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https://www.history.com/topics/inventions/telegraph

Morse eventually produced a single-circuit telegraph that worked by pushing the operator key down to complete the electric circuit of the battery. This action sent the electric signal across a wire to a receiver at the other end. All the system needed was a key, a battery, wire and a line of poles between stations for the wire and a receiver.

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Early Forms of Long-Distance Communication

Before the development of the electric telegraph in the 19th century revolutionized how information was transmitted across long distances, ancient civilizations such as those in China, Egypt and Greece used drumbeats, signal fires or smoke signals to exchange information between far-flung points.

However, such methods were limited by the weather and the need for an uninterrupted line of sight between receptor points. These limitations also lessened the effectiveness of the semaphore, a modern precursor to the electric telegraph. Developed in the early 1790s, the semaphore consisted of a series of hilltop stations that each had large movable arms to signal letters and numbers and two telescopes with which to see the other stations.

Like ancient smoke signals, the semaphore was susceptible to weather and other factors that hindered visibility. A different method of transmitting information was needed to make regular and reliable long-distance communication workable.

Did you know? SOS, the internationally recognized distress signal, does not stand for any particular words. Instead, the letters were chosen because they are easy to transmit in Morse code: "S" is three dots, and "O" is three dashes.

The Electric Telegraph

In the early 19th century, two developments in the field of electricity opened the door to the production of the electric telegraph. First, in 1800, the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the battery, which reliably stored an electric current and allowed the current to be used in a controlled environment.

Second, in 1820, the Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted demonstrated the connection between electricity and magnetism by deflecting a magnetic needle with an electric current.

Samuel Morse

While scientists and inventors across the world began experimenting with batteries and the principles of electromagnetism to develop some kind of communication system, the credit for inventing the telegraph generally falls to two sets of researchers: William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England, and Samuel Morse, Leonard Gale and Alfred Vail in the United States.

In the 1830s, the British team of Cooke and Wheatstone developed a telegraph system with five magnetic needles that could be pointed around a panel of letters and numbers by using an electric current. Their system was soon being used for railroad signaling in Britain.

During this time period, the Massachusetts-born, Yale-educated Morse (who began his career as a painter), worked to develop an electric telegraph of his own. He reportedly had become intrigued with the idea after hearing a conversation about electromagnetism while sailing from Europe to America in the early 1830s, and later learned more about the topic from American physicist Joseph Henry.

In collaboration with Gale and Vail, Morse eventually produced a single-circuit telegraph that worked by pushing the operator key down to complete the electric circuit of the battery. This action sent the electric signal across a wire to a receiver at the other end. All the system needed was a key, a battery, wire and a receiver.

Morse Code

To transmit messages across telegraph wires, in the 1830s Morse and Vail created what came to be known as Morse code. The code assigned letters in the alphabet and numbers a set of dots (short marks) and dashes (long marks) based on the frequency of use; letters used often (such as "E") got a simple code, while those used infrequently (such as "Q") got a longer and more complex code.

Initially, the code, when transmitted over the telegraph system, was rendered as marks on a piece of paper that the telegraph operator would then translate back into English. Rather quickly, however, it became apparent that the operators were able to hear and understand the code just by listening to the clicking of the receiver, so the paper was replaced by a receiver that created more pronounced beeping sounds.

Western Union

In 1843, Morse and Vail received funding from the U.S. Congress to set up and test their telegraph system between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland. On May 24, 1844, Morse sent Vail the historic first message: "What hath God wrought!" The telegraph system subsequently spread across America and the world, aided by further innovations.

Among these improvements was the invention of good insulation for telegraph wires. The man behind this innovation was Ezra Cornell, one of the founders of the university in New York that bears his name. Another improvement, by the famed inventor Thomas Edison in 1874, was the Quadruplex system, which allowed for four messages to be transmitted simultaneously using the same wire.

Use of the telegraph was quickly accepted by people eager for a faster and easier way of sending and receiving information. However, widespread and successful use of the device required a unified system of telegraph stations among which information could be transmitted.

The Western Union Telegraphy Company, founded in 1856 in part by Cornell, was at first only one of many such companies that developed around the new medium during the 1850s. By 1861, however, Western Union had laid the first transcontinental telegraph line, making it the first nationwide telegraph company.

Rise and Decline of the Telegraph System

Telegraph systems, a key innovation during the Industrial Revolution, soon spread across the world. Extensive systems appeared across Europe by the later part of the 19th century, and by 1866 the first permanent telegraph cable had been successfully laid across the Atlantic Ocean; there were 40 such telegraph lines across the Atlantic by 1940.

