# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Britain's problem with toxic air pollution explained

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Great Smog Begins

Clear skies dawned over London on December 5, 1952. A wintry cold snap had gripped the British capital for weeks, and as Londoners awoke, coal fireplaces were stoked in homes and businesses across the city to take the chill from the early morning air.

As the day progressed, a veil of fog-not unusual in a city famous for its cool, misty weather-began to enshroud Big Ben, St. Paul's Cathedral, London Bridge and other city landmarks.

Within a few hours, however, the fog began to turn a sickly shade of yellowish brown as it mixed with thousands of tons of soot pumped into the air by London's factory smokestacks, chimneys and automobiles. Smoky, diesel-fueled buses had recently replaced the city's electric tram system, adding to the toxic brew.

Nonetheless, Londoners went about their business with typical British reserve, ignoring the foul air as much as possible. But within a day, it became impossible to ignore the unfolding crisis.

London Fog Becomes London Smog

Fog, combined with smoke to produce smog, was nothing new in London, but this particular "pea souper" quickly thickened into a poisonous stew unlike anything the city had ever experienced.

A high-pressure weather system had stalled over southern England and caused a temperature inversion, in which a layer of warm air high above the surface trapped the stagnant, cold air at ground level.

The temperature inversion prevented London's sulfurous coal smoke from rising, and with nary a breeze to be found, there was no wind to disperse the soot-laden smog. The noxious, 30-mile-wide air mass, teeming with acrid sulfur particles, reeked like rotten eggs-and it was getting worse every day.

The Big Smoke Settles In

The smog was so dense that residents in some sections of the city were unable to see their feet as they walked. For five days, the Great Smog paralyzed London and crippled all transportation, except for the London Underground train system.

Because of poor visibility, boat traffic on the River Thames came to a halt. Flights were grounded and trains cancelled. Even during the middle of the day, drivers turned on their headlights and hanged their heads out car windows to inch ahead through the thick gloom. Many found the effort futile and simply abandoned their cars.

Conductors holding flashlights walked in front of London's iconic double-decker buses to guide drivers down city streets. Wheezing pedestrians groped their way around the city's neighborhoods and tried not to slip on the greasy black ooze that coated sidewalks. By the time they returned home, their faces and nostrils blackened by the air, Londoners resembled coal miners.

Authorities advised parents to keep their children home from school, partly from fear they would get lost in the blinding smog. Looting, burglaries and purse snatchings increased as emboldened criminals easily vanished into the darkness.

Weekend soccer games were cancelled, although Oxford and Cambridge carried on with their annual cross-country competition at Wimbledon Common with the help of track marshals who continually shouted, "This way, this way, Oxford and Cambridge" as runners materialized out of the thick haze.

The smog seeped inside buildings as well. A greasy grime covered exposed surfaces, and movie theaters closed as the yellow haze made it impossible for ticket-holders to see the screen.

Health Effects of the Great Smog

The Great Smog of 1952 was much more than a nuisance. It was lethal, particularly for the elderly, young children and those with respiratory problems. Heavy smokers were especially vulnerable because of their already-impaired lungs, and smoking was common at the time, especially among men.

It wasn't until undertakers began to run out of coffins and florists out of bouquets that the deadly impact of the Great Smog was realized. Deaths from bronchitis and pneumonia increased more than sevenfold. The death rate in London's East End increased ninefold.

Initial reports estimated that about 4,000 died prematurely in the immediate aftermath of the smog.

The detrimental effects lingered, however, and death rates remained well above normal into the summer of 1953. Many experts now estimate the Great Smog claimed at least 8,000 lives, and perhaps as many as 12,000.

The effects of the Big Smoke weren't limited to people: Birds lost in the fog crashed into buildings. Eleven prize heifers brought to Earls Court for the famed Smithfield Show choked to death, and breeders fashioned improvised gas masks for their cattle by soaking grain sacks in whiskey.

After five days of living in a sulfurous hell, the Great Smog finally lifted on December 9, when a brisk wind from the west swept the toxic cloud away from London and out to the North Sea.

Aftermath of the Big Smoke

Initially, the British government was slow to act during the Great Smog. Heavy fog was, after all, a common occurrence in London and there was, according to most reports, no immediate sense of urgency to this smog event.

Following a government investigation, however, Parliament passed the Clean Air Act of 1956, which restricted the burning of coal in urban areas and authorized local councils to set up smoke-free zones. Homeowners received grants to convert from coal to alternative heating systems.

The transition away from coal as the city's primary heating source toward gas, oil and electricity took years, and during that time deadly fogs periodically occurred, such as one that killed about 750 people in 1962. None of them, however, approached the scale of the 1952 Great Smog.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
When the Great Smog Smothered London | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For five days in December 1952, the Great Smog of London smothered the city, wreaking havoc and killing thousands.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Health warnings have been issued for parts of England, as air pollution reaches high levels.

So what exactly is the problem, and how serious is it?

How bad is the pollution in the UK?

By UK standards, air pollution levels are high. The Department of the Environment measures outdoor air pollution on a one-to-10 scale. Parts of north-west Norfolk hit level 10 on Tuesday.

