengah Dan Daerah Istimewa Yogayakarta (Volcanic Hazard Map of Merapi Volcano, Central Java and Yogyakarta Special Province), Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/galeri/index.php/Peta-Kawasan-Rawan-Bencana-Gunungapi-01/Wilayah-Jawa/KRB-G_-Merapi) [accessed in April 2015]

Minggu, 2014, Mt. Merapi rumbles spewing volcanic material to nearby areas, 20 April 2014, Antara News (URL: http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/93713/mt-merapi-rumbles-spewing-volcanic-material-to-nearby-areas) [accessed in April 2015]

Muryanto, B., Ayuningtyas, K., 2013, Hundreds of villagers flee Mount Merapi eruptions, 19 November 2013, The Jakarta Post (URL: www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/11/19/hundreds-villagers-flee-mount-merapi-eruptions.html) [accessed in April 2015]

Muryanto, B., Ayuningtyas, K., 2014, Mount Merapi spews sulfuric gas, ash, 11 March 2014, The Jakarta Post (URL: www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/03/11/mt-merapi-spews-sulfuric-gas-ash.html) [accessed in April 2015]

Nadeau, O., Stix, J., Williams-Jones, A.E., 2013, The behavior of Cu, Zn and Pb during magmatic-hydrothermal activity at Merapi volcano, Indonesia, 29 March 2013, Chemical Geology Volume 342 (URL: www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254113000466)

Yahya, A., 2013, Mount Merapi Status Remains Normal Despite Weak Eruptions, 22 July 2013, Bernama (URL: http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v7/ge/newsgeneral.php?id=965338) [accessed in April 2015]

Lahar in October 2016; phreatic explosions May-June 2018

After a major eruption on 26 October 2010 that subsided in early December of that year, Merapi erupted regularly amid elevated seismicity between 13 June 2011 and April 2014; seismicity returned to normal levels in May 2014 (BGVN 39:10). Renewed activity in the form of phreatic explosions took place during May-June 2018.

Lahar in October 2016. According to the Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB) (National Disaster Management Agency), a lahar on 27 October 2016 induced by moderate to heavy rain swept nine sand mining trucks down the Bebeng River on the SW flank; at least one truck was buried and six were severely damaged. There were no fatalities as the miners and other people at the scene escaped. Material at the summit and on the flanks produced during the October-November 2010 eruption was an estimated 20-25 million cubic meters, contributing to the continuing high potential of lahars during heavy rain. BNPB recommended that the public remain vigilant during rainy weather because a lahar formed on the upper flanks of Merapi can reach the bottom in less than 30 minutes. The Alert Level remained at 1 (on a scale of 1-4).

Phreatic explosions during May-June 2018. The volcano was apparently quiet between November 2016 and April 2018. According to the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM), an explosion occurred at 0740 on 11 May 2018. The eruption began with a small roar and vibrations that were felt at the observation post for 10 minutes. A plume rose to 5.5 km above the summit. There was no seismic precursor and no subsequent seismic activity. According to a news account (The Jakarta Post) on 11 May, the increased activity caused Yogyakarta's Adisutjipto International Airport (27 km S) to close, resulting in the cancellation of eight Garuda Indonesia flights. PVMBG did not increase the alert level from Green/Normal; they interpreted the explosion as being a minor event triggered by the accumulation of volcanic gases, and unlikely to result in subsequent explosions. High levels of sulfur dioxide in the vicinity of the volcano were detected by the satellite-based Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on 11 May; concentrations reached as high as 2.0 Dobson Units.

On 21 May a phreatic explosion began at 0125 and lasted for 19 minutes, generating an ash plume that rose 700 m above the crater and drifted W. At 0938, another phreatic explosion began that lasted six minutes and produced an ash plume that rose 1.2 km above the crater. Ashfall from both events was reported in areas 15 km downwind. A third event, detected at 1750, lasted three minutes and produced a plume of unknown height. After these events, one volcano-tectonic (VT) earthquake and one tremor event were recorded. The seismicity along with increased phreatic events prompted PVMBG to raise the Alert Level to 2.

According to PVMBG, on 23 May, at 1349 the Babadan observation post heard a two-minute-long phreatic explosion. A plume was not visible due to inclement weather, though minor ashfall was reported at the Ngepos observation post. On 24 May an event at 0256 generated an ash plume that rose 6 km above the crater rim and drifted W. Roaring was heard at all the Merapi observation posts. A two-minute-long event at 1048 produced an ash plume that rose 1.5 km and drifted W. PVMBG recommended the evacuation of everyone within 3 km of the summit.

