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My name is Ashton Dydell and I'm in my last semester of the Mental Health and Wellness Program. One personal goal of mines is to travel the world and experience everything as a true renaissance. I don't believe in stay in one lane unless it makes you happy! With that, a lot of things bring joy to me, so I'm all over the place within that regard. My professional goal is to create a company where creative can get together and create different forums of art! Whether that be music, painting, film making, etc., I want to open up doors for people to do what they love.

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Most counselors abide by the codes of the ACA or APA. I chose the ACA because I feel that it's more catered towards a wider variety of counselors, instead of strictly mental health.

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Looking at this unit as a whole, I think it did a great job of slowly bring the class into the world of trauma. It forced people to get out of their comfortable zone and really express what they knew or didn't know. I also feel that this assignment sparked some future ideas for research due to the fact that trauma is still somewhat of unexplored frontier!

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This assignment could be viewed as a refresher for me. It's been almost about a year since I cracked open the DSM-5...I say a new thirst for knowledge was reborn. Most of the disorders mentioned were some that I had already covered in other classes, yet this assignment allowed me to go in-depth with some of them. Now granted, this assignment was a lot of work and in some ways tedious, but I felt a great sense of accomplishment upon finishing it! I felt my knowledge somewhat had grown and that I was able to retain something this go around!

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While this assignment was a bit too long for my liking, I understand why each component was necessary. Post one gives you a layout on trauma studies and explains what trauma is and how it's developed. Post two and three allows you to see real life examples of trauma and different types of events or situations that can trigger its onset. Then lastly, post four allows you to reflect on what you consumed from the various films or shows and puts you in the role as professional. Allow you to learn about treatment plans and evidence-based practices that are effective for trauma related disorders. I felt that post four was the most monumental for me because I was able to learn about new therapies. I was able expand my repertoire of knowledge and possibly found some practices to pursue after graduation.

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This assignment was interesting to me since it actually applies some of the things we've been learning. I enjoy the scenarios provided within the modules, and how a rationale was provided for every answer. Now, do I see myself using these skills in real time? Yes and no. Yes, because providing psychological first aid in a time of immediate need is a great skill to have. However, I rather be able to sit-down and take my time hearing people in their entirety.

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This assignment was pretty fun in the aspect of collaborating with fellow scholars on interesting topics within the field. My group had the pleasure learning about domestic violence and create a threat assessment and prevention plan. I learned that there are many ways to assess victims of domestic violence, but there's an impending gray area when doing so. Not everyone is ready to voice their situation, so as professionals, we must be very tactful. As far as the assignment is concerned, I enjoyed creating special considerations for populations that lack representation. Since this is something that we must consider when offering services to the community.

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The National Child Traumatic Stress Network

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When a child feels intensely threatened by an event he or she is involved in or witnesses, we call that event a trauma. There is a range of traumatic events or trauma types to which children and adolescents can be exposed.

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To bring context to the polarizing debates that surround school shootings, Education Week journalists, in 2018, began tracking shootings on K-12 school property that resulted in firearm-related injuries or deaths. That year, there were 24 such incidents. We continued tracking school shootings in 2019 with injuries or deaths, when there were also 24 such incidents. On this page, we document where they happened, how many people were killed or injured, and other key information.

Behind the Numbers

To better understand how gun violence impacted students, educators, and communities in 2019, Education Week created an at-a-glance view of school shooting data. Read more.

Injuries & Deaths

Where the Shootings Happened
The size of the dots correlates to the number of people killed or injured. Click on each dot for more information.
About the Shootings
A previous version of this table included the age, sex, and status of the suspect(s). We are no longer tracking that information.
Methodology

Counting Incidents

This page refers to incidents that meet all the following criteria:

where a firearm was discharged,

where any individual, other than the suspect or perpetrator, has a bullet wound resulting from the incident,

that happen on K-12 school property or on a school bus, and

that occur while school is in session or during a school-sponsored event.

We do not track incidents in which the only shots fired were from an individual authorized to carry a gun, such as a school resource officer, and who did so in their official capacity.

The numbers of incidents, injuries, and deaths reported in this tracker do not include suicides or self-inflicted injuries. While suicides and attempted suicides are serious issues of health and safety, many of the critical questions and debates that those incidents raise for educators and the broader public are often distinct from those generated by school shootings.