On Wednesday, levels were recorded at seven - meaning high - in towns and cities in East Anglia and rural parts of south-east England. Pollution levels of five were reached in London, the Midlands and Yorkshire and Humberside.

What has caused it?

The tipping point seems to have been dust from storms in the Sahara. Normally it settles in the countries of southern Europe - Spain, Malta and Greece, for example.

However, winds from the south and east have brought the dust to the UK, along with industrial pollution from Europe. And because those weather conditions are stable and not changing, those particles are not being dispersed.

But that is only part of the problem. Most air pollution in the UK comes from road transport and residential emissions.

What is being measured?

Leaving aside the Sahara dust, the pollution is made up of various substances, including nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ammonia.

These form particles in the atmosphere. The two most common measurements are particulate matter measuring 2.5 micrometres or less, known as PM2.5; and larger particles measuring 10 micrometres, known as PM10.

The World Health Organization (WHO) uses PM10 levels to measure pollution, expressed in micrograms per cubic metre. It recommends mean exposure over 24 hours to PM2.5 of no more than 10 micrograms/m3, and to PM10 of no more than 25.

PM2.5 particles are thought to be particularly damaging because they are so small, they can penetrate into the deepest parts of the lungs.
WHO air quality guidelines Why is the UK doing so badly?
Last month, the EU announced it was taking legal action against the UK because it was persistently over the safe limit for air pollution - in particular, levels of nitrogen dioxide.

But the UK is not alone - most EU countries struggle to meet the targets, says Martin Adams of the European Environment Agency.

In fact, the EU is currently taking action against 17 out of 28 member states with serious air quality problems.

EU standards make allowances for natural sources of air pollution, including Saharan dust for Spain and ozone for coastal countries such as the UK.

Frank Kelly, professor of Environmental Health at King's College London, puts the blame for the UK's pollution woes squarely on the shift to diesel vehicles over the past 10 years.

Six out of 10 cars sold today in the UK are diesels, and these produce a lot of nitrogen dioxide, he says.
King's College London air quality monitoring project (London only)
How serious a problem is air pollution generally?

In all, the WHO says air pollution is responsible for seven million premature deaths a year around the world.

That includes indoor as well as outdoor pollution - typically, smoke from cooking stoves in developing countries.

About 80% of deaths related to outdoor pollution are linked to heart disease and strokes, while 14% are due to lung or respiratory diseases, and 6% to cancer, estimates the WHO.

But even at times of lower pollution, UK air quality still routinely breaches WHO recommended limits. Even when the air looks clean, it is not.
WHO: Air pollution 'killed seven million'
According to Joe Hennon, the European Commission's spokesman on pollution, around 30,000 people in the UK die prematurely every year from problems associated with air pollution.

He describes it as an "invisible killer".

"Air pollution can be carcinogenic," he said. "It also causes all kinds of respiratory problems, heart disease, [and] lung problems".

Some headlines have said the UK's air quality is worse than China - is that true?

No, says Professor Kelly.

When it comes to bad air quality, Beijing has few rivals. In February, at the height of a severe smog episode, the BBC's Jo Floto, in Beijing, wrote that the air quality in the city was "so bad it's comparable to living near a forest fire".

The Chinese government has recently begun publishing air quality figures for the major cities, although the accuracy of these is sometimes contested.

The US embassy in Beijing runs an air quality monitor and releases updates several times daily. At 21:00 (13:00 GMT) on Wednesday, it measured PM2.5 levels of 87 - more than eight times the WHO 24-hour limit.

In February, levels soared to 15 times the WHO limit.

Compare that with the UK - in the hour to 16:00 on Wednesday, the highest PM2.5 level recorded by the Department for the Environment was 57, in Rochester, Kent.
UK air quality levels (Department for the Environment)
What might help cut the air pollution?

A change in the weather forecast for the end of the week is expected to bring some relief.

When pollution measures soared last month, Paris imposed restrictions, banning cars with even-numbered plates from driving on one day, followed by a ban on odd-numbered plates the following day.

The EU Environment Agency is awaiting data on whether the ban had much effect. In any case, London will not be following suit.

Mr Hennon says the UK can learn from cities like Amsterdam, where there are traffic restrictions - including speed restrictions on motorways - as well as good public transport links and cycle lanes.

But he warns there is no easy answer and a range of measures are needed to tackle the problem.

A shift towards less polluting forms of transport will be necessary, believes Prof Kelly. In 10 years' time, diesel vehicles will have been largely replaced by low-emission vehicles.

But he warns: "The political will needs to be substantial, because it will be costly."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Health warnings have been issued for parts of England, as air pollution reaches high levels. So what exactly is the problem, and how serious is it? By UK standards, air pollution levels are high. The Department of the Environment measures outdoor air pollution on a one-to-10 scale.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Acid Rain? | National Geographic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth. Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6, while acid rain generally has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can cause acid rain, but most acid rain is a product of human activities. The biggest sources are coal-burning power plants, factories, and automobiles.