PVMBG reported that on 1 June, at 0820, an event generated an ash plume that rose at least 6 km above the crater rim and drifted NW, then SW (figure 68). Ashfall was reported at the Selo observation post. Observers noted white smoke rising from a forested area 1.5 km NW, possibly indicating burning vegetation. PVMBG indicated that VT events were occurring at about 3 km below the crater. Later that day at 2024, an ash plume from a 1.5-minute-long event rose 2.5 km above the crater rim and drifted NE and W. At 2100, an ash plume rose 1 km and drifted NW. The Alert Level remained at 2.

Dome appears at summit on 12 August 2018; grows to 447,000 m ³ by late March 2019

Merapi volcano in central Java, Indonesia (figure 69), has a lengthy history of major eruptive episodes. Activity has included lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, Plinian explosions with heavy ashfall, incandescent block avalanches, and dome growth and destruction. Fatalities from these events were reported in 1994, 2006, and during a major event in 2010 (BGVN 36:01) where hundreds were killed and hundreds of thousands of people were evacuated. Renewed phreatic explosions in May 2018 cancelled airline fights and generated significant SO ₂ plumes in the atmosphere. The volcano then remained quiet until an explosion on 11 August 2018 marked the beginning of the growth of a new lava dome. The period June 2018 through March 2019 is covered in this report with information provided primarily by Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG, which monitors activity specifically at Merapi.

The first sign of renewed activity at Merapi came with an explosion and the appearance of a lava dome at the summit on 12 August 2018. The growth rate of the dome fluctuated between August 2018 and January 2019, with a low rate of 1,000 m ³/day in late September to a high of 6,200 m ³/day in mid-October. By mid-December the dome was large enough to send block avalanches down the Kali Gendol ravine on the SSE flank. The rate of dome growth declined rapidly during January 2019, when most of the new lava moved down the ravine in numerous block avalanches. By late March 2019 the dome had reached 472,000 m ³ in volume and block avalanches were occurring every few days.

After the eruptive events between 11 May and 1 June 2018, seismicity fluctuated at levels slightly above normal during June and July, with the highest levels recorded on 18 and 29 July. A VONA on 3 June reported a plume of steam that rose 800 m above the summit; for the rest of June the plume heights gradually decreased to a maximum of 400 m by the third week. During July steam plume heights varied from 30 to 350 m above the summit.

During September-November 2018 the summit dome grew at varying rates from 1,000 to 6,200 m ³/day (table 22). At the beginning of September its volume was 54,000 m ³; it had reached 329,000 m ³ by the end of November (figure 73). Steam plumes in September rose from 100 to 450 m above the summit. They were lower in October, rising only 50-100 m high. During November they rose 100 to400 m above the summit. Intermittent seismic activity remained above background levels. By mid-November, the growth of the dome was clearly visible from the ground 4.5 km S of the summit (figure 74).

The lava dome continued to grow during December 2018, producing steam plumes that rose 50-200 m. As the height of the dome increased, block avalanches began descending into the upper reaches of Kali Gendol ravine on the SSE flank. Avalanches on 16 and 19 December reached 300 m down the drainage; on 21 December a larger avalanche lasted for 129 seconds and traveled 1 km based on the duration of the seismic data (figure 75). By the end of December BPPTKG measured the volume of the dome as 389,000 m ³.

The rate of dome growth declined steadily during January 2019, and by the third week most of the lava extrusion was collapsing as block avalanches into the upper part of Kali Gendol, and dome growth had slowed. Steam plumes rose 50-450 m during the month. In spite of slowing growth, a comparison of the dome size between 11 November 2018 and 13 January 2019 indicated an increase in volume of over 150,000 m ³ of material (figure 76). Incandescence at the dome and in the block avalanches was visible at night when the summit was clear (figures 77 and 78). Three block avalanches occurred during the evening of 29 January; the first traveled 1.4 km, the second 1.35 km, and the third 1.1 km down the ravine; each one lasted for about two minutes. By the end of January the size of the dome was reported by BPPTKG to be about 461,000 m ³.

Numerous block avalanches were observed during February 2019 as almost all of the lava extrusion was moving down the slope. Multiple avalanches were reported on 7, 11, 18, 25, and 27 February, with traveling distances ranging from 200 to 2,000 m. Steam plumes did not rise more than 375 m during the month. By the end of February, the dome had only grown slightly to 466,000 m ³. Seventeen block avalanches were reported during March 2019; they traveled distances ranging from 500 to 1,900 m down the Kali Gendol ravine. A drone measurement on 5 March determined the volume of the dome to be 470,000 m ³; it was only 2,000 m ³ larger when measured again on 21 March.

