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University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Irlanda

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This portfolio has tried to describe and shed some light on some of the third-gender cultures present in native societies around the world. These identities, like any cultural or personal identity, are more complicated and richer than what's presented here. However, using art forms, newspaper articles and videos I've tried to highlight some of the features and issues related to some of the most famous third-gender cultures that still exist in the contemporary world despite the efforts colonization made to end them.

As seen, many of these cultures and communities reject the definition of transgender, because they are less interested in passing as a "real" woman and more interested in following one's true spirit and combining features of both genders.

Even though the majority of these communities are made by assigned males at birth, who either dress or work as women in their societies, they are very different in their beliefs and traditions. Some of the cultures here presented, in fact, connect gender variance and gender ambiguity to spirituality and religious power. Other cultures are not spiritually related and thus come closer to the Western understanding of gender performativity and transgenderism.

Each community and third gender identity presented in this portfolio is unique, but unfortunately, they are all affected by violence and erasure. Colonization played a huge role in defining the present living conditions of these communities. British colonisers and Spanish ones, in fact, tried to eradicate third-gender communities from every territory they occupied, because they challenged the Christian binary understanding of gender relations, and subsequently, they were seen as a threat to the hegemonic, patriarchal order.

Because of the influence of colonization these communities, which were seen as natural and equal parts of the society in Indigenous cultures, started to be discriminated against and were partially exterminated. Nowadays, third-gender communities around the world are trying to regain their traditional role in their societies, through a process of decolonisation. However, gender-variant people are still victims of violence and discrimination even in these societies that were once naturally queer.

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Two-Spirit is an umbrella term introduced in 1990 by Native American tribes, to regain meaning and naming of a long, lost tradition of third and fourth-gender communities.

Each Native tribe in North America, or as they called it, Turtle Island, has different traditions, cultures and languages when it comes to gender-deviant communities. It is estimated that in 168 different indigenous languages exist terms to define people who are neither male nor female.

Some of these tribes had up to six different genders, before the British colonization.

In general, Indigenous people traditionally highly valued concepts of fluidity and self-definition. Children were left free to choose the clothes and occupations they wanted, enabling them to become active and productive members of the community through their self-accomplishment. In this sense, being gender-deviant was more connected to occupations and activities than to clothing and homosexual behaviours.

Some tribes connected gender variation to spiritual power and for this reason, had sacred positions for third-gender people. In most tribes, gender variance was seen and treated as normal up until the arrival of colonisers, who imposed the gender binary on Indigenous tribes through violence and boarding schools.

The colonization was successful, because a lot of native tribes lost their traditional third gender populations and the language tied to it, becoming more and more embedded in the binary and patriarchal system.

Nowadays, some young native are trying to reclaim their third-gender traditions and underline the difference with transgenderism. This process is what led to the introduction of the term Two-Spirit, to differentiate from queer Americans, and underling the merging of two different spirits, one feminine and one masculine, within an individual.

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The Muxe community originates from the Mexican state of Oaxaca, which is part of the Zapotec community and culture. Before the Spanish colonization, the Zapotec community had a vision of gender roles and relationships that was not based on binarism and power, but on the contrary on fluidity, freedom and complementarity. This vision of gender gives space to the Muxe identity, a third gender identity possible for men. Muxes are men who present themselves with feminine features, connected to clothing, makeup and occupations. Not all muxes choose to occupy a traditional female role in society, some of them still work in fields connected to masculinity. Moreover, being a muxe isn't connected to a homosexual identity, in fact, Muxes are both married to men and women alike. They represent a combination of gender roles, they are neither men nor women, and thus evade the gender binary.

Socially, they are accepted in the Oaxaca region, in which the tradition is stronger. In their Indigenous community, their role is mostly connected to the transmission of culture. Even though in other parts of Mexico they are discriminated against, the Muxe community is generally more accepted than other gender-variant communities both in Mexico and in the general globalized landscape.

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Hjiras - Third Gender culture of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh

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Hjiras - Third Gender culture of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh

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The Hijra community is a community of gender-variant people present in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh tied to Hindu religion and spirituality. Historically, Hijras have been present and valued in these societies, because they were thought to have spiritual powers. For this reason, their main role was tied to religious ceremonies such as weddings, during which Hijras would bless the family with fertility and longevity. Nowadays they still hold part of this spiritual power, but they are also living as outsiders in a society that discriminates against them, following the British colonization.