When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO ₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) are released into the atmosphere. Those air pollutants react with water, oxygen, and other substances to form airborne sulfuric and nitric acid. Winds may spread these acidic compounds through the atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are not primary greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, one of the main effects of climate change; in fact, sulfur dioxide has a cooling effect on the atmosphere. But nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major pollutant that can be harmful to people. Both gases cause environmental and health concerns because they can spread easily via air pollution and acid rain.

Acid rain has many ecological effects, especially on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other aquatic environments. Acid rain makes such waters more acidic, which results in more aluminum absorption from soil, which is carried into lakes and streams. That combination makes waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, and other aquatic animals. ( Learn more about the effects of water pollution.)

Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than others. However, in an interconnected ecosystem, what affects some species eventually affects many more throughout the food chain, including non-aquatic species such as birds.

Acid rain and fog also damage forests, especially those at higher elevations. The acid deposits rob the soil of essential nutrients such as calcium and cause aluminum to be released in the soil, which makes it hard for trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also harmed by acids.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other environmental stressors, leave trees and plants less healthy, more vulnerable to cold temperatures, insects, and disease. The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Some soils are better able to neutralize acids than others. But in areas where the soil's "buffering capacity" is low, such as parts of the U.S. Northeast, the harmful effects of acid rain are much greater.

Acid deposits damage physical structures such as limestone buildings and cars. And when it takes the form of inhalable fog, acid precipitation can cause health problems including eye irritation and asthma.

The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants that cause it. This means burning fewer fossil fuels and setting air-quality standards.

In the U.S., the Clean Air Act of 1990 targeted acid rain, putting in place pollution limits that helped cut sulfur dioxide emissions 88 percent between 1990 and 2017. Air-quality standards have also driven U.S. emissions of nitrogen dioxide down 50 percent in the same time period. These trends have helped red spruce forests in New England and some fish populations, for example, recover from acid rain damage. But recovery takes time, and soils in the northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada have only recently shown signs of stabilizing nutrients.

Acid rain problems will persist as long as fossil fuel use does, and countries such as China that have relied heavily on coal for electricity and steel production are grappling with those effects. One study found that acid rain in China may have even contributed to a deadly 2009 landslide. China is implementing controls for sulfur dioxide emissions, which have fallen 75 percent since 2007 -but India's have increased by half.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to Earth. Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6, while acid rain generally has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Causes of Acid Rain and Its Harmful Effects

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Here at the fringe of the mystical Black Forest, where ancient tribes lugged fir and spruce trees into their homes to extol spiritual life well before they learned about Christmas, an important part of the German soul is said to be dying.

The lush evergreens that gave the area its name have started to shed their needles and turn a rusty yellow. The invigorating air that lured the continent's elite to seek cures at spas is now choking the legendary trees with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released by industrial plants and automobiles.

Across West Germany, the acid rain problem has assumed dimensions of a national crisis. A report issued by the Ministry of Agriculture in October showed that the area of diseased trees has more than quadrupled in the last year alone. One third of the country's 17 million acres of woodland are now damaged by pollutants carried by wind and rain.

For West Germans of all ages, who cherish nature as the basis of folklore, and revere strolls in the woods almost as a sacred ritual, the results confirmed fears of a calamity in the making. A survey by the Allensbach Institute has shown that more people are troubled by the dying forests than by the controversial Pershing II nuclear missiles now being deployed in West Germany.

"The trend is alarming, and unless it changes in the next five years, some of our woods will be completely gone," explained Friedemann Kaelble, director of forest services in Karlsruhe. "The danger is not only the loss of our heritage, but of fresh air and clean water as well."

Austria and Switzerland have also reported significant tree damage caused by acid rain. In East Germany and Czechoslovakia, entire forests in some mountainous areas have reportedly been decimated by pollution from the sulphurous coal burned in Eastern Europe.

But the greatest public outcry has been registered in West Germany, where native sensitivity to the rapidly declining forests has given new weight to the term "smokestack politics." Once a pet theme of the iconoclastic Greens party, acid rain has become a key priority of Chancellor Helmut Kohl's center-right government.

"Our forests are of inestimable importance for the water cycle, for our climate, for our health, for our recreation and for the identity of our German landscape," said Kohl. "If we do not succeed in saving our forests, the world in which we live will be changed beyond recognition."

In their latest calculations, West German scientists estimate that acid-rain damage to trees, lakes, rivers and cultural landmarks such as Cologne's Gothic cathedral may exceed $1.5 billion a year.

Perhaps nowhere is the devastation so acute as in the picturesque Black Forest, whose dense woods of fir, spruce and pine have proven highly vulnerable to wind-borne pollutants from major industrial areas in France and West Germany.

About one-half of the entire forest area is now affected, a fivefold increase in illness in less than 18 months, according to Hans Enghardt, an expert in biological production at Baden-Wuerttemberg's state forestry office.

"What really worries us is not only the speed of the decline, but the fact that young trees are badly hit too, endangering the long-term survival of the forest," said Enghardt.

He said that the first signs of damage were spotted in older silver firs during the mid-1970s, but the blight soon spread to different trees and other regions.