Low-volume dome growth continues during April-September 2019 with rockfalls and small block-and-ash flows

Merapi is an active volcano north of the city of Yogyakarta (figure 79) that has a recent history of dome growth and collapse, resulting in block-and-ash flows that killed over 400 in 2010, while an estimated 10,000-20,000 lives were saved by evacuations. The edifice contains an active dome at the summit, above the Gendol drainage down the SE flank (figure 80). The current eruption episode began in May 2018 and dome growth was observed from 11 August 2018-onwards. This Bulletin summarizes activity during April through September 2019 and is based on information from Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG, the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG), Sutopo of Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), MAGMA Indonesia, along with observations by Øystein Lund Andersen and Brett Carr of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

At the beginning of April the rate of dome growth was relatively low, with little morphological change since January, but the overall activity of Merapi was considered high. Magma extrusion above the upper Gendol drainage resulted in rockfalls and block-and-ash flows out to 1.5 km from the dome, which were incandescent and visible at night. Five block-and-ash flows were recorded on 24 April, reaching as far as 1.2 km down the Gendol drainage. The volume of the dome was calculated to be 466,000 m ³ on 9 April, a slight decrease from the previous week. Weak gas plumes reached a maximum of 500 m above the dome throughout April.

Six block-and-ash flows were generated on 5 May, lasting up to 77 seconds. Throughout May there were no significant changes to the dome morphology but the volume had decreased to 458,000 by 4 May according to drome imagery analysis. Lava extrusion continued above the Gendol drainage, producing rockfalls and small block-and-ash flows out to 1.2 km (figure 81). Gas plumes were observed to reach 400 m above the top of the crater.

There were a total of 72 avalanches and block-and-ash flows from 29 January to 1 June, with an average distance of 1 km and a maximum of 2 km down the Gendol drainage. Photographs taken by Øystein Lund Andersen show the morphological change to the lava dome due to the collapse of rock and extruding lava down the Gendol drainage (figures 82 and 83). Block-and-ash flows were recorded on 17 and 20 June to a distance of 1.2 km, and a webcam image showed an incandescent flow on 26 June (figure 84). Throughout June gas plumes reached a maximum of 250 m above the top of the crater

Analysis of drone images taken on 4 July gave an updated dome volume of 475,000 m ³, a slight increase but with little change in the morphology (figure 85). Block-and-ash flows traveled 1.1 km down the Gendol drainage on 1 July, 1 km on the 13th, and 1.1 km on the 14th, some of which were seen at night as incandescent blocks fell from the dome (figure 86). During the week of 19-25 July there were four recorded block-and-ash flows reaching 1.1 km, and flows traveled out to around 1 km on the 24th, 27th, and 31st. The morphology of the dome continued to be relatively stable due to the extruding lava falling into the Gendol drainage. Gas plumes reached 300 m above the top of the crater during July.

During the week of 5-11 August the dome volume was calculated to be 461,000 m ³, a slight decrease from the week before with little morphological changes due to the continued lava extrusion collapsing into the Gendol drainage. There were five block-and-ash flows reaching a maximum of 1.2 km during 2-8 August. Two flows were observed on the 13th and 14th reaching 950 m, out to 1.9 km on the 20th and 22nd, and to 550 m on the 24th. There were 16 observed flows that reached 500-1,000 m on 25-27 August, with an additional flow out to 2 km at 1807 on the 27th (figure 87). Gas plumes reached a maximum of 350 m through the month.

Brett Carr was conducting field work at Merapi during 12-26 September. During this time the lava extrusion was low (below 1 m ³ per second). He observed small rockfalls with blocks a couple of meters in size, traveling about 50-200 m down the drainage every hour or so, producing small plumes as they descended and resulting in incandescence on the dome at night. Small dome collapse events produced block-and-ash flows down the drainage once or twice per day (figure 88) and slightly larger flows just over 1 km long a couple of times per week.

The dome volume was 468,000 m ³ by 19 September, a slight increase from the previous calculation but again with little morphological change. Two block-and-ash flows were observed out to 600 m on 9 September and seven occurred on the 9th out to 500-1,100 m. Two occurred on the 14th down to 750-900 m, three occurred on 17, 20, and 21 September to a maximum distance of 1.2 km, and three more out to 1.5 km through the 26th. A VONA (Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) was issued on the 22nd due to a small explosion producing an ash plume up to approximately 3.8 km altitude (about 800 m above the summit) and minor ashfall to 15 km SW. This was followed by a block-and-ash flow reaching as far as 1.2 km and lasting for 125 seconds (figure 89). Preceding the explosion there was an increase in temperature at several locations on the dome. Weak gas plumes were observed up to 100 m above the crater throughout the month.

Information Contacts: Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology (URL: http://merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/, Twitter: @BPPTKG); Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/, Twitter: https://twitter.com/BNPB_Indonesia); Øystein Lund Andersen? (Twitter: @OysteinLAnderse, URL: http://www.oysteinlundandersen.com); Sutopo Purwo Nugroho, BNPB (Twitter: @Sutopo_PN, URL: https://twitter.com/Sutopo_PN); Brett Carr, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY, USA (URL: https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/user/bcarr).

