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Until about 1600, people thought that heat was a combination of fire and air.

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People thought that soup would go into the spoon and make the spoon bigger.

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Around 1600, scientists began completing experiments to learn more about heat. They decided that heat must be an invisible fluid called caloric. Scientists thought this because it seemed to flow from a hot object to a cold one.

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Invented by Benjamin Franklin. It had dual purposes: It could heat a room (with the front door opened), it could be a cooking stove (with the door closed)

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Upon further experimentation and study, scientists realized that heat is not a substance. They determined that heat is a form of energy. The energy comes from the movement of tiny particles that make up all matter.

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The official unit of heat energy is the joule (j).

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As technology advances, so does our culture. New technologies create more demands for even more technology. The cold climate in Canada creates importance on science and technology to meet the heating needs of Canadians. By understanding the concept of heat, we will better satisfy our needs to improve our cultural activities by adjusting better to the climate.

Needs: our basic required conditions that have to be met in order to survive

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The importance of heat in Canada is linked to our basic needs of shelter, clothing, food, water, and physical activity. The human range of tolerance is between 0℃ and 45℃. By improving our shelters, clothing, and other basic needs, by making advancements in heat technologies, we can expand that range of tolerance to meet our wants as well.

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Heat-relating technology has changed over time. As people evolve, so does technology.

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In addition to being able to produce heat to meet human needs and wants, it is also important to be able to control that heat.

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North Americans have a high standard of living (a measurement of how well we live), and as a result, take for granted the many tools and technologies that make their living easier, like the microwave oven. This is an example of a want that many people in North America consider to be a need.

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Both the personal and societal choices we make in using heat energy are important, because they affect our sustainability. We must use our heat energy resources wisely and be careful of the consequences to the environment when we used them. By looking for, and using, a wide variety of heat energy sources and developing technologies that will sustain this energy, we will be making ourselves a better future.

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Matter is made up of tiny particles and exist in 3 states: Solid, Liquid and Gas.
Matter can change its state by adding or taking away heat energy.
Heat energy: a form of energy that can transfer from matter at a higher temperature to matter at a lower temperature.

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Water can undergo physical changes through all three states of matter.
a) The freezing point of water is 0°C.
b) The melting point of water is 0°C.
c) The boiling point of water is 100°C.
d) When water that is a gas loses heat energy and becomes a liquid, we call the process condensation. This occurs at 100°C.

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All matter is made up of extremely tiny particles. (These particles are too tiny to see without the aid of electron microscopes) The tiny particles of matter are always moving. Adding heat to water makes the particles move around faster. The particles have spaces between them.

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1. Particles are always moving because they have kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy: energy of movement
2. Solid state. has a definite shape and volume. Particles move back and forth around a fixed point.
3. Liquid state. Takes the shape of its container but has a definite volume. Particles can easily slip past each other.
4. Gas state. Particles are not connected to each other. No set shape or space. There are large spaces between particles. Particles are moving much faster.

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When heat is added, the particles move faster. When heat is removed, the particles move slower.  Heat energy transfers from higher temperature matter to colder temperature matter.

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Temperature: A measure of how hot or cold matter is.

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The total kinetic energy of all the particles the substance contains. The soup in the pot has more thermal energy because it contains more particles.

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Scientists use the word heat to mean the energy that transfers from one substance to another because of differences in kinetic energy. So in our soup example, the soup became hot because kinetic energy transferred from the particles in the hot stove burner to the cooler soup.

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The Difference Between Heat and Temperature

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The Difference Between Heat and Temperature

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Heat energy transfers from areas where particles have greater kinetic energy to areas where particles have lower kinetic energy. Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance, the hotness or coldness of an object.

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1. Thermal energy
a. The total kinetic energy of all the particles in a substance.
2. Heat
a. The energy that transfers from a substance whose particles have a greater kinetic energy to one whose particles have lower kinetic energy.
3. Temperature
a. A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.

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1. The particle model of matter tells us that when the thermal energy of a solid increases, so does its volume.
a. We say that the solid expands, which occurs when heat transfers to a solid.
2. When the thermal energy of a solid decreases, its volume decreases, and the solid contracts.
a. This occurs when heat transfers from the warmer solid to cooler matter.

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Heat Affects the Volume of Liquids and Gases

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Heat Affects the Volume of Liquids and Gases

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Liquid and gases will also expand when their thermal energy increases. And they will contract when their thermal energy decreases. Liquids expand more than solids but not as much as gases do.

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2. It's the same with gases. Why are the balloons wilting? Wilting: Wilting means drooping over or sagging over (deflating).