Initially, scientists and foresters speculated that the stricken trees might simply have been weakened by hot, dry summers. But over the years, most experts have identified accumulated pollution from cars, industry and power plants as the chief culprit, with harsh weather and bacterial infections contributing to the decline.

The rather late awakening of public concern, explained Enghardt, is largely due to the fact that "from a distance, the trees look green and alive. It's only when you get up close to examine the extent of the damage that you realize the interior is dying."

Indeed, as one meanders through the valleys and fairy-tale villages that dot the verdant woodlands, it is hard to detect evidence that the forest is in an advanced state of decay.

But a trained forester notices that the crown of a fir tree, which should be so bushy that it blots out the sky, has become so scraggly that it looks like a skeleton illuminated by a blue backdrop. Close to the trunk, where branches should be thick with green needles, the limbs are desiccated, and new trees, which should be bursting with signs of fresh life, seem stunted, with thin, weak trunks.

Some ecology-minded radicals have seized on the tree crisis to rail against the evils of industrial society and advocate acts of sabotage or passive resistance against power plants and other sources of pollution. A few Greens party members have called for a boycott of Christmas-tree sales to demonstrate concern about the plight of the forests.

While sharing the view that the current situation is serious, they hope that stringent antipollution rules and a popular willingness to pay higher taxes, if necessary, to preserve the forests will reverse the decline.

"There is danger in too much panic, of people getting emotionally carried away and rejecting technology," said Kaelble. "But technology can offer possible solutions. Our forefathers renewed the forest cover with progressive ideas, and it would be a shame if we did not do the same."

Citizen lobbies have prodded the government to enact new laws to shield forest areas from pollution. New power plants are equipped with multimillion-dollar gas filters that cut sulphur dioxide emissions by one-third. Starting in 1986, lead-free gasoline will be introduced for new cars with catalytic converters to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides.

The foresters have found that they can help some stricken areas to recuperate through doses of fertilizer and lime. They also intend to breed new trees that resist modern pollutants, and diversify the mix of trees in the Black Forest so that if one species dies others will survive.

Recognizing that West German forests are buffeted by toxins from neighboring countries, the government is seeking to achieve continent-wide standards that cut noxious emissions.

Meanwhile, Germans have perpetuated the ancestral rite of celebrating the regeneration of life by bringing an estimated 20 million Christmas trees into their homes, regardless of the perils faced by the forests.

When a journalist on a television talk show recently suggested purchasing plastic trees to spare the real Tannenbaum, he was bombarded with telephone calls complaining that he had demeaned a hallowed tradition of the fatherland.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
West Germans Fear a Calamity As Acid Rain Damages Forests

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Here at the fringe of the mystical Black Forest, where ancient tribes lugged fir and spruce trees into their homes to extol spiritual life well before they learned about Christmas, an important part of the German soul is said to be dying.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Almost 2,000 locations across England, Wales and Northern Ireland have levels of air pollution that exceed safety limits, according to a pollution map released by campaigners.

In 2017, the worst location for nitrogen dioxide pollution was Kensington and Chelsea, followed by Leeds and Doncaster.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of the most harmful pollutant gases, irritating the lungs and potentially causing breathing difficulties. Road traffic is a leading source.

On Tuesday the mayor of London issued a high pollution alert for the capital as people across the UK basked in the unseasonably warm February weather. It was the first alert since last July, towards the end of a long heatwave and dry spell.

London pollution

Traffic and other emissions from local sources were mainly to blame for this week's dirty air, with only light winds to disperse them and air from the continent bringing further pollutants.

In April the first ultra-low emission zone will come into force in central London. The scheme is expected to cut harmful emissions by as much as 45%, according to the mayor's office.

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs said high levels of particulate matter in the air were also recorded in the past few days in the East and West Midlands. Other regions were also expected to experience localised pollution in hotspots, carrying on at least into Wednesday.

The new map of nitrogen dioxide pollution limit breaches for recent years shows that Earl's Court station in London was worst overall, with a recording of 129.5 micrograms per cubic metre, compared with the 40μg/m3 limit set out in the government's air quality objectives.

A monitoring station near the Ikea store in Brent, north London, recorded levels slightly above 100μg/m3 in 2016, while Kensington High Street, Euston Road and Strand in central London were all above 90μg/m3 in 2017.

Air near Neville Street in Leeds was found to be just under the 100μg/m3 level, closely followed by two locations in Hickleton, Doncaster. Other hotspots included Brighton, Sheffield and Coventry, where the levels on Holyhead Road were found to be near twice the advised limit, at about 76μg/m3 in 2016.

England pollution

Friends of the Earth, which mapped the sites and collated the data, said it was further evidence of the dire air quality across the country as a result of burgeoning traffic emissions and poor government controls on emissions sources. The group called for tougher action by ministers.

Simon Bowens, a clean air campaigner at FoE, said: "It's unforgivable that across the UK there are nearly 2,000 locations over air quality limits, leaving millions of us breathing dangerously polluted air. The government needs to step up and do more to help deal with this air pollution crisis. They can't just carry on leaving the difficult decisions with local authorities, many of which are severely under-resourced."