Explosions produced ash plumes, ashfall, and pyroclastic flows during October 2019-March 2020

Merapi is a highly active stratovolcano located in Indonesia, just north of the city of Yogyakarta. The current eruption episode began in May 2018 and was characterized by phreatic explosions, ash plumes, block avalanches, and a newly active lava dome at the summit. This reporting period updates information from October 2019-March 2020 that includes explosions, pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and ashfall. The primary reporting source of activity comes from Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG, the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG) and Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM).

Some ongoing lava dome growth continued in October 2019 in the NE-SW direction measuring 100 m in length, 30 m in width, and 20 m in depth. Gas-and-steam emissions were frequent, reaching a maximum height of 700 m above the crater on 31 October. An explosion at 1631 on 14 October removed the NE-SW trending section of the lava dome and produced an ash plume that rose 3 km above the crater and extended SW for about 2 km (figures 90 and 91). The plume resulted in ashfall as far as 25 km to the SW. According to a Darwin VAAC notice, a thermal hotspot was detected in HIMAWARI-8 satellite imagery. A pyroclastic flow associated with the eruption traveled down the SW flank in the Gendol drainage. During 14-20 October lava flows from the crater generated block-and-ash flows that traveled 1 km SW, according to BPPTKG.

At 0621 on 9 November 2019, an eruption produced an ash plume that rose 1.5 km above the crater and drifted W. Ashfall was observed in the W region as far as 15 km from the summit in Wonolelo and Sawangan in Magelang Regency, as well as Tlogolele and Selo in Boyolali Regency. An associated pyroclastic flow traveled 2 km down the Gendol drainage on the SE flank. On 12 November aerial drone photographs were used to measure the volume of the lava dome, which was 407,000 m ³. On 17 November, an eruption produced an ash plume that rose 1 km above the crater, resulting in ashfall as far as 15 km W from the summit in the Dukun District, Magelang Regency (figure 92). A pyroclastic flow accompanying the eruption traveled 1 km down the SE flank in the Gendol drainage. By 30 November low-frequency earthquakes and CO2 gas emissions had increased.

Volcanism was relatively low from 18 November 2019 through 12 February 2020, characterized primarily by gas-and-steam emissions and intermittent volcanic earthquakes. On 4 January a pyroclastic flow was recorded by the seismic network at 2036, but it wasn't observed due to weather conditions. On 13 February an explosion was detected at 0516, which ejected incandescent material within a 1-km radius from the summit (figure 93). Ash plumes rose 2 km above the crater and drifted NW, resulting in ashfall within 10 km, primarily S of the summit; lightning was also seen in the plume. Ash was observed in Hargobinangun, Glagaharjo, and Kepuharjo. On 19 February aerial drone photographs were used to measure the change in the lava dome after the eruption; the volume of the lava had decreased, measuring 291,000 m ³.

An explosion on 3 March at 0522 produced an ash plume that rose 6 km above the crater (figure 94), resulting in ashfall within 10 km of the summit, primarily to the NE in the Musuk and Cepogo Boyolali sub-districts and Mriyan Village, Boyolali (3 km from the summit). A pyroclastic flow accompanied this eruption, traveling down the SSE flank less than 2 km. Explosions continued to be detected on 25 and 27-28 March, resulting in ash plumes. The eruption on 27 March at 0530 produced an ash plume that rose 5 km above the crater, causing ashfall as far as 20 km to the W in the Mungkid subdistrict, Magelang Regency, and Banyubiru Village, Dukun District, Magelang Regency. An associated pyroclastic flow descended the SSE flank, traveling as far as 2 km. The ash plume from the 28 March eruption rose 2 km above the crater, causing ashfall within 5 km from the summit in the Krinjing subdistrict primarily to the W (figure 94).

Information Contacts: Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology (URL: http://merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/, Twitter: @BPPTKG); Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/, Twitter: https://twitter.com/BNPB_Indonesia); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Jamie S. Sincioco, Phillipines (Twitter: @jaimessincioco, Image at https://twitter.com/jaimessincioco/status/1227966075519635456/photo/1).

Eruptions in April and June 2020 produced ash plumes and ashfall

Merapi, located just north of the city of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, is a highly active stratovolcano; the current eruption began in May 2018. Volcanism has recently been characterized by lava dome growth and collapse, small block-and-ash flows, explosions, ash plumes, ashfall, and pyroclastic flows (BGVN 44:10 and 45:04). Activity has recently consisted of three large eruptions in April and June, producing dense gray ash plumes and ashfall in June. Dominantly, white gas-and-steam emissions have been reported during April-September 2020. The primary reporting source of activity comes from Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG, the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG), the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC).