The electric telegraph transformed how wars were fought, how money was sent and how newspapers conducted business. Rather than taking weeks to be delivered by horse-and-carriage mail carts, pieces of news could be exchanged between telegraph stations almost instantly. The telegraph also had a profound economic effect, allowing money to be "wired" across great distances.

Telegrams, often delivered to homes and businesses by delivery boys, were a popular way of communicating during the 1920s and 1930s, when long-distance calls were more expensive than a telegram. Western Union was famous for messages hand-delivered inside its signature yellow envelopes.

By the end of the 19th century, however, new technologies such as the telephone began to emerge. In time, these technologies would overshadow the telegraph, which would fall out of regular widespread usage.

In 2006, Western Union officially ended its telegram service after 150 years. Although the telegraph has since been replaced by the even more convenient telephone, fax machine and Internet, it laid the groundwork for the communications revolution that led to those later innovations.

Sources

Invention of the Telegraph. Library of Congress.
A History of Telegraphy. Pens.co.uk.
Telegram Passes Into History. Wired Magazine.

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Morse Code & Telegraph: Invention & Samuel Morse - HISTORY

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The telegraph and Morse code revolutionized long-distance communication after their invention in the 1800s by Samuel Morse and other inventors.

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Are Pharahos the only ones who could be mummified? 

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Are Pharahos the only ones who could be mummified? 

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https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/the-mummification-process-how-ancient-egyptians-preserved-bodies-for-the

Though the practice of mummification began in Egypt around 2600 B.C., only pharaohs were initially entitled to the process. These attitudes slowly shifted around 2000 B.C., when commoners were also granted access to the afterworld as long as their body was mummified, and their valuables were placed into the tomb.

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Preserving a dead body was a widespread practice, common to many societies of the past. Perhaps the most well-known rituals belong to the ancient Egyptians, who kept corpses intact through a process called mummification. In fact, the procedure was so successful that we still can view the mummified body of an Egyptian today, over 3,000 years after their death, and get a good picture of what they looked like.

Why Preserve the Body?

Ancient Egyptians loved life and believed in immortality. This motivated them to make early plans for their death. While this may seem contradictory, for Egyptians, it made perfect sense: They believed that life would continue after death and that they would still need their physical bodies. Thus, preserving bodies in as lifelike a way as possible was the goal of mummification, and essential to the continuation of life.

The Egyptians believed that the mummified body housed one's soul or spirit. If the body was destroyed, the spirit could be lost and not make its entrance into the afterlife. This is also why tomb preparation was a crucial ritual in Egyptian society. This process began long before a person's death, and involved the storage of items that one may need in the afterlife, such as furniture, clothing, food and valuables.

Though the practice of mummification began in Egypt around 2600 B.C ., only pharaohs were initially entitled to the process. These attitudes slowly shifted around 2000 B.C., when commoners were also granted access to the afterworld as long as their body was mummified, and their valuables were placed into the tomb.

The Recipe for Mummies

A 2011 on the materials used during the mummification procedure in ancient Egypt revealed that the process took 70 days. During this time, priests worked as embalmers and performed rituals and prayers in addition to treating and wrapping the body.

The general steps involved in the mummification process are as follows: First, internal body parts that could decay, such as the brain, are removed. All organs of the abdomen were also removed except for the heart, which was believed to be the center of a person's being. The next step involved removing all the moisture from the body by covering the body with , a type of salt that acted as a preservative and drying agent. Wrapping up the corpse was the last step in the procedure and involved more than a hundred yards of linen, smeared over with gum.

Though these were the standard steps involved in the mummification procedure, process could vary depending on one's class and status. Because mummification was expensive, cheaper alternatives were offered for the poor. The ancient Greek historian described three different mummification methods based on social class that were offered by embalmers of the day.

Rich and Elite:

The brain was drawn out through the nostrils using a crooked piece of iron.

Contents of the belly were taken out and the interior was cleaned using palm-wine and aromatics.

The corpse was covered in natron for 70 days.

The body was washed and rolled up in fine linen and covered over with gum.

Finally, the mummified corpse was returned to family members.

Middle Class:

Syringes were filled with oil from the cedar tree and injected into the abdomen, dissolving the bowels and interior organs.

The body was covered with a natron treatment for 70 days, after which the cedar oil was cleaned out and the body was left as skin and bones.

The body was returned to relatives in an unwrapped state.

Egyptian mummification became around the 4th century A.D., as Rome ruled over Egypt and Christianity was on the rise. But because Egyptians were masters at preserving the dead, mummies have provided us with a glimpse into the rich culture and traditions of this ancient civilization.