London nurseries to get air purifiers after toxic air concerns

He said the map showed that air pollution was not just a problem for big cities. "Unacceptably toxic air can be found across much of the UK, even in smaller towns," he said. "It is harming the health of people across the country and is especially bad for young children whose lungs are still developing."

Air pollution is known to shorten lives and reduce the quality of life for tens of thousands of people, and in recent studies it has also been linked to health problems from dementia to heart disease and miscarriage. Children are most at risk: exposure to air pollution when young can have lifelong effects as it can stunt the lungs and affect intelligence.

A fresh inquest into the death of Ella Kissi-Debrah, a nine-year-old from south London, is expected to be asked to consider whether her death six years ago from an asthma-related seizure could have been linked to high levels of air pollution.

The data used for the map was taken from the most recent annual air quality status reports that have been submitted to government, most of them from last year, with the results adjusted for distance and other factors.

* This article was amended on 27 February 2019 to make it clear that the data in the analysis covered England, Wales and Northern Ireland, rather than the entire UK.
Topics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pollution map reveals unsafe air quality at almost 2,000 UK sites

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Almost 2,000 locations across England, Wales and Northern Ireland have levels of air pollution that exceed safety limits, according to a pollution map released by campaigners. In 2017, the worst location for nitrogen dioxide pollution was Kensington and Chelsea, followed by Leeds and Doncaster.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Air pollution happens when solid and liquid particles-called aerosols -and certain gases end up in our air. These particles and gases can be bad for the planet and for our health, so keeping track of them is important.

Where do aerosols come from?

Any particle that gets picked up into the air or is formed from chemical reactions in the air can be an aerosol. Many aerosols enter the atmosphere when we burn fossil fuels-such as coal and petroleum-and wood. These particles can come from many sources, including car exhaust, factories and even wildfires. Some of the particles and gases come directly from these sources, but others form through chemical reactions in the air.

Aerosols can come from other places, too, such as ash from an erupting volcano. Dust, pollen from plants and mold spores are also examples of aerosols.

What else causes air pollution?

Certain gases in the atmosphere can cause air pollution. For example, in cities, a gas called ozone is a major cause of air pollution. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas that can be both good and bad for our environment. It all depends where it is in Earth's atmosphere.

Ozone high up in our atmosphere is a good thing. It helps block harmful energy from the Sun, called radiation. But, when ozone is closer to the ground, it can be really bad for our health. Ground level ozone is created when sunlight reacts with certain chemicals that come from sources of burning fossil fuels, such as factories or car exhaust.

When particles in the air combine with ozone, they create smog. Smog is a type of air pollution that looks like smoky fog and makes it difficult to see.

How does air pollution affect Earth's climate?

Aerosols can impact how the Sun's light hits Earth. For example, some aerosols reflect sunlight while others absorb sunlight. It depends on the color of the particle.

Dark surfaces-whether it's a black t-shirt or a dark particle in the atmosphere-absorb the Sun's heat. Lighter-colored surfaces reflect heat from the Sun.

A white t-shirt reflects the Sun on a hot day, making you feel cooler. In the same way, light-colored particles that reflect the Sun's light and heat away from Earth can make the global temperature cooler. Dark-colored particles that absorb the Sun's light can make the global temperature warmer.

How does air pollution affect our health?

Breathing in polluted air can be very bad for our health. Long-term exposure to air pollution has been associated with diseases of the heart and lungs, cancers and other health problems. That's why it's important for us to monitor air pollution.

How is NASA monitoring air pollution?

NASA uses satellites orbiting Earth to keep an eye on air pollution. In fact, air quality forecasters use information about aerosols from NASA's Aqua, Terra and Suomi-NPP satellites.

NASA also is developing a new instrument called the Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols, or MAIA, to fly aboard a future spacecraft mission. MAIA will help scientists understand the size, makeup and quantity of aerosols in our air. Eventually, scientists will be able to compare this information with health records. This can help us better understand the relationship between aerosol pollution and human health.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Air pollution happens when solid and liquid particles-called aerosols -and certain gases end up in our air. These particles and gases can be bad for the planet and for our health, so keeping track of them is important. Any particle that gets picked up into the air or is formed from chemical reactions in the air can be an aerosol.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Aaron Kiely | 10 Jan 2018 | 8 minute read

I've been investigating some of the solutions we need to get the UK breathing clean air again. And I've found out some things that might surprise you.

For example, I discovered that tackling air pollution could lead to significant health benefits for us all - including drivers. And I found that cleaning up our air could actually help create jobs and sustainable economic growth.
You can help right now by ramping up the call for an end to diesel engines on our roads.
Why is air pollution a problem?

Let's recap on the UK's dirty air problem.

You can't always see or smell air pollution - but it is there. In fact, most places in the UK have illegal pollution levels, and our health is suffering as a result.

Dirty air leads to worsening asthma symptoms, heart disease and even lung cancer. It increases the risk of children growing up with smaller lungs and has been associated with changes in the brain linked to dementia.

Data from the World Health Organisation (a UN body, no less) shows air pollution is a serious problem across most of our major towns and cities - from Birmingham to Swansea to Glasgow. The medical journal The Lancet and the Royal College of Physicians have both referred to this data.