Activity at Merapi dominantly consisted of frequent white gas-and-steam emissions that generally rose 20-600 m above the crater (figure 95). On 2 April an eruption occurred at 1510, producing a gray ash plume that rose 3 km above the crater, and accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions up to 600 m above the crater. A second explosion on 10 April at 0910 generated a gray ash plume rising 3 km above the crater and drifting NW, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions rising 300 m above the crater (figure 96). Activity over the next six weeks consisted primarily of gas-and-steam emissions.

New domes appear in January and February 2021; large explosion on 27 January

Merapi volcano in central Java, Indonesia, has a lengthy history of major eruptive episodes. Activity has included lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, Plinian explosions with heavy ashfall, incandescent block avalanches, block-and-ash flows, and dome growth and destruction. Fatalities from these events were reported in 1994, 2006, and in 2010 when hundreds of thousands of people were evacuated. Renewed phreatic explosions in May 2018 cancelled airline fights and generated significant SO2 plumes. A new lava dome appeared in early August 2018; gradual dome growth and then destruction was accompanied by rockfalls, block-and-ash flows, periodic explosions, and pyroclastic flows through June 2020. The period from October 2020 through February 2021 is covered in this report and includes the growth of two new domes in early 2021. Information is provided primarily by Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG, which monitors activity specifically at Merapi, the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC).

Measurements in late July 2020 showed no change in the dome (BGVN 45:10), though satellite evidence for weak thermal activity near the NW crater rim persisted during August-October 2020 (figure 98). A significant increase in the deformation rate and the appearance of numerous rock avalanches at the end of October led PVMBG to raise the Alert Level from II to III and evacuate hundreds of local residents. During November and December 2020 the deformation rate continued to increase and numerous rock avalanches were reported. Incandescent block avalanches were first reported on 4 January 2021. Block-and-ash flows began on 7 January and increased in frequency throughout the month; a new dome was confirmed that day. The deformation rate decreased significantly as the dome grew in size during January. Hundreds of incandescent block avalanches were recorded through the end of the month. A large explosion on 27 January produced a 12.2-km-high ash plume and a large pyroclastic flow; ashfall was reported in numerous communities. Incandescent block avalanches and block-and-ash flows continued frequently during February 2021; a second dome was reported growing near the center of the summit crater on 17 February.

The deformation rate at the summit, shortening determined by Electronic Distance Measurements (EDM) interpreted by PBBTK as inflation related to magma moving towards the surface, remained between 1-2 cm per week during August through early -October with just steam-and-gas plumes rising 150-250 m. During the week of 9-15 October PBBTKG reported a deformation rate of 1 cm/day. Drone photographs confirmed no change in the size or shape of the dome on 18 October 2020. The shortening rate increased to 2 cm/day during 16-22 October and the steam-and-gas plumes rose up to 500 m above the summit; the shortening rate increased to 4 cm/day during 23-29 October. PVMBG reported on 28 October that rock avalanches were heard twice in Babadan and Jrakah over the previous 24 hours, but fog prevented observations.

PVMBG raised the Alert Level from II to III on 5 November 2020 based on an increase in both seismicity and the deformation rate. Rock avalanches were heard that day from Babadan. Analyses of the crater area based on photographs from 30 October and 3 November did not show any morphological changes at the dome. The shortening rate, however, increased to 9-10 cm/day during the first three weeks of the month. Rock avalanches were observed on 8 November on the W flank moving as far as 3 km downslope and moving 2 km on 14 November. Photos comparing the SE flank on 11 and 19 November showed that part of the 2018 lava dome had collapsed. Drone images on 16 November also showed a collapse of part of the crater wall. On 22 November rock avalanches from the crater rim moved 1 km down the W flank. Steam and gas emissions were observed from the Babadan Observation Post rising 200-750 m above the summit during the second half of November (figure 99. A photo analysis on 26 November indicated that part of the 1954 lava dome had collapsed since 19 November. The deformation rate had increased to 11 cm/day by the last week of the month. During overflights on 26 and 27 November BNPB and BPPTKG observers noted many new avalanche deposits on the NW, W, and SW flanks. As of 27 November, there were 2,318 people who had been evacuated from the area around the volcano.

