# data[].attributes.body
Here is the introduction to our topic the Altruism of Cetaceans! We hope you enjoy!

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Welcome to group 6's presentation on the altruism of cetaceans!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Welcome to group 6's presentation on the altruism of cetaceans!

# data[].attributes.body
Cetaceans are warm-blooded mammals that live in the sea. Examples of cetaceans are dolphins, humpback whales, and killer whales, also known as orcas.

# data[].attributes.body
Altruism is when an animal's behavior benefits another at its own expense.

# data[].attributes.headline
Humpback whale's defensive and offensive behavior explained (Pitman, et al., 2017)

# data[].attributes.subject
Humpback whale's defensive and offensive behavior explained (Pitman, et al., 2017)

# data[].attributes.body
Humpback whales are known to interfere with attacking killer whales. What causes this to happen? Killer whales regularly attack the young and juveniles of other species resulting in high mortality. Humpback whales rely on their bulk, power, and oversized appendages to ward off attackers. Humpback whales are categorized as fight species, for example, they exhibit a defensive fight style as a group to ward off killer whale attacks. When humpback whales approached or were approached by killer whales they always displayed offensive and defensive behaviors (Pitman, et al., 2017).

# data[].attributes.headline
Evidence of Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism (Pitman, et al., 2017)

# data[].attributes.subject
Evidence of Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism (Pitman, et al., 2017)

# data[].attributes.body
Humpback whales not only interfere when their own species are being attacked but when other species are being attacked as well. For example, a gray whale calf with its mother, seals, or sunfish. Humpbacks face little risk of serious injury, and they gain no obvious benefits for their time and energy spent. If this behavior included an increase in fitness, involved kin selection, or reciprocity it would have more benefits. They exhibit cooperative defense behaviors to protect young and other species. Altruistic behaviors of humpback whales (cetaceans) have only been found when responding to calves or when other cetaceans are injured (Pitman, et al., 2017).

# data[].attributes.headline
Example of Humpback Whales Mobbing Behavior and Interspecific Altruism 

# data[].attributes.subject
Example of Humpback Whales Mobbing Behavior and Interspecific Altruism 

# data[].attributes.body
Killer whale attacks a gray whale calf and humpback whales arrive and try to intervene.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Humpback whales' attempt to stop killer whale attack - Planet Earth Live - BBC One

# data[].attributes.headline
Reciprocal Altruism, how does it relate to dolphins? (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Reciprocal Altruism, how does it relate to dolphins? (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.body
Through a multiparty system of living, dolphins learn about the reciprocal altruistic behavior of their peers and tend to reflect this behavior. Connor and Kenneth, 1982 note that more intelligent animals, like dolphins, tend to be more altruistic than others. Reciprocal altruism can only work if both organisms participate in the act. If we find cheaters in the midst, then this system of altruism will break. It's basically if you help me now I will help you later. Connor and Kenneth, 1982 found that this behavior is selected as a result of the dolphin species' intelligence and complex social structure.

# data[].attributes.headline
Example of Reciprocal Altruism: Dolphin Schools (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Example of Reciprocal Altruism: Dolphin Schools (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.body
Dolphins living in schools protect each other by swimming in a large group to ward off potential predators. By swimming in large schools they are all running the risk of being attacked by swimming in these large noticeable groups. This behavior is selected for because the benefits outweigh the costs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Large pod of dolphins races alongside boat

# data[].attributes.headline
Example of reciprocal altruism: Mutual Parental Care (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Example of reciprocal altruism: Mutual Parental Care (Connor and Kenneth, 1982) 

# data[].attributes.body
Parental care is a long process in this species, so mothers need help when it comes to caring for their young. Females help each other and in turn, it benefits their passing down of genes. After dolphins give birth, other female dolphins help the young to reach the surface of the water so that they are able to get the air they need to survive.  When one mother helps another they are essentially ensuring help in return for when they have offspring.

# data[].attributes.headline
Evidence for Reciprocal Altruism in dolphins: Complex Social Structure and Intelligence (Connor and Kenneth, 1982)

# data[].attributes.subject
Evidence for Reciprocal Altruism in dolphins: Complex Social Structure and Intelligence (Connor and Kenneth, 1982)

# data[].attributes.body
Dolphins are known to be extremely intelligent creatures. They use their smarts to cooperate with other dolphins through complex social structures. In these complex social structures, dolphins provide each other protection, mutual assistance, and mutual dependence. As the article by Connor and Kenneth (1982) states, these behaviors have been selected for as a result.