"It's in all our interests to care about pollution," says Rosamund Kissi-Debrah, from Lewisham, London, who lost her daughter Ella to severe asthma and now campaigns for clean air.

"This is where I think my daughter was cheated. She was ill and she wasn't breathing clean air. That's what we should be fighting for: for our children to breathe clean air."

Air pollution also makes already existing inequalities worse.

Certain groups are deeply affected by poor quality air: those living in areas of most deprivation, black and ethnic minority people, pregnant women, children, older people and people with existing health conditions.

Air pollution and carbon emissions

There are many reasons to tackle air pollution on health grounds alone. But we have to do it to protect our planet and nature too.

Transport accounts for a whopping quarter of the UK's CO ₂ emissions. It's critical that we rapidly move away from vehicles that run on diesel and petrol. In other words we need far fewer polluting diesel and petrol vehicles on the road.

Air pollution affects nature

This might come as a surprise. Conservation charity Plantlife has revealed the impact that air pollution has on plants and wildlife.

"In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, more than 90% of sensitive wildlife habitats had excessive nitrogen levels in 2014. This is causing declines in the quality, quantity and diversity of wildlife habitats and species [in rural and urban areas]."

This is the serious damage done by nitrogen emissions from transport, power stations, farming and industry.

So we've got three huge reasons to act - for people's health, for our planet, and to protect nature.

Now for some solutions.

7 solutions to air pollution

1. Diesel phase-out by 2025

Diesel vehicles are the biggest source of NO x air pollution at the roadside, where the problem is most acute.

Analysis has revealed 59% of the UK population - 40 million people - live in areas where diesel pollution threatens health.

The graphic below is from the government's 2017 Air Quality Plan for tackling nitrogen dioxide in the UK. It shows the main culprits in roadside pollution.

NO x is the catch-all term for the nitrogen oxides that cause air pollution - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO ₂).

Average roadside concentrations of NOx by source of emissions, UK, 2015

Source: National modelling 2017. Notes: 'Local road traffic' in the large pie chart is the estimate of the proportion of local NOx roadside concentrations contributed by traffic on that road and is shown in greater detail in the smaller chart. 'Road traffic background' is the estimate of NOx concentrations contributed by traffic on other roads. Figures may sum to more than 100% due to rounding. HGVs = Heavy good vehicles.
Put simply: it's time for diesel to go.
The government acknowledges we have to phase out diesels from the road, but it wants to start this process in 2040 with a ban on sales of new diesels and petrol vehicles.

This is way behind Germany, France, Norway and the Netherlands, which want to take similar action far sooner. Paris and other major cities are also committing to diesel phase-outs by 2025.
Phasing out diesel is clearly crucial to cleaning up the air - but it's not enough to get the job done. We need urgent action right now to stop diesel polluting the air we breathe.

2. Clean Air Zones

Evidence from Europe, and modelling by the UK government, shows that restricting where the dirtiest vehicles can go in towns and cities is the most effective way to rapidly reduce illegal levels of air pollution in the shortest possible time.

These schemes - known as Clean Air Zones - will soon be implemented in Derby, Nottingham, Southampton, Birmingham and Leeds. London will develop its own restrictions on polluting vehicles.
But Clean Air Zones are needed in many more places - 53 by our count - and must be strengthened to apply to cars as well as larger vehicles.
Clean Air Zones would especially benefit the most vulnerable and deprived people who are disproportionately exposed to poor air quality.

That's why we at Friends of the Earth are supporting lots of local grassroots campaigns for effective Clean Air Zones - and we'd like you to join us.

3. T-Charge

What's the T-Charge? The T-Charge, or Emissions Surcharge, is London's £10 toxicity charge brought in by the mayor in late 2017. It's an attempt to stop cars registered before 2006 from driving around the capital. Generally it's safe to assume that the older the car, the more pollution it pumps out.

The reality is that nearly 10,000 early deaths are caused in London each year by the capital's toxic air. So the Mayor is right to try to dissuade drivers bringing the oldest, dirtiest vehicles into central London.
But if you're going to charge people or restrict people driving their cars, you have to do it in a fair way. At the moment the T-Charge risks disproportionately affecting London's poorer drivers who can't afford more modern cars.
The government must accelerate ways for people to ditch their dirty old diesels and get cleaner vehicles.

4. Diesel scrappage

How many people currently driving particularly old, polluting vehicles would have upgraded to something cleaner by now if they had the means?

What's more, we know many people bought diesels in good faith, having been misled by successive governments and manufacturers alike as to their supposed green qualities.
Government must get diesel manufacturers to cough up and help fund an effective scrappage scheme.
This will help people shift out of their polluting cars and into clean vehicles - or, even better, get them into car clubs, cycling and walking more, and using public transport.

We know the transition to less car use won't happen overnight. For various reasons, a lot of people will still need to drive.

We have to make sure our towns and city centres are accessible, people are able to be mobile, and they're places where both people and nature can thrive. This requires boldness of vision and real investment - and we'd all be better off for it.