Steam and gas plumes rose 150-400 m above the summit throughout December 2020. Rock avalanches were heard but not seen due to foggy weather during the first few days of the month. On 8 December they were seen falling 200 m upstream of Kali Lamat on the W flank and on 14 December they were observed moving downslope 1.5 km on the NW flank upstream of the Senowo River. Rock avalanches were also observed on 23 December moving 1.5 km down the W flank above Kali Sat ravine and on 31 December moving the same distance above the Senowo River. The deformation rate remained high during December, ranging from 9-11 cm/day through 24 December; it rose to 14 cm/day during the last week. Minor changes were seen in photographs of the summit area, but drone data on 5 and 14 December showed no new lava dome. No lava dome was visible in a clear view of the upper part of the SW flank on 20 December (figure 100); the head of BPPTKG-PVMBG noted that the first observed incandescence in that area was on 31 December.

The deformation rate remained very high at 15 cm/day during the first week of January 2021. Rock avalanches were observed on 1 and 3 January that moved 1.5 km from the summit towards Kali Lamat and Kali Senowo on the W and NW flanks. On 4 January incandescent material was observed with a thermal webcam, and rock avalanches were heard at the Babadan Observation Post (figure 101). Incandescent block avalanches were observed 19 times during 4-7 January, traveling 800 m to the upper reaches of Kali Krasak (figure 102). Four block-and-ash flows occurred on 7 January, moving less than 1 km downslope. Comparison of images between 24 December and 7 January revealed a new lava dome. Hanik Humaida, the head of BPPTKG-PVMBG concluded that incandescent lava had appeared at the bottom of the 1997 dome and noted that incandescence had first been observed late on 31 December. PVMBG issued VONAs on 7 and 9 January reporting block-and-ash flows that produced ash plumes which rose to 3.2 km altitude and drifted SW and NW.

The deformation rate decreased further to less than 1 cm/day by the end of the third week of January. A substantial block-and-ash flow on 19 January that moved 1,800 m down the Krasak and Boyong rivers produced a 500-m-high ash plume that drifted E. According to detikNews, ash fell on 19 January in several villages in Musuk and Tamansari Districts in the Boyolali Regency, and in the Kemalang District in the Klaten Regency (figure 105). The Darwin VAAC reported ash visible in the webcam on 20 and 26 January that drifted downwind close to the summit. Over 200 incandescent block avalanches were observed during the last week of January; the maximum distance traveled was 1,500 m down the SW flank. Block-and-ash flow activity increased significantly during 25-27 January with four flows on 25 January and 13 flows on 26 January which produced ash plumes that rose 300-400 m above the summit and traveled 600-1,500 m down the SW flank. PVMBG reported 31 block-and-ash flows on 27 January that traveled as far as 3 km down the SW flank (figure 106).

The volume of the 2021 lava dome on 25 January 2021 was 157,000 m ³, but by 28 January it was only 62,000 m ³ as a result of block-and-ash flows, explosions, and pyroclastic flows that occurred on 26-27 January. An explosion on 27 January was reported by the Darwin VAAC, based on multiple ground reports of a significant eruption, although meteoric clouds obscured most ground observations. The ash plume rose to 12.2 km altitude, drifted NW, and was visible in satellite images. Ash emissions from a superheated pyroclastic flow rose to 6.1 km altitude and drifted NE (figure 107). Satellite imagery and pilot reports indicated that the 12.2 km ash plume dissipated after about five hours, while the plumes generated by the pyroclastic flow continued moving E at 3.7 km altitude for several more hours. Sand-sized ash was reported in several villages in the Tamansari District in Boyolali Regency on the E flank including the Dukuh Beling area, Sudimoro (Sangup Village), Lanjaran Village, Mriyan and in Boyolali City, Central Java on 27 January. Dense ash was also reported in Tegalmulyo Village; Sruni Village and Cluntang in the Musuk District also reported ashfall.

A drone observation on 17 February noted two lava domes at the summit. The first (the 2021 lava dome) was located on the SW flank and was attached to the 1997 lava dome, and a second new dome had appeared more in the center of the summit crater. Based on calculations from aerial photographs, the dome on the SW flank was 258 m long, 133 m wide, and 30 m high, with a volume of 397,500 m ³ and growth rate of 25,200 m ³/day. The lava dome in the center of the summit crater was 160 m long, 120 m wide, and 50 m high, with a volume of 426,000 m ³ and an average growth rate of 10,000 m ³/day. Deformation data showed no changes during February. During 24-27 February one or two block-and-ash flows occurred each day, the largest travelled 1,900 m SW (figure 109). The block-and-ash flow on 25 February 2021 at 1652 local time (WIB) produced traces of ashfall in Kali Tengah Lor, Kali Tengah Kidul, Deles, and Tlukan. The volume of the lava dome on the SW flank on 25 February was 618,700 m ³ with a growth rate of 13,600 m ³/day.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1, https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1/gunung-api/gallery); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology (URL: http://merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/, https://twitter.com/BPPTKG/status/1350508928740675584); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Detik news (URL: https://news.detik.com/, https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-tengah/d-5339832/hujan-abu-gunung-merapi-jangkau-desa-di-wilayah-krb-ii-klaten, https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-tengah/d-5350542/gunung-merapi-erupsi-sirene-bahaya-meraung-warga-turun-ke-tempat-aman, https://news.detik.com/berita-jawa-tengah/d-5350625/gunung-merapi-erupsi-besar-boyolali-diguyur-hujan-abu-campur-pasir?_ga=2.230047007.2076450499.1612195171-14950811.1611700211); Rizal (URL: https://twitter.com/Rizal06691023/status/1360488059649757191).