But that's not to say corpse preservation is, well, dead . Mummification wasn't limited to Eqypt, and, in some ways, the tradition also has transcended time. Modern-day people in Papua New Guinea still mummify the deceased. Beyond that, funeral homes in the West often embalm dead bodies to slow decomposition and allow time for ceremonies to take place. Even anatomical laboratories are known to use techniques that preserve bodies for medical purposes and education.

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The Mummification Process: How Ancient Egyptians Preserved Bodies for the Afterlife

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Preserving a dead body was a widespread practice, common to many societies of the past. Perhaps the most well-known rituals belong to the ancient Egyptians, who kept corpses intact through a process called mummification.

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Why could only one person dig at a time during the excavation process?

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Why could only one person dig at a time during the excavation process?

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https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/world-cultures/ancient-egyptian-collection/ancient-egyptian-collection/excavating-in-egypt/

https://youtu.be/JejIn8YoAkc?list=TLGGA9j7Au4m4-sxMzA0MjAyMg

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Section

Excavated in 1908, the complete burial of the 'Qurna Queen' expands our understanding of a tumultuous time in Egypt's history.

The excavator of the burial, William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853-1942), set the standard for systematic archaeology in Egypt.

In general, archaeology a hundred years ago was quite different. Excavations took place on a larger scale, at a faster pace; Petrie employed huge teams of Egyptian excavators, who received little acknowledgement for their contributions.

Today, excavations are more targeted and focused, and archaeologists use a range of technologies that allow for more precise recording than ever before. Egyptian archaeologists run their own excavations and more work is being done to involve local communities in Egypt through outreach activities.

Watch this short film to find out how archaeology in Egypt has changed since the 'Qurna Queen' excavation in 1908.

Header image: Photograph taken during the excavation of the Qurna burial in 1908. It shows the 'Qurna Queen' buried in an area of Thebes, known as Qurna.

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Excavated in 1908 by Sir Flinders Petrie, the complete burial of the 'Qurna Queen' expands our understanding of a tumultuous time in Egypt's history. Watch this short film to find out how archaeology in Egypt has changed since the 'Qurna Queen' excavation in 1908.

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Most often, the next to become pharaoh was selected by his father, the reigning pharaoh, usually from a young age. This choice was not always based on primogenito (being the first born male), but could potentially be any son from any wife

https://study.com/academy/answer/how-was-a-pharaoh-chosen.html#:~:text=Most%20often%2C%20the%20next%20to,any%20son%20from%20any%20wife.

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https://www.si.edu/spotlight/ancient-egypt/mummies

1. Insert a hook through a hole near the nose and pull out part of the brain

2. Make a cut on the left side of the body near the tummy

3. Remove all internal organs

4. Let the internal organs dry

5. Place the lungs, intestines, stomach and liver inside canopic jars

6. Place the heart back inside the body

7. Rinse inside of body with wine and spices

8. Cover the corpse with natron (salt) for 70 days

9. After 40 days stuff the body with linen or sand to give it a more human shape

10. After the 70 days wrap the body from head to toe in bandages

11. Place in a sarcophagus (a type of box like a coffin)

If the person had been a Pharaoh, he would be placed inside a special burial chamber with lots of treasure.

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The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification. Using special processes, the Egyptians removed all moisture from the body, leaving only a dried form that would not easily decay. It was important in their religion to preserve the dead body in as life-like a manner as possible. So successful were they that today we can view the mummified body of an Egyptian and have a good idea of what he or she looked like in life, 3,000 years ago.

Mummification was practiced throughout most of early Egyptian history. The earliest mummies from prehistoric times probably were accidental. By chance, dry sand and air (since Egypt has almost no measurable rainfall) preserved some bodies buried in shallow pits dug into the sand. About 2600 BCE, during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, Egyptians probably began to mummify the dead intentionally. The practice continued and developed for well over 2,000 years, into the Roman Period (ca. 30 BCE-CE 364). Within any one period the quality of the mummification varied, depending on the price paid for it. The best prepared and preserved mummies are from the Eighteenth through the Twentieth Dynasties of the New Kingdom (ca. 1570-1075 BCE) and include those of Tutankhamen and other well-known pharaohs. It is the general process of this period that shall be described here.