Counting Injuries & Deaths

Injuries included in this tracker may be major or minor. While we only track incidents resulting in at least one bullet wound, total injuries are not necessarily the result of gunfire.

The total number of people killed or injured does not include the suspect or perpetrator.

Sources

In addition to our own reporting, we rely on local news outlets, school and district websites, news alerts via online search engines, the Gun Violence Archive, and the Center for Homeland Defense and Security's Naval Postgraduate School's K-12 School Shooting database.

How to Cite This Page

School Shootings in 2019: How Many and Where (2019, February 6). Education Week. Retrieved Month Day, Year from https://www.edweek.org/leadership/school-shootings-in-2019-how-many-and-where/2019/02

Contact Information

For media or research inquiries about this page, contact library@educationweek.org.

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School Shootings in 2019: How Many and Where

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To bring context to the polarizing debates that surround school shootings, Education Week journalists, in 2018, began tracking shootings on K-12 school property that resulted in firearm-related injuries or deaths. That year, there were 24 such incidents. We continued tracking school shootings in 2019 with injuries or deaths, when there were also 24 such incidents.

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Continuing Education Course

Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) 101

This PTSD 101 online course describes various formats and session content of Cognitive Processing Therapy.

There are two primary types of stuck points that can maintain PTSD according to CPT, assimilation and over-accommodation. During the process of assimilation, trauma information is altered to fit within the existing belief system. For example, if the existing belief is, "good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people," then a rape victim may believe that they deserved to be raped. On the other hand, the process of over-accommodation involves extreme alteration of existing belief systems based on the new trauma information (e.g. "All men are dangerous").

These processes stand in contrast to accommodation which involves more balanced modifications of existing belief systems to integrate the new and discrepant trauma information (e.g. "Sometimes bad things happen to good people; what I was wearing had nothing to do with causing this crime. Some people are dangerous, most are not."). The process of accommodation promotes recovery from the traumatic event. Correcting inaccurate assimilated and over-accommodated stuck points and developing more accommodated, balanced beliefs is a primary goal of CPT.

Session Content

Protocol

CPT can be administered in individual, group, or combined individual and group formats (although research suggests that the individual format is the most effective). The original CPT protocol included a detailed, written account of the traumatic event as a standard component of therapy, but later studies suggested that this therapy element was not necessary for treatment to be successful (3).

The CPT protocol now advises the therapist to allow the patient to choose whether or not to incorporate the written trauma account. Based on research pointing to the effectiveness of the cognitive component of CPT, the most recently published CPT manual (4) now describes "CPT" as the cognitive-only version of the therapy. If therapists and patients choose to add the trauma narrative to the treatment protocol, then the therapy is specified as CPT+ Account (CPT-A).

Although CPT was originally developed as a 12-session protocol, it is now administered over a variable number of sessions, depending on patient needs. This change stemmed from a study by Galovski et al. (2012) which found that ending therapy based on patient progress yielded better results than using a proscribed number of sessions-by the end of the study, 92% of the participants who had variable length CPT no longer had a diagnosis of PTSD (5).

Primary goals

The primary goal of CPT is to identify the patient's stuck points and, through cognitive restructuring, help the patient to arrive at more accurate, balanced interpretations of the event. To accomplish these treatment goals, the patient first learns cognitive restructuring through Socratic questions. The goal is to help the patient begin to challenge and modify stuck points, particularly assimilated stuck points involving self-blame, shame and hindsight bias.

Later in therapy, the patient and therapist continue to identify and challenge stuck points with particular emphasis on five belief systems that have been found to be disrupted after exposure to a traumatic event: safety, trust, power and control, esteem, and intimacy. Throughout the protocol, the therapist provides the patient with opportunities and encouragement to challenge stuck points outside of session with the aid of worksheets and other tools.

Overall and Relative Effectiveness

CPT is one of the most studied treatments for PTSD. There have been over twenty randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of CPT with more in progress (6). Meta-analyses (e.g., 7-10) suggest that CPT produces large treatment effects in regard to PTSD symptom reduction and loss of diagnosis (e.g., 10).

CPT was originally evaluated with civilian female victims of sexual assault and rape. The first RCT of CPT compared CPT to Prolonged Exposure (PE) and to a minimal attention (MA) condition in a sample of female rape survivors, most of whom (85.8%) reported multiple traumatic events including childhood sexual assault (41%). Participants in the active treatment conditions (both CPT and PE) demonstrated significant improvement in PTSD and depression over the course of treatment as compared to the MA group. Treatment gains were maintained 5-10 years after the completion of treatment (11).