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Merapi, one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta. It is the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending NNW to Ungaran volcano.

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US ambassador to the United Nations Michael Waltz speaks at a UN Security Council meeting on a US proposal for a mandate to create an international stabilisation force in Gaza, at UN headquarters in New York City, on November 17, 2025 [Eduardo Munoz/Reuters]

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In this episode: Episode credits: This episode was produced by Marcos Bartolomé and Tracie Hunte, with Farhan Rafid, Fatima Shafiq, Tamara Khandaker, Chloe K. Li and our host, Natasha del Toro. It was edited by Noor Wazwaz and Kylene Kiang. Our sound designer is Alex Roldan. Our video editors are Hisham Abu Salah and Mohannad Al-Melhem. Alexandra Locke is The Take's executive producer. Ney Alvarez is Al Jazeera's head of audio. Connect with us:
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Welcome to the fascinating subject of ecology! From population dynamics to biodiversity, this unit explores the complex web of interactions that make up our natural world.

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Ecology | AP®︎/College Biology | Science | Khan Academy

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Welcome to the fascinating subject of ecology! From population dynamics to biodiversity, this unit explores the complex web of interactions that make up our natural world.

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Early spring thaw triggers Arctic greenhouse gas release

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by Mary Caperton Morton Tuesday, March 14, 2017

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Find out infomation on how to apply sucessfully for full-time higher education.

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@yasmina/Unsplash

Work experience is an excellent way to find out what careers you are interested in and improve your employment prospects by gaining experience and demonstrating commitment to a career. Remote work experience is an increasingly common option.

Finding a placement

Finding work experience can be challenging. The points below might help you make the most of available resources and target your search to opportunities relevant for geographers.

Reflect on what you want and where it may take you: Reflect honestly about the sectors you'd like to work in, and what skills you would like to use - this can help you narrow down your search to relevant schemes or companies. Find out more about geographers' career paths, reflective professional practice and recognising your own geographical skills in our resources.

Get in touch directly: if you have spotted a company, project or individual whose work you are especially interested in, consider getting in touch to see if a one-off work experience or shadowing placement is possible. Remember to be specific about your interest and goals, and of course be polite and professional.

See our directory: browse our directory of geographical work experience placements for ideas and opportunities and our jobs in geography page for links to companies that may offer relevant work.

Browse our work experience directory
Finding a remote placement

Work experience doesn't just mean a week in an office. The pandemic move to hybrid and remote working means remote/online/virtual work experience is more viable than ever.

Be realistic about how you can work remotely: the time you can commit online may be more flexible than normal, depending on your study or employer. Be clear about how much time you can realistically commit and stick to agreed work patterns rather than letting work run over. Remember you may have also less structure when working remotely, so be proactive about checking in with staff and asking questions.

Adapt your aims and expectations for online placements: As ever, consider the skills and experience you'd like to develop, and whether the placement being virtual offers different opportunities. While online placements are almost certain to involve writing or technical tasks on your computer, there may be scope to, for example, talk to and learn directly from staff.

Try to get involved and network remotely: opportunities to chat, network and learn from colleagues won't be the same when online - but do ask if there are any opportunities to learn from colleagues remotely or take part in work, events or activities with colleagues via group calls.

Stay professional: you may not be in a company's workspace, but stay professional. As you will probably be on video calls, you may also want to choose a well-lit place to work with a neutral background.

For more tips on virtual work experience, see:

Alternatives to work experience

Work experience isn't the only way to build employability. You can also try volunteering to demonstrate interest in a sector and gain experience, or take part in online courses to develop skills. You can find more volunteering advice and links on the NCVO website and Gov.uk.

See our resources below for ways to enhance and communicate your career skills.

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careers; careers resources; online; virtual; remote; work experience; work exp; experience; internship; placement; covid; careers; career

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Finding work experience and remote experience - RGS

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@yasmina/Unsplash Work experience is an excellent way to find out what careers you are interested in and improve your employment prospects by gaining experience and demonstrating commitment to a career. Remote work experience is an increasingly common option. Finding work experience can be challenging.