5. Electric vehicles

Part of the solution to dirty air should be a transition towards electric vehicles. And the shift is already happening - sales of electric vehicles continue to soar.

2017 saw the opening of the electric taxi factory in Coventry, creating jobs and cleaning up our taxi fleet.

From 1 January 2018 all new taxis registered in London have to be zero-emissions capable. This is something that many taxi drivers are welcoming. After all they're the ones breathing in the fumes all day.

Electric vehicles and battery development provide an opportunity to be at the forefront of a growing global market and to create jobs.

Indeed, a government consultation document shows that "In 2016 UK-manufactured Nissan Leafs accounted for almost 20% of battery electric car sales across Europe, and the UK had the highest sales of battery electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids in the EU."

Electric cars are predicted to be as cheap to own as petrol cars in the very near future. And improvements in battery technology should make "range anxiety" - the concern that you don't get very far before the battery needs recharging - increasingly a thing of the past.

There is a problem with electric vehicles, though. Electric vehicles won't sufficiently reduce particulate matter (PM), the other toxic pollutant emitted by road transport.
There's no such thing as a 100% clean vehicle: even if there are no exhaust emissions, the brake and tyre wear and road abrasion also contribute to PM air pollution. As Professor Frank Kelly of Kings College London says "our cities need fewer cars, not just cleaner cars".
6. Public transport

We need a properly-funded, integrated public transport system that is capable of dealing with increased demand as we get more people off our roads.

There's a huge way to go in many areas, with patchy bus services (particularly in more rural areas) as well as crammed and ever-more expensive trains.

Research by the Campaign for Better Transport has even found that since 2010 bus services in England and Wales alone have been cut by 33%. The direction of travel for our public transport is not looking good.

But think of the words of NHS architect Nye Bevan. He said the NHS will "last as long as there are folk left with the faith to fight for it". The same is true of public transport.

And public opinion is with us in wanting buses and trains run in the public interest.

7. Walking and cycling

Many of my happiest memories are of bike rides with family and friends or of long strolls with loved ones. We know walking and cycling are great for your health too.
So can you believe that the government is only spending £1.38 per person annually in England (outside London) on cycling? This is in contrast to roads spending equating to around £84 per person.
That doesn't sound like the right balance to me. Fortunately, MPs from different parties don't think it's right either. They think we should eventually be spending more like £20 per person.

Cycling has to be made safer too. In a survey of people living in 7 major UK cities, the cycling charity Sustrans found that 78% want more protected bike routes to make cycling safer, "even when this could mean less space for other road traffic".

Costs of cleaning up air pollution

How should we pay for cleaning up air pollution in our towns, cities and countryside? Here are 2 of Friends of the Earth's solutions.

a. Clean Air Fund

Friends of the Earth has done the maths and worked out we need at least £1.2bn to fund the 53 Clean Air Zones required in England.

That may sound a lot, but it really is a drop in the ocean compared to the roughly £20bn that air pollution costs the UK economy and our NHS every year.

In fact every £1 spent on Clean Air Zones is recovered in health benefits, according to the government's own modelling.

b. Changing taxes

Given how bad diesel is for us all we need to get rid of all diesel tax breaks that successive governments have allowed. For years diesel vehicles have been incentivised - that's just wrong.

We're winning the battle though. In the 2017 autumn budget the government took steps to make buying diesel less attractive. It increased Vehicle Excise Duty for diesel vehicles and ring-fenced the money for air quality initiatives - a welcome step.
But it's not enough. The government has declined to increase fuel duty. The health and climate change impacts of petrol and diesel fuel are hugely damaging, so fuel duty must rise to deter road use.
The freeze on fuel duty has cost the government roughly £43bn in lost revenues. This is a huge amount of money that could have been funnelled into developing a better transport system.

We can do it
We know the solutions to the problem - please help us make them happen. Join us in ramping up the call for an end to diesel engines on our roads.
Aaron Kiely is a campaigner at Friends of the Earth.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Air pollution solutions: clean air for the UK | Friends of the Earth

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Aaron Kiely | 10 Jan 2018 | 8 minute read I've been investigating some of the solutions we need to get the UK breathing clean air again. And I've found out some things that might surprise you. For example, I discovered that tackling air pollution could lead to significant health benefits for us all - including drivers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Now that you know why acid rain is a problem, you might be wondering what's being done to control it. Regulations and new technologies are helping reduce acid rain.

EPA's Acid Rain Program
Power plants generate the electricity we use every day. Unfortunately, power plants also produce large amounts of nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide-the pollutants that cause acid rain-when they burn fossil fuels, especially coal, to produce energy. Congress passed a law called the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, and this law said that EPA should start the Acid Rain Program. The program limits, or puts a cap on, the amount of sulfur dioxide that power plants can release into the air and issues allowances to the power plants to cover their sulfur dioxide emissions. It also reduces the amount of nitrogen oxides that power plants can release.