The efficacy of CPT has also been demonstrated in RCTs across diverse populations including in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq and Germany (12-14). CPT has been translated into 12 languages (4), has been shown to be effective when delivered through an interpreter with Bosnian war refugees (15), and when delivered through telehealth (16).

A review by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (17), which used extensive criteria for evaluating study quality, included 7 RCTs of CPT. The review concluded that there is moderate strength of evidence to support the efficacy of CPT for reduction of PTSD symptoms, depression symptoms, and loss of PTSD diagnosis and that trauma-focused therapies such as CPT are the most effective treatments for PTSD.

CPT in Clinical Practice Guidelines

CPT is recommended as a first-line treatment in all major PTSD treatment guidelines including the American Psychological Association (APA), the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ISTSS), the United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and Department of Defense (VA, DoD) and the Australian Guidelines (18).

Research with Military Personnel and Veterans

Several studies have shown CPT to be effective for treating PTSD in Veterans and Service members. In the first RCT with U.S. Veterans, participants were randomized to either CPT or treatment as usual (19). Those participants who received CPT demonstrated significantly more improvement in PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety, guilt, and social adjustment. Forty percent of Veterans who received CPT no longer had PTSD by the end of treatment.

CPT has also been shown to be effective among Australian Veterans (20) and in a sample of U.S. Veterans who had experienced military sexual trauma (21). Two non-inferiority trials demonstrated that CPT could be delivered to male and female Veterans via tele-videoconferencing (16,22). A study with active duty military personnel found that PTSD symptoms improved more with individual than group CPT (23).

Research with Comorbidities and Special Populations

PTSD rarely occurs in isolation and, as such, it is important that the benefits of treatment extend to individuals suffering from co-occurring disorders and conditions. To date, CPT has been shown to improve common comorbid symptoms and clinical correlates of PTSD such as depression (10), suicidal ideation (24), health-related concerns and sleep (25), physiological reactivity (26), dissociation, and functioning across important life domains (27,28).

CPT is efficacious with individuals who also are diagnosed with one or more personality disorders, including borderline personality disorder (29,30). Examining data from a PTSD treatment program, Kaysen et al., (2014) found that individuals with current or past histories of alcohol use disorders reported comparable outcomes in PTSD recovery as those who denied a history of alcohol use disorders (31). Several studies have shown that CPT is efficacious in treating PTSD among patients who also suffer from traumatic brain injury (TBI; 32). CPT was found to be beneficial in treating PTSD in patients with comorbid PTSD and TBI, including moderate-severe TBIs, in an 8-week residential VA treatment program (33-35).

CPT in Group Format

A few studies have examined CPT delivered in a group format. Resick et al. (2015) compared CPT delivered in group format to Present-Centered Therapy in active duty military Service members and found that participants who received CPT reported greater decreases in PTSD and depression (36). A second trial (23) conducted with active duty Service members compared group versus individually administered CPT. Participants improved significantly in PTSD and depression in both treatment conditions, but improvements in PTSD were significantly greater when the therapy was administered individually. Participants in each treatment condition benefited equally in regard to depression and suicidal ideation. These findings suggest that individual CPT is the most effective format.

References

1. Beck, A.T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

2. McCann, I. L., Sakheim, D. K., & Abrahamson, D. J. (1988). Trauma and victimization: A model of psychological adaptation. Counseling Psychologist, 16, 531-594. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000088164002

3. Resick, P. A., Galovski, T. E., Uhlmansiek, M. O., Scher, C. D., Clum, G. A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of Cognitive Processing Therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.243

4. Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2017). Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD: A comprehensive manual. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

5. Galovski, T. E., Blain, L. M., Mott, J. M., Elwood, L., & Houle, T. (2012). Manualized therapy for PTSD: Flexing the structure of Cognitive Processing Therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 968-981. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030600

6. O'Neil, M., McDonagh, M., Hsu, F., Cheney, T., Carlson, K., Holmes, R., ... Chou R. (in press). Pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: Groundwork for a publicly available repository of randomized controlled trials. Technical Brief. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Forthcoming 2019

7. Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Cooper, R., & Lewis, C. (2013). Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12, Art. No.:CD003388. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4