# data[].attributes.headline
Dolphins and a sexual dimorphic deficit. Evidence for reciprocal altruism. (Connor and Kenneth, 1982)

# data[].attributes.subject
Dolphins and a sexual dimorphic deficit. Evidence for reciprocal altruism. (Connor and Kenneth, 1982)

# data[].attributes.body
Dolphins are not quite a sexually dimorphic species, so they tend to be more altruistic. Dolphins are compared to sperm whales and orcas, where size is noticeably different between males and females. In these two species, (sperm whales and orcas), relationships tend to be more asymmetrical and less altruistic due to their sexual dimorphism. This leads to better reciprocal altruism in dolphins due to their more symmetrical relationships.

# data[].attributes.body
Altruism across con-specific animals is a rare occurrence in nature, typically only happening in the form of mutualism, where an interaction between different animals leaves both individuals better off. Cetaceans are one such group of animals that have been observed to engage in this form of altruism across different species. However, baffling to scientists, sometimes it is unclear as to exactly what sort of benefit the cetaceans might receive from this interaction.

# data[].attributes.headline
Example of allospecific altruism (Kastelein, et al., 2022)

# data[].attributes.subject
Example of allospecific altruism (Kastelein, et al., 2022)

# data[].attributes.body
At an odontocete (toothed whale) rehabilitation center in the Netherlands, dolphins were observed to cooperate with the human staff and act altruistically towards harbor porpoises in their pool. In one instance, the dolphin cooperated with human staff by helping to herd a porpoise so it could be tube fed and medicated. In another instance, dolphins flanked porpoises while swimming, creating a barrier between the porpoises and the concrete walls.

# data[].attributes.headline
Explanation for allospecific altruism (Kastelein, et al., 2022)

# data[].attributes.subject
Explanation for allospecific altruism (Kastelein, et al., 2022)

# data[].attributes.body
The predominant explanation for this behavior is that the dolphins were receiving less obvious benefits from these interactions in the form of reduced stress. By cooperating with the staff, the dolphin created a less stressful situation for themselves in which the staff would not have to enter the pool with their net to herd the porpoise themselves. As for the second interaction, flanking while swimming is a social behavior in dolphins known to reduce stress. In flanking the porpoises, the dolphins could have been benefiting themselves as much as they had benefited the porpoises.

# data[].attributes.headline
What is rescue behavior? (Nowbahari & Hollis, 2010)

# data[].attributes.subject
What is rescue behavior? (Nowbahari & Hollis, 2010)

# data[].attributes.body
Rescue behavior can be broken into four sets of criteria for behavior. One: the victim must be in distress. Two: the behavior of the rescuer must suit the specific circumstances of the victim. Three: the rescuer is at risk when engaging in this behavior. Four: the behavior is not inherently beneficial to the rescuer. There are cases where dolphins act in a way that fits all four criteria. One could speculate that rescue behavior is a result of reciprocity in that the dolphins are acting to save one another and then expect the same when they are in danger. It could also be somewhat related to kin selection, saving another who is genetically similar could increase fitness. If this is a normal behavior, it is entirely possible that the behavior is performed even if the dolphins are unrelated (Maybe the dolphin mistook the other for their kin, or the dolphin's altruistic behavior is instinctual to the point where if they hear any distress call they act).

# data[].attributes.headline
Example of rescue behavior in dolphins (Nowbahari & Hollis, 2010)

# data[].attributes.subject
Example of rescue behavior in dolphins (Nowbahari & Hollis, 2010)

# data[].attributes.body
During a fishing operation an adult dolphin was caught in the net and unable to get air. Another dolphin saved them by bringing the dolphin to the surface for air, in doing so risking their own life by possibly getting caught in the net as well. The behavior of the dolphin fits all four criteria for it to be considered rescue behavior, though there are possible alternative explanations for the behavior. When calves are birthed, there is often another dolphin that will bring it to the surface for air. The action performed in this example is similar in that in both cases, a dolphin brings another to the surface. The key difference is that one was in distress, caught, and an adult. The other case is a newly birthed calf being brought to the surface. While the behaviors are similar and might be linked in some way, it is unclear as to whether or not the rescue behavior is really some other altruistic behavior at play.

# data[].attributes.body
Connor, R. C., and Kenneth, S. N., (1982). Are Dolphins Reciprocal Altruists? The American Naturalist, 119(3), 358-374. https://doi.org/10.1086/283915.