Reducing Pollution
Scientists have found different ways to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide released from coal-burning power plants. One option is to use coal that contains less sulfur. Another option is to "wash" the coal to remove some of the sulfur. The power plant can also install equipment called scrubbers, which remove the sulfur dioxide from gases leaving the smokestack. Because nitrogen oxides are created in the process of burning coal and other fossil fuels, some power plants are changing the way they burn coal.

Other Sources of Energy
A great way to reduce acid rain is to produce energy without using fossil fuels. Instead, people can use renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Renewable energy sources help reduce acid rain because they produce much less pollution. These energy sources can be used to power machinery and produce electricity.

Cleaner Cars
Cars and trucks are major sources of the pollutants that cause acid rain. While one car alone does not produce much pollution, all the cars on the road added together create lots of pollution. Therefore, car manufacturers are required to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides and other pollutants released by new cars. One type of technology used in cars is called a catalytic converter. This piece of equipment has been used for over 20 years to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxides released by cars. Some new cars can also use cleaner fuels, such as natural gas.

Cars that produce less pollution and are better for the environment are often labeled as low emissions vehicles. You can find out which vehicles are low emissions vehicles by looking at EPA's Green Vehicle Guide.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Acid Rain Students Site: What is Being Done?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Now that you know why acid rain is a problem, you might be wondering what's being done to control it. Regulations and new technologies are helping reduce acid rain. EPA's Acid Rain Program Power plants generate the electricity we use every day.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A helicopter hovers low over a patch of state forest near Kronau in southwestern Germany, swirling up leaves and dirt as it dangles down a 800 kilogram (1763 pounds) bucket tied on a piece of rope. A bulldozer fills the bucket with a scoop of pulverized limestone and the chopper flies off with the yellowy colored powder trailing behind it.

It's part of an extensive limestone dusting project aimed at making the forests in this part of Germany healthier. The science behind it is quite simple - but not without controversy.

Limestone is basically calcium, although the particular lime or chalk used here (known as dolomite) has a high magnesium content too. Limestone is a strong alkaline and it's being spread out over this pine and beach forest to help neutralize the acidic soil.

The soil in this Kronau forest, as in many other parts of Germany, is too acidic because of acid rain that fell decades ago.

Raking over the past

In the past, industrial emissions from factories and power plants, as well as vehicle exhaust fumes, contained high-levels of pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

These substances reacted with the oxygen and moisture in the air, causing acid compounds, such as nitric acid and sulfuric acid. The polluting acids then ended up being dumped over forests by rain, sleet and snow.

Günter Zapf, forestry manager in Kronau

The acid rain caused massive devastation to trees, soils, rivers and lakes.

By 1984 almost half of the trees in the nearby Black Forest showed signs of damage and images of blackened skeletal trees helped fuel the environmental movement.

Nearly thirty years on, the trees in southwestern Germany look much healthier but the damage is still there.

"In this area, we have a pH value of around 5.8 to 6.0 - pH7, which is neutral, is what we would actually like to have," explains Günter Zapf, forestry manager for the Kronau region.

Acidic soil has many affects on forests.

If the pH is too low, the roots of many trees don't grow as deep, making them vulnerable and weak. Many tree species also have what Ludwig Abele of the Karlsruhe Regional Forestry Office calls "high expectations."

"For example, beech seedlings can only grow if there is a certain amount of pH. If the acidity is too high, then they can't establish themselves. Only pine trees get along better with acidity," says Abele.

Another major reason for lime dusting is ensuring safe drinking water.

When the pH of an area falls below about pH4.2, metals such as aluminum and cadmium, which are normally locked in clay and rocks, can leach out into the ground water.

"Aluminum is toxic, so if your pH is too low, you have to do something," says Abele.

Conservationists worry that certain species are suffering because of limestone dusting

On average, 3.3 tons of lime are dropped on every 10,000 square meters (1 hectare). But the lime isn't dropped haphazardly over the forest. Based on samples taken every 300 meters (984 feet), the scientists have produced a pH map of the region, showing the helicopter pilot exactly where to fly - and where not to fly.

Some areas are no-go zones

"If you have a site that has a high acidity by nature, then you don't want to improve it artificially because plants, which normally grow there, wouldn't grow there anymore," Abele says.

Plants that like acidic soils include mosses and lichens.

Conservationists are concerned that these species are suffering from the widespread limestone dusting.

The state of Baden Württemberg, for example, has dumped chalk on 20 percent of its state forest since it began the procedure in the 1984. It is currently taking a closer look at the science behind limestone dusting to determine whether to continue on such a large scale in the future.

The procedure is also expensive. Around 200,000 tons of lime a year are currently dusted in Germany at an average cost of around 220 euro ($297) per 10,000 square meters - although the high price of fuel in 2013 has caused a significant jump in the costs. The total annual cost of around 44 million euro is largely covered by German federal and EU subsidies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Germany - controversially - still bombards forests with limestone to combat acid rain | DW | 19.11.2013

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A helicopter hovers low over a patch of state forest near Kronau in southwestern Germany, swirling up leaves and dirt as it dangles down a 800 kilogram (1763 pounds) bucket tied on a piece of rope. A bulldozer fills the bucket with a scoop of pulverized limestone and the chopper flies off with the yellowy colored powder trailing behind it.