8. Cusack, K., Jonas, D. E., Forneris, C. A., Wines, C., Sonis, J., Middleton, J. C., ... Gaynes, B. N. (2016). Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 43, 128-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.10.003

9. Jonas, D. E., Cusack, K., Forneris, C. A., Wilkins, T. M., Sonis, J., Middleton, J. C., ... Gaynes, B. N. (2013). Psychological and pharmacological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 92. (Prepared by the RTI International-University of North Carolina Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-2007-10056-I.) AHRQ Publication No. 12-EHC011-EF. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; April 2013. Retrieved from: www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/reports/final.cfm

10. Watts, B. V., Schnurr, P. P., Mayo, L., Young-Xu, Y., Weeks, W. B., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74, e541-e550. https://doi.org/10.2088/jcp.12r08225

11. Resick, P.A., Williams, L.F., Suvak, M.K., Monson, C.M., & Gradus, J.L. (2012). Long-term outcomes of cognitive-behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder among female rape survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 201-210. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026602

12. Bass, J. K., Annan, J., McIvor Murray, S., Kaysen, D., Griffiths, S., Cetinoglu, T., ... & Bolton, P.A. (2013). Controlled trial of psychotherapy for Congolese survivors of sexual violence. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368, 2182-2191. https://doi.org/1-.1056/NEJMoa1211853

13. Bolton, P., Bass, J.K., Zangana, G., Kamal, T., Murray, S., Kaysen, D., ... & Rosenblum, M. (2014). A randomized controlled trial of mental health interventions for survivors of systematic violence in Kurdistan, Northern Iraq. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 360. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0360-2

14. Butollo, W., Karl, R., König, J., & Rosner, R. (2016). A randomized controlled clinical trial of dialogical exposure therapy versus Cognitive Processing Therapy for adult outpatients suffering from PTSD after type I trauma in adulthood. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 85, 16-26. https://doi.org/10.1159/000440726

15. Schulz, P. M., Resick, P. A., Huber, L. C., & Griffin, M. G. (2006). The effectiveness of Cognitive Processing Therapy for PTSD with refugees in a community setting. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 13, 322-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2006.04.011

16. Morland, L. A., Mackintosh, M. A., Greene, C. J., Rosen, C. S., Chard, K. M., Resick, P., & Frueh, B. C. (2014). Cognitive Processing Therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder delivered to rural Veterans via telemental health: A randomized noninferiority clinical trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75, 470-476. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08842

17. Forman-Hoffman, V., Middleton, J. C., Feltner, C., Gaynes B. N., Weber, R.P., Bann, C., ... & Green, J. (2018). Psychological and pharmacological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review update. Comparative Effectiveness Review, No. 207. (Prepared by the RTI International-University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-2015-00011-I for AHRQ and PCORI.) AHRQ Publication No. 18-EHC011-EF. PCORI Publication No. 2018-SR-01. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; May 2018. Retrieved from: www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/reports/final.cfm https://doi.org/10.23970/AHRQEPCCER207

18. Hamblen, J. L., Norman, S. B., Sonis, J. H., Phelps, A. J., Bisson, J. I., Nunes, V. D., Megnin-Viggars, O., Forbes, D., Riggs, D. S., & Schnurr. P. P. (2019). A guide to guidelines for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: An update. Psychotherapy, 56(3), 359-373. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000231

19. Monson, C. M., Schnurr, P. P., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., Young-Xu, Y., & Stevens, S. P. (2006). Cognitive Processing Therapy for Veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 898-907. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.5.898

20. Forbes, D., Lloyd, D., Nixon, R.D.V., Elliott, P., Varker, T., Perry, D., ... & Creamer, M. (2012). A multisite randomized controlled effectiveness trial of Cognitive Processing Therapy for military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 442-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.006

21. Surís, A., Link-Malcolm, J., Chard, K., Ahn, C. & North, C. (2013). A randomized clinical trial of Cognitive Processing Therapy for Veterans with PTSD related to military sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 28-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21765

22. Morland, L. A., Mackintosh, M. A., Rosen, C. S., Willis, W., Resick, P. A., Chard, K., & Frueh, B. C. (2015). Telemedicine versus in-person delivery of Cognitive Processing Therapy for women with posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized noninferiority trial. Depression and Anxiety, 32, 811-820. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22397