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An ancient disease makes yet another comeback

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Why cholera is striking in Africa. It’s a disease that’s easy to control with proper treatment. But without medical care, patients can perish quickly.

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Viral spread: how rumours surged in revolutionary France

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Viral spread: how rumours surged in revolutionary France

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Hear the biggest stories from the world of science | 27 August 2025

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The Institute of Chartered Foresters x Springpod

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The Institute of Chartered Foresters x Springpod

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Gain virtual work experience and learn more about the forestry sector with The Institute of Chartered Foresters, the Forestry Commission and Springpod.

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Protect Antarctica — or risk accelerating planetary meltdown

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Protect Antarctica — or risk accelerating planetary meltdown

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To keep Earth habitable, humanity must recognize the value of Antarctica and seek to save it from irreversible damage.

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How to leave a sinking nation: Tuvalu’s dreams of dry land

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How to leave a sinking nation: Tuvalu’s dreams of dry land

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The long read: With sea levels rising, much of the nation’s population is confronting the prospect that their home may soon cease to exist. Where are they going to go?

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ADS-B Exchange - track aircraft live - aircraft flight history

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Discussing War and Conflict in Class - Rights Respecting Schools Award

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War and conflict are incredibly difficult subjects for people of any age.

Working with children to try to help them untangle complicated thoughts and feelings is not easy. However, safe spaces in which to gently explore disturbing world events can provide huge reassurance to children and young people, and prompt them to seek help when they need it.

When speaking to children and doing activities from this pack, keep in mind different lived experiences children in your school might have in relation to war and conflict, fleeing violence or other trauma in their lives.

It is almost always the case that conflict, and rights violations go hand in hand. This may cause some children to question the value of rights or to lose trust in duty bearers to deliver.

It is important to balance discussion about war and conflict with hope and optimism. Remember that despite everything, the world is better for children today than it was when the CRC was adopted in 1989.

This resource is provided in English and Welsh. Please note that in the Welsh pack, the PowerPoint is in Welsh but there are links to external resources in English.

There are many conflicts taking place around the world. The image at the top of this page is from the refugee site of Adré, in the East of Chad, close to the border of Sudan. More than 100,000 people, mostly women and children, have come here after fleeing their country because of conflict in 2023.
You can find out more here about the work UNICEF UK is doing to fundraise and protect children in emergency situations.
Image: UNICEF/Dejongh

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Discussing War and Conflict in Class - Rights Respecting Schools Award

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Class room resources to support teaching and learning about war and conflict, from a children's rights-based perspective.

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‘The Sun had fallen to Earth’ — a survivor’s recollection of the Hiroshima bombing

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‘The Sun had fallen to Earth’ — a survivor’s recollection of the Hiroshima bombing

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Eighty years after the atomic bomb was dropped on Japan, it is crucial that witness accounts are saved. Here is what one man told me.

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The latest in a string of episodic eruptions produced voluminous fiery flows at the Hawaiian volcano’s summit.

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An explosion in the numbers of cyanobacteria transformed the Baltic Sea into a swirling canvas of green in summer 2025.

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 3a below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. Why do sea levels fall when the global climate cools?

2. What do you think happens to the coast when sea levels fall?

3. How might the landforms continue to change after sea level falls?

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 2b below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. We can see coastlines as 'high energy' (usually rocky) and others as 'low energy' (usually estuarine). Each have different landforms.

2. What physical factors might influence landforms on these different coasts?

3. How do you think landforms might interact on these different coasts?

4. How might the landforms change over time? E.g. cliffs collapse in seconds, beach profile changes seasonally, spits grow over millennia.

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Read/watch what you find posted under Idea 2a below and then write a paragraph of your own thought questions.

(These are thoughtful questions, in paragraph form, which might include disagreements, about what you thought were the most interesting ideas in the articles/videos.)

Be prepared to read out your thought questions as part of a discussion when we meet.

These ideas will get you started:

1. How does energy and material move around the coast? Where does it come from? Where does it go?

2. Geomorphic processes alter the coast (weathering, mass movement, wave/fluvial/aeolian erosion, transport, and deposition).

3. How are distinct landforms created by erosion?

4. How are distinct landforms created by deposition?

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Learn about tides, storm surges, and sea level rise.

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Aw snap! Google Earth isn't supported on your browser. You may need to update your browser or use a different browser. Please see our system requirements for more information. Chrome is a great choice and you can download it here.

Or if you're feeling adventurous, you can try Earth anyway by choosing an option below.

Learn more about Google Earth.

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Aw snap! Google Earth isn't supported on your browser. You may need to update your browser or use a different browser. Please see our system requirements for more information. Chrome is a great choice and you can download it here. Or if you're feeling adventurous, you can try Earth anyway by choosing an option below.

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After water, sand is the most widely used natural resource.