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Expansion and Contraction in Liquids and Gases

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Expansion and Contraction in Liquids and Gases

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1. We see expansion of liquid in a thermometer.
a. As the liquid inside (usually alcohol) warms up, it expands and rises up the narrow glass tube.
b. As it cools off, it contracts.

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One way heat transfers through matter is by conduction. Conduction is the transfer of heat energy between substances that are in contact with each other. None of the particles move from one part of the substance to another, they simply transfer energy by bumping into each other.

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One of the key characteristics of conduction is that heat transfers in only one direction - from areas of greater kinetic energy to areas of less kinetic energy. That is, heat transfers from areas having high thermal energy to areas having less thermal energy. Conduction is most common in solids. Materials that allow easy transfer of heat are called conductors. Metals are examples of good conductors of energy.

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Insulators are materials that do not allow easy transfer of heat. They reduce the amount of heat that can transfer from a hotter object to a colder one. Plastic, rubber, and wood are good insulators, which means they are poor conductors of heat.

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In Convection, heat is transferred when liquid or gas particles move from one area to another.
Convection Currents: Heat transfers by convection occurs when the particles in a liquid or gas move in a circular patterns called convection currents.

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As with conduction, heat transfers by convection and it moves in only one direction. It moves from an area of higher kinetic energy to one of lower kinetic energy. As air heats up near a heater, it expands, becomes less dense and rises. Cooler air takes its place, becomes heated and rises. Convection currents form from this and eventually the entire room becomes warm.

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Radiation is the third way that heat transfer occurs. Conduction and convection rely on the movement of particles to transfer heat energy, radiation does not. Radiation is the transfer of energy by invisible waves that can travel great distances. Energy transferred from its source by radiation is called radiant energy. Heat is transferred by invisible waves called infrared waves. When the invisible radiant energy waves come in contact with an object, the particles in the object increase in kinetic energy. The particles move faster and the object becomes hotter.

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Matter can reflect or absorb radiant energy. Objects that are shiny and light coloured are good reflectors. Dark and dull objects are good at absorbing radiant energy.

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Solar energy, or energy given off by the sun, is the most important source of thermal energy for life on Earth. This type of thermal energy is produced by the nuclear reactions that happen inside of the star that is our sun.

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Using the Sun's Energy for Solar Heating

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Using the Sun's Energy for Solar Heating

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Solar heating systems are of two types:
Passive: Heated directly by the sun's rays.
Active: Relies on some mechanical device to help transfer energy.

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Basic Approach: Reduce heat loss and increase heat gain from the sun. This means insulating the building as much as possible and placing most of the windows on the southside. The thermal efficiency of a building's design can be measured by how well it prevents heat loss. It can also be measured by how well it maintains an even temperature throughout a 24-hour period. Special materials in the house can be used to store thermal energy. For example. a stone or brick wall.

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Active solar heating systems usually have three components:

1. A collector

2. A heat storage unit

3. A heat distribution system

Water is used in the collector to trap solar energy. Copper tubing on a black surface is placed under glass panels. As the sun’s rays pass through the glass, the area becomes heated. Insulation helps to keep the thermal energy from escaping. The water running through the copper tubing becomes heated and is pumped to the heat storage and distribution units. A backup heating system is usually needed for both passive solar and active solar heating systems.

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Solar energy can be converted into electricity. Solar cells are arranged in panels which are connected to form a solar array. A series of solar arrays are then placed so as to capture and store the sun’s energy in low voltage batteries.

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Benefits: Unlike fossil fuels, the sun's energy is not limited. Solar energy does not create energy, nor does it carry radiation risks. Costs: The cost of setting up a solar system is usually more expensive.

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Heating systems are controlled by thermostats. "Thermo" means heat and "stat" means to maintain or keep the same. The switch in a thermostat is a bimetallic strip, which consists of two different metals joined together. When heated, one of the metals expands faster than the other. This causes the strip to bend.

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There are two types of heating systems:

Local heating systems: Provide heat for only one room or a small part of a building. Examples include fireplaces, wood-burning stoves, and space-heaters. Central heating systems: Provides heat from a single, central source. For example, a furnace.

Most newer homes with central heating use forced air heating. Some older buildings use hot water heating.

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Remember: Heat travels in only one direction - from areas of higher kinetic energy to areas of lower kinetic energy. The air particles that have greater kinetic energy, and therefore feel warmer, will move faster around the room. As they come into contact with other air particles with less kinetic energy, the particles of cooler air will begin to move more quickly, and the spaces between the particles will expand.