Hijra is seen as a third gender in the Indian region, the community is made by assigned males at birth that present themselves as females, using female clothing. A part of the community still undergoes the Nirwaan ritual in order to become a Hijra, this ritual is done to castrate men through the removal of their genitalia, to help their spiritual connection to the divine. Hijras have to renounce their sexuality in order to fully become part of the community and transcend gender.

As of now, Hijras live in closed and illegal communities spread in different cities and countries. These communities become their houses and families. Through the spiritual leaders of the communities, they find jobs, which are mostly connected to sex work and blessings. This isolation is due to the fact that in 1871 the Hijra community was categorized as a criminal tribe and seen as non-human, because of the British and Christian colonization that brought a different, binary conception of gender with it.

In recent years Hijras have been considered to fall under categories such as transgender and MSM (Men who have sex with men), but they refuse these categorizations, because of the cultural and spiritual uniqueness of their identity.

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Mahu - Third Gender Culture of Hawaii and Polynesia

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Mahu - Third Gender Culture of Hawaii and Polynesia

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Mahu is a word that refers third gender people in the Hawai'ian and Polynesian traditions. Mahu before the British colonisation were seen as equal parts of the community, and they were considered to possess equal halves of gender traits. They are a community made of assigned males at birth who have a mixed gender identity, they are usually female-looking and marry both men and women. They perform feminine roles in the community and families but don't lose their masculine traits. People who identify as Mahu don't undergo surgery or hormones in order to present themselves as more feminine since their identity is thought of as a combination of the feminine and the masculine. Traditionally, they are the guardians of hula dancing, and they are the main reason why this tradition has survived colonization. Moreover, before the colonization, they frequently became parents through the practice of hanai, by which children were put in the care of Mahu people as they were seen as more compassionate and creative, and thus especially good at educating children.

After the colonization, the Mahu of Hawai'i and Polynesia were forced to hide and are now discriminated against and medicalized through the Western framing of transgenderism.

Nowadays, in Hawai'i the Christian church is still one of the most powerful institutions, and its condemnation of third gender people has negative consequences on the lives and freedom of Mahu people, who are victims of discrimination and violence.

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University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4

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In recent years what we call Western Countries have started to open up to the possibility of genderqueer identities. Even though identities such as non-binary and agender are slowly becoming more common and less stigmatised in some states, the general idea of gender-deviant people is tied to transgender FTM (female to male) or MTF (male to female) individuals. In our culture, based on principles of heteronormativity and gender binarism, even being a genderqueer person comes with its sets of norms. In fact, we have a common understanding of transnormativity. This means that we accept transgender individuals, but we see them as valuable and fitting, only if they check a number of boxes. These are mostly based on the idea of passing, hence an assigned male at birth person who transitions has to "pass" as a real woman in the society. This means that she has to undergo medical procedures and hormone treatment to shape her body as a feminine one. This medicalized transition allows transgender people to return to the gender binary and thus reinforces the normative gendered binarism. Moreover, transgender identities are only tied to personal identity and are mostly seen as deviant.

Even though our culture and tradition, mostly because of the Christian religion, are deeply tied to this binaristic understanding of gender, this is not the case for other parts of the world. In fact, in many cultures and traditions around the world, it's possible to find third-gender and gender-deviant communities. These are communities that go beyond the binaristic view of gender, based on male and female features, allowing for different gendered identities and experiences. These cultures are often tied to religious beliefs and spirituality and challenge our idea of a natural gender binary.

With this digital portfolio, through the use of art, videos and news, I will analyse and portray some of the biggest third-gender cultural traditions around the world, underlying their commonalities and differences to try and reframe our transnormative view of gender-deviant people and underline how these people have always existed as normalised and equal parts of the society in many different traditions, up until Christian colonization.

The different cultures that I will explore are the following:

Mahu of Hawai'i and Polynesia

Hijras of India

Muxes of Mexico

Two-Spirit of Native American Tribes

Bakla of Philippines

Travesti of Brazil

Bakla of Philippines

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This text and the language in the corresponding map was updated in consultation with a world gender expert* in October, 2023. NOTE to teachers and students: Some school or corporate domains block custom Google Maps so you may need to log in under a different or personal email address to see the map.
Throughout recorded history and since time immemorial, thriving cultures have recognized, revered, and integrated more than two genders. Terms such as transgender, gay, or bisexual are Western constructs that often assume three things: that there are only two sexes (male/female), as many as three sexualities (gay/straight/bisexual), and only two genders (man/woman).