Kastelein, R. A., Jennings, N., & Huijser, L. A. (2022). White-beaked dolphins (lagenorhynchus albirostris) cooperating with humans and showing altruism toward harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). Aquatic Mammals, 48(1), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1578/am.48.1.2022.75

Nowbahari, E., & Hollis, K. L. (2010). Rescue behavior. Communicative & Integrative Biology, 3(2), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.4161/cib.3.2.10018

Pitman, R. L., Deecke, V. B., Gabriele, C. M., Srinivasan, M., Black, N., Denkinger, J., Durban, J. W., Mathews, E. A., Matkin, D. R., Neilson, J. L., Schulman, J. A., Shearwater, D., Stap, P., & Ternullo, R. (2017). Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism? Marine Mammal Science, 33(1), 7–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12343

# data[].attributes.headline
Annotation: Mobbing Behavior and Interspecific Altruism (Humpback Whales) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Annotation: Mobbing Behavior and Interspecific Altruism (Humpback Whales) 

# data[].attributes.body
Pitman, R. L., Deecke, V. B., Gabriele, C. M., Srinivasan, M., Black, N., Denkinger, J., Durban, J. W., Mathews, E. A., Matkin, D. R., Neilson, J. L., Schulman, J. A., Shearwater, D., Stap, P., & Ternullo, R. (2017). Humpback whales interfering when mammal-eating killer whales attack other species: Mobbing behavior and interspecific altruism? Marine Mammal Science, 33(1), 7–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12343

Contributor: Tracy HooSang

Humpback whales are known to interfere with attacking killer whales. What causes this to happen? Researchers looked at 115 descriptions of encounters between humpback whales and killer whales to figure out why. Killer whales regularly attack the young and juveniles of other species resulting in high mortality. Humpback whales rely on their bulk, power, and oversized appendages to ward off attackers. Humpback whales are categorized as fight species, for example, they exhibit a defensive fight style as a group to ward off killer whale attacks (Pitman, et al., 2017).

The researchers compiled published and unpublished observations of interactions between humpback whales and killer whales, recorded over a sixty-two-year period from 1951 to 2012. The researchers analyzed the data and compiled 115 interactions from various locations, but the majority came from the eastern North Pacific Ocean. Interactions between humpbacks and killer whales were often agonistic and occasionally lengthy, although which species acted offensively and which defensively depended heavily on the killer whales' ecotypes and which species approached the other first. 103 out of 115 interactions humpback whales approached killer whales more often when mammal-eating was occurring or attacking. When humpback whales approached or were approached by killer whales they always displayed offensive and defensive behaviors. Researchers also found that when lone humpback calf pairs were attacked, the mother was sometimes able to drive off the killer whales by herself. Killer whales would try to separate the humpback calf from its mother, so the humpbacks would take specific countermeasures. Other humpbacks would guard the mother and calf and escort them to their desired location (Pitman, et al., 2017).

Researchers found that humpback whales not only interfere when their own species are being attacked but when other species are being attacked as well. For example, a gray whale calf with its mother, seals, or sunfish. Humpbacks face little risk of serious injury, and they gain no obvious benefits for their time and energy spent. If this behavior included an increase in fitness, involved kin selection, or reciprocity it would have more benefits (Pitman, et al., 2017).

Killer whales approaching humpbacks were virtually entirely mammal-eating species, and they appeared to be on the lookout for calves or juveniles to attack. When humpback whales approached killer whales, they were picky about which killer whales they interacted with since there was a cost. Humpback whales exhibited antipredator behaviors, which are all of an organism's actions aimed at avoiding being captured, harmed, or killed by another organism. They also exhibited cooperative defense behaviors to protect young and other species. Altruistic behaviors of cetaceans have only been found when responding to calves or when other cetaceans are injured (Pitman, et al., 2017).

The observations were very interesting and were useful in advancing our understanding of altruistic behaviors in cetaceans. Altruistic behaviors are not common for cetaceans. The study had a large sample size allowing in-depth analyses of all areas, which include mobbing behavior, kin selection, reciprocity, and altruism.

Future research questions are needed to explain this altruistic behavior.

Potential Future Research Questions (Group 6):

What are the cost cooperative defense behaviors of whales?

Why is humpback escorted temporally?

How does relatedness play a factor in the behavior of an animal that benefits another at its own expense?

Are humpbacks unintentionally providing benefits to other species?

# data[].attributes.body
Connor, R. C., and Kenneth, S. N., (1982). Are Dolphins Reciprocal Altruists? The American Naturalist, 119(3), 358-374. https://doi.org/10.1086/283915.

Contributor: Sydney Payne

Dolphins are social creatures. Through a multiparty system of living, dolphins learn about the reciprocal altruistic behavior of their peers and tend to reflect this behavior. Connor and Kenneth, 1982 note that more intelligent animals, like dolphins, tend to be more altruistic than others. Reciprocal altruism can only work if both organisms participate in the act. If we find cheaters in the midst, then this system of altruism will break. Altruistic acts are usually only found where they are abundant and easily accessed. This could be a reason dolphins are able to act altruistically. This is because they live in close quarters and have many opportunities because of their longer lifespan. Another important piece of the article is that dolphins have more of a symmetrical relationship rather than a hierarchical/asymmetrical one. When dolphins are on the same playing field, they are more likely to help one another through altruistic acts.

Dolphins are not quite a sexually dimorphic species, so they tend to be more altruistic. Dolphins are compared to sperm whales and orcas, where size is noticeably different between males and females. These two species, (sperm whales and orcas), relationships tend to be more asymmetrical and less altruistic due to their sexual dimorphism. This leads to better reciprocal altruism in dolphins.