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A motor powered by electricity or natural gas (both sources of thermal energy) is at the heart of all cooling systems. A cooling system removes heat from a room or other enclosed space.

The basic parts of a cooling system are:

1. Storage Tank

2. Compressor

3. Freezer Unit

4. Condenser coils

5. Refrigerant

The liquid or refrigerant used in a refrigerator evaporates at a very low temperature. This creates freezing temperatures inside the refrigerator.

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Limits the amount of heat that can be transferred by conduction. In the case of buildings, insulation is used to limit heat loss to the colder outside environment. It can also limit the amount of heat that is able to enter a cooler building on a hot day. Thermal conductivity of a material reflects its ability to transfer heat by conduction.

1. When building a house, you want materials that are good insulators, not conductors.
a. Examples like brick and stone walls

Many people choose to have a layer of styrofoam panelling between the outer walls and the siding of their homes because some materials are very expensive. Fibreglass insulation can also be packed between inner and outer walls and in the attics of buildings.

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This kind of photo is called a thermogram.

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Contractors can use infrared photography to “diagnose” the area of heat loss in a building.

A system of rating the quality of insulators has been developed to let consumers know how effective different products are.

1. Every insulator is given a number called an R-value.

2. The higher the R-value, the better the product is at providing insulation.

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1. Natural resources come from the environment and are not human-made.

2. There are two types of natural resources: renewable and non-renewable.

3. Renewable natural resources are those that can be replaced.
Examples: sun energy, wind energy.

4. Non-renewable natural resources cannot be replaced. They are limited.
Examples: minerals (like gold), fossil fuels (oil, natural gas), and coal.

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1. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived on Earth millions of years ago.

2. Petroleum (oil) and natural gas are usually extracted from the ground by pumping.

3. Coal is mined.

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1. Economic costs are the costs in dollars of using fossil fuels.

2. For example, the cost of buying gasoline to put in your car or natural gas to heat your home.

3. For example, the cost of drilling wells for oils and natural gas or mining coal.

4. There are costs of processing the fuels and transporting them to market (pipelines, trucks).

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1. Environmental costs are the negative effects on the environment of us using these fuels.

2. Most of these costs are the result of burning fossil fuels.
When we burn these fuels, chemicals form that pollute the environment and contribute to global warming.

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1. Societal costs are the negative effects on people all together.

a) For example, pollution in cities causes increased breathing problems for people.

b) The cost to our health care system of treating these problems is a societal cost of using fossil fuels. (Currently, our healthcare system is under more stress because of Covid-19.)

c) Similarly, the cost of treating lakes that have been harmed by acid rain is a societal cost  because we all have to pay for it.

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1. Wind energy is the energy of moving air.

2. It can be captured by windmills.

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1. Nuclear fission is a process that uses small amounts of radioactive uranium to produce vast amounts of heat.

a) Uranium is a non-renewable natural resource mined in Canada and other countries

b) Nuclear power plants can produce large quantities of electricity.

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1. Hydro-electric power is energy generated by water moving through a dam.

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1. Fossil fuels are the most widely used.

2. But, hydroelectric dams and nuclear power stations are also important in certain parts of the country for producing electricity.

3. Solar energy offers a clean, renewable alternative.

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1. Energy use in the home is something that you can control.

2. To help people be more energy efficient in their homes, some home renovation stores now carry a line of energy-efficient lighting products and devices that control power consumption by appliances.

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1. Road, rail, air, and marine transportation together account for about 66%of the oil used in Canada.

2. The burning of fossil fuels in car and truck engines produces a variety of harmful chemicals that pollute the air.

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1. Try walking, riding your bike, roller-blading, or taking public transportation whenever possible.

2. Organize a carpool.

3. The size of a car and how it is driven can make a difference to its fuel consumption.

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1. Industry is the biggest energy user.

2. Industry is the major contributor of chemicals called sulfur oxides, which turn to sulfuric acid in the air and form acid rain.

3. For many companies, energy can be a major cost.

4. An important tool that companies use to reduce their energy consumption is an energy audit.

5. An energy audit focuses on finding places where energy is being wasted and identifying ways to fix the problem.

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1. To improve their energy efficiency, many large companies that produce electricity now use a process called cogeneration.

1. Cogeneration is the production of two forms of energy (usually electricity and heat) at the same time from one energy source.

2.  *** FACT: Electricity generation from fuel is not very efficient. Only about one-third (33.3%) of the energy produced from burning fuel such as natural gas, oil, or coal is transformed into electricity. The rest becomes heat that is usually just released to the environment as waste energy. So instead of releasing it, this heat can be used to heat a building.