Even after the end of the modern era and as the colonial period wanes, hundreds of distinct Indigenous societies around the globe still retain their own long-established traditions for third, fourth, fifth, or more genders. The subject of Two Spirits , Fred Martinez, for example, was not a boy who wanted to be a girl, but both a boy and a girl-an identity his Navajo culture recognized and revered as Meanwhile, Hina of Kumu Hina is part of a native Hawaiian culture that has traditionally revered and respected , those who embody both male and female spirit. It's not uncommon for third gender people to perform critical spiritual and religious functions in their communities.

Among many Indigenous societies, two prominent features often distinguish the lives and social roles of third gender persons from those of cisgender persons or contemporary transgender persons in non-Indigenous societies. The first is that many Indigenous terms for third gender people contain both the word for "man" and "woman" in their construction, and that third gender people are seen as embodying both of those genders in diverse ways. The second is that the history of many third genders is in the community role of religious specialists, which also takes diverse forms, depending on the beliefs of diverse cultures. While not all third gender persons are defined in these terms, across our species, this phenomenon of the third gender religious specialist, healer, or spiritual worker has been part of our collective identity and human experience since time immemorial. Since the beginning of the 21st century, we've seen tremendous expansion of the role that transgender, gender diverse, and third gender people have in society, following the tenuous establishment of civil rights for gay and lesbian people in many nations and increased access to gender-affirming care in the transgender community. Many Indigenous transgender people who also identify as third gender are familiar to large audiences via their participation in popular media or social media activism. Third gender people, like the Japanese-Samoan, fa'afafine artist Yuki Kihara , now participate in major global cultural events and function not just as representatives of their gender-based community, but of their nation. Kihara had both a solo exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and represented New Zealand at the 2021 Venice Biennale. In the 21st century, many third gender people choose to take advantage of gender-affirming care, and identify, in addition to being third gender, as transgender. As access to gender-affirming care parallels healthcare access, and both third gender and Indigenous persons are often marginalized economically, it is not as readily available to many Indigenous transgender people, and within Indigenous cultures, medical transition is often seen as separate or secondary to social transition.

Within Western societies, despite centuries of suppression, there are still traces of a past when third or fourth or more genders were recognized within many cultures and societies. In rare cases, they presently exist. An example of this would be the of Albania, women who give up their social role as women to live as men. Likewise, within Jewish culture and law, as many as eight genders have been historically recognized, and in diverse ways. Take a tour with this world map, and learn how many cultures see gender diversity.
*Note: The 2023 update for this text and the map was made in consultation with Badly Licked Bear, who describes themselves as Some school or corporate domains block custom Google Maps so you may need to log in under a different or personal e-mail address to see the map. an educator, writer, artist, and mutual aid worker. They are a storyteller who teaches storytelling by storytelling and they tell circle-shaped stories. Their work is rooted in shifting identity, Looney Tunes, BDSM, deep observation, and their lived experience as an Indigiqueer transfemme.
Explore the map

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On nearly every continent, and for all of recorded history, thriving cultures have recognized, revered, and integrated more than two genders.

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Bakla - Third gender culture of Philippines

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Bakla - Third gender culture of Philippines

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In the Philippines the process of colonization by the Spanish and the United States was successful into changing gender traditions and specific language. In fact, historically in the Philippines there has been the Bakla community, this word, before colonization was used to describe men who presented with a feminine identity, through cross-dressing, traditional feminine occupations and the engaging in homosexual relationships.

Bakla is a word that combines babae (woman) and lalaki (men), thus it didn't refer to a sexual preference, but to an identity that merged masculine and feminine traits.

Nowadays, this word is mostly used to describe the homosexual identity and community in the Phillippines, because of the influence of globalization and colonization and the binary view of gender they reproduce.

Even though the word Bakla now has a different and wider meaning, the traditional Bakla community is still present in the Philippines and is trying to regain the traditional significance of the word.

Baklas are accepted in the society only if they reproduce a feminine ideals, through the emplyoment in traditional feminine jobs. On the contrary, they are victim of violence and discirmination and they are excluded from society if they present themselves in feminine attires, but choose masculine behaviours and occupation. This situation highlights the embeddnenss of the Western gender binary logic within the Philipino society, since Baklas are accepted only if they totally choose a feminine identity, while they are ostracised if they perform a more fluid gender.

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University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4

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Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. Routledge, 1993.