23. Resick, P. A., Schuster Wachen, J., Dondanville, K. A., Pruiksma, K. E., Yarvis, J. S., Peterson, A. L., ... & the STRONG STAR Consortium. (2017). Effect of group versus individual Cognitive processing therapy in active-duty military seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 74, 28-36. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.2729

24. Gradus, J. L., Suvak, M. K., Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P., & Resick, P. A. (2013). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder reduces suicidal ideation. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 1046-1053. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22117

25. Galovski, T. E., Monson, C., Bruce, S. E., & Resick, P. A. (2009). Does cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD improve perceived health and sleep impairment? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20418

26. Griffin, M. G., Resick, P. A. & Galovski, T. E. (2012). Does physiologic response to loud tones change following cognitive-behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 25-32. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21667

27. Galovski, T. E., Sobel, A. A., Phipps, K. A., & Resick, P. A. (2005). Trauma recovery: Beyond posttraumatic stress disorder and other Axis I symptom severity. In T. A. Corales. Trends in posttraumatic stress disorder research. (pp. 207-227). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

28. Monson, C. M., Macdonald, A., Vorstenbosch, V., Shnaider, P., Goldstein, E. S. R., Ferrier-Auerbach, A. G. & Mocciola, K. E. (2012). Changes in social adjustment with Cognitive Processing Therapy: Effects of treatment and association with PTSD symptom change. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 519-526. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21735

29. Clarke, S. B., Rizvi, S. L., & Resick, P. A. (2008). Borderline personality characteristics and treatment outcome in cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD in female rape victims. Behavior Therapy, 39, 72-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2007.05.002

30. Farmer, C. C., Mitchell, K. S., Parker-Guilbert, K. & Galovski, T. E. (2017). Fidelity to the Cognitive Processing Therapy protocol: Evaluation of critical elements. Behavior Therapy, 48, 195-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.02.009

31. Kaysen, D., Schumm, J., Pedersen, E. R., Seim, R. W., Bedard-Gilligan, M., & Chard, K. (2014). Cognitive Processing Therapy for Veterans with comorbid PTSD and alcohol use disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 420-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.08.016

32. Jak, A. J., Jurick, S. M., Crocker, L. D., Sanderson-Cimino, M., Aupperle, R., Rodgers, C.S., ... & Twamley, E. W. (2019). SMART-CPT treatment for Veterans with comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and history of traumatic brain injury: A randomised controlled trial. To appear in Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 90, 333-341. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-319315

33. Chard, K. M., Schumm, J., McIlvain, S., Bailey, G., & Parkinson, R. (2011). Exploring the efficacy of a residential treatment program incorporating Cognitive Processing Therapy-Cognitive for Veterans with PTSD and traumatic brain injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 347-351. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20644

34. Walter, K. H., Barnes, S. M., & Chard, K. M. (2012). The influence of MDD on residential treatment outcome among veterans with PTSD and a history of TBI. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 426-432. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21722

35. Walter, K. H., Dickstein, B. D., Barnes, S. M., & Chard, K. M. (2014). Comparing effectiveness of CPT to CPT-C among U.S. Veterans in an interdisciplinary residential PTSD/TBI treatment program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 438-445. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21934.

36. Resick, P. A., Wachen, J. S., Mintz, J., Young-McCaughan, S., Roache, J. D., Borah, A. M., ... & Peterson, A. L. (2015). A randomized clinical trial of group Cognitive Processing Therapy compared with group present-centered therapy for PTSD among active duty military personnel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83, 1058-1068. https://doi.org/1-.1037/ccp0000016

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Continuing Education Course Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) 101 This PTSD 101 online course describes various formats and session content of Cognitive Processing Therapy. There are two primary types of stuck points that can maintain PTSD according to CPT, assimilation and over-accommodation. During the process of assimilation, trauma information is altered to fit within the existing belief system.

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American Psychiatric Publishing. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Dsm-5 (5th ed.).

Cognitive Processing Therapy for PTSD. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2019, March 20). Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/txessentials/cpt_for_ptsd_pro.asp

Education Week. (2019, February 6). School shootings in 2019: How many and where. Education Week. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.edweek.org/leadership/school-shootings-in-2019-how-many-and-where/2019/02

Rabin, R. F., Jennings, J. M., Campbell, J. C., & Bair-Merritt, M. H. (2009). Intimate partner violence screening tools: a systematic review. American journal of preventive medicine, 36(5), 439–445.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.01.024

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2018, May 25). Trauma types. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types