Mummification Process

The mummification process took seventy days. Special priests worked as embalmers, treating and wrapping the body. Beyond knowing the correct rituals and prayers to be performed at various stages, the priests also needed a detailed knowledge of human anatomy. The first step in the process was the removal of all internal parts that might decay rapidly. The brain was removed by carefully inserting special hooked instruments up through the nostrils in order to pull out bits of brain tissue. It was a delicate operation, one which could easily disfigure the face. The embalmers then removed the organs of the abdomen and chest through a cut usually made on the left side of the abdomen. They left only the heart in place, believing it to be the center of a person's being and intelligence. The other organs were preserved separately, with the stomach, liver, lungs, and intestines placed in special boxes or jars today called canopic jars. These were buried with the mummy. In later mummies, the organs were treated, wrapped, and replaced within the body. Even so, unused canopic jars continued to be part of the burial ritual.

The embalmers next removed all moisture from the body. This they did by covering the body with natron, a type of salt which has great drying properties, and by placing additional natron packets inside the body. When the body had dried out completely, embalmers removed the internal packets and lightly washed the natron off the body. The result was a very dried-out but recognizable human form. To make the mummy seem even more life-like, sunken areas of the body were filled out with linen and other materials and false eyes were added.

Next the wrapping began. Each mummy needed hundreds of yards of linen. The priests carefully wound the long strips of linen around the body, sometimes even wrapping each finger and toe separately before wrapping the entire hand or foot. In order to protect the dead from mishap, amulets were placed among the wrappings and prayers and magical words written on some of the linen strips. Often the priests placed a mask of the person's face between the layers of head bandages. At several stages the form was coated with warm resin and the wrapping resumed once again. At last, the priests wrapped the final cloth or shroud in place and secured it with linen strips. The mummy was complete. The priests preparing the mummy were not the only ones busy during this time. Although the tomb preparation usually had begun long before the person's actual death, now there was a deadline, and craftsmen, workers, and artists worked quickly. There was much to be placed in the tomb that a person would need in the Afterlife. Furniture and statuettes were readied; wall paintings of religious or daily scenes were prepared; and lists of food or prayers finished. Through a magical process, these models, pictures, and lists would become the real thing when needed in the Afterlife. Everything was now ready for the funeral.

As part of the funeral, priests performed special religious rites at the tomb's entrance. The most important part of the ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth." A priest touched various parts of the mummy with a special instrument to "open" those parts of the body to the senses enjoyed in life and needed in the Afterlife. By touching the instrument to the mouth, the dead person could now speak and eat. He was now ready for his journey to the Afterlife. The mummy was placed in his coffin, or coffins, in the burial chamber and the entrance sealed up.

Such elaborate burial practices might suggest that the Egyptians were preoccupied with thoughts of death. On the contrary, they began early to make plans for their death because of their great love of life. They could think of no life better than the present, and they wanted to be sure it would continue after death.

But why preserve the body? The Egyptians believed that the mummified body was the home for this soul or spirit. If the body was destroyed, the spirit might be lost. The idea of "spirit" was complex involving really three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka, a "double" of the person, would remain in the tomb and needed the offerings and objects there. The ba, or "soul", was free to fly out of the tomb and return to it. And it was the akh, perhaps translated as "spirit", which had to travel through the Underworld to the Final Judgment and entrance to the Afterlife. To the Egyptian, all three were essential.

Who Was Mummified

After death, the pharaohs of Egypt usually were mummified and buried in elaborate tombs. Members of the nobility and officials also often received the same treatment, and occasionally, common people. However, the process was an expensive one, beyond the means of many.

For religious reasons, some animals were also mummified. The sacred bulls from the early dynasties had their own cemetery at Sakkara. Baboons, cats, birds, and crocodiles, which also had great religious significance, were sometimes mummified, especially in the later dynasties.

The Study of Mummies Today

Ancient writers, modern scientists, and the mummies themselves all help us better understand the Egyptian mummification process and the culture in which it existed. Much of what we know about the actual process is based on the writings of early historians such as Herodotus who carefully recorded the process during his travels to Egypt around 450 BCE. Present-day archaeologists and other specialists are adding to this knowledge. The development of x-rays now makes it possible to x-ray mummies without destroying the elaborate outer wrappings. By studying the x-rays or performing autopsies on unwrapped bodies, experts are learning more about diseases suffered by the Egyptians and their medical treatment. A better idea of average height and life span comes from studying the bones. By learning their age at death, the order and dates of the Egyptian kings becomes a little clearer. Even ties of kinship in the royal line can be suggested by the striking similarities or dissimilarities in the skulls of pharaohs that followed one another. Dead now for thousands of years, the mummy continues to speak to us.
Websites and Books on Ancient Egypt, 2012 (PDF)
Anthropology Outreach Office, Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History

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Egyptian Mummies | Smithsonian Institution

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The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called mummification.... Learn more