Some examples of reciprocal altruistic behaviors exhibited by dolphins include:
- Survival behaviors: Dolphins living in schools which is in a way an altruistic act where they are protecting each other by swimming in a large group to ward off potential predators. This behavior is selected for because the benefits outweigh the costs.
- Mutual care: Parental care is long so mothers need help when it comes to caring for their young. Females help each other and in turn it benefits their passing down of genes. After dolphins give birth, other female dolphins help the young to reach the surface of the water so that they are able to get the air they need to survive.

Reciprocal altruism is very prevalent in this species and as a result, Reciprocal altruism has been selected for in this species because of its social structure and higher intelligence.

A lot of research has been done on dolphins in captivity, it would be more beneficial to do deeper research into dolphins in the wild. I would love to see more research done on the complex social structures of dolphins and how that is specifically impacted by reciprocal altruism.

# data[].attributes.headline
Annotation: Allospecific cooperation and altruism (Dolphins)

# data[].attributes.subject
Annotation: Allospecific cooperation and altruism (Dolphins)

# data[].attributes.body
Kastelein, R. A., Jennings, N., & Huijser, L. A. (2022). White-beaked dolphins (lagenorhynchus albirostris) cooperating with humans and showing altruism toward harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). Aquatic Mammals, 48(1), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1578/am.48.1.2022.75

Contributor: Tim Moore

At an odontocete (toothed whales, a parvorder of Cetacea) rehabilitation center in the Netherlands, researchers observed white-beaked dolphins engaging in mutually beneficial cooperation with humans and altruism towards harbor porpoises. The first instance of mutually beneficial cooperation involved a juvenile dolphin cooperating with staff by helping to herd the porpoise towards the corner of the pool where the staff could tube feed it and give it medication.

The second instance of observed altruism occurred on a separate date when a male harbor porpoise was placed into the same pool as two juvenile female white-beaked dolphins, who would flank him on either side while swimming. When a second juvenile male porpoise was added to the pool, each dolphin would swim flanking the left side of each porpoise, creating a shield between the porpoises and the concrete walls of the pool.

A proposed explanation for this is that perhaps the dolphins had mistaken the porpoises to be infant dolphins. However, this explanation was deemed unlikely given the very different vocalizations of dolphins and porpoises. Another proposed explanation is that the behaviors exhibited by the dolphins ultimately benefited themselves by creating a less stressful situation.

These observations are interesting as cooperation with other species is a rare occurrence among animals, and altruistic behavior towards other animals is even more so. The observations are however limited in that the samples were very small, with there only being two observed groups containing only one and two dolphins in them, respectively.

# data[].attributes.body
Nowbahari, E., & Hollis, K. L. (2010). Rescue behavior. Communicative & Integrative Biology, 3(2), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.4161/cib.3.2.10018

Contributor: Seth Nelson

In the paper Rescue Behavior Distinguishing between rescue, cooperation and other forms of altruistic behavior the authors propose that the definition of rescue behavior be changed, or at least more defined and exact as to help future researchers diagnose if a specific behavior is truly rescue behavior. They propose a criteria for rescue behavior, one: the victim must be in distress. Two: the behavior of the rescuer must suit the specific circumstances of the victim. Three: the rescuer is at risk when engaging in this behavior. Four: the behavior is not inherently beneficial to the rescuer. This is a type of altruistic behavior.

Dolphins have been seen behaviorally acting in a way that would check these exact boxes. A dolphin was reported helping an injured dolphin injured in a fishing operation by bringing the injured dolphin to the surface. By doing so the dolphin puts itself at risk of injury, or getting caught in the same instance that the injured dolphin is in. The dolphin does not directly benefit, and the behavior is suited to help the injured dolphin escape. By doing so, the dolphin shows that it is capable of performing rescue behavior, a form of altruistic behavior.

The authors touch on a possible answer to this behavior that wouldn't be seen as rescue behavior, and that is that dolphins help their newly birthed young reach the surface of the water to get air. They say that mechanistically what happened in this case (the dolphin helped the injured reach the surface) is very similar to when a dolphin gives birth. The authors then follow up by saying that while this mechanistically is similar, the environment and reasons for behavior are different. The injured dolphin isn't newly born, and a dolphin doesn't put itself at risk when helping a newborn reach the surface, where as here both are different. The dolphin helping the injured is at risk itself, and it is not a newly born dolphin.

By defining rescue behavior and by having a criteria for the behavior, it allows researchers to better understand the differences between cooperative behavior and rescue behavior. This opens up to more defined identification of different types of behavior and ultimately can help us to understand behavior in general. A previously neglected field of study, that of rescue behavior, is now more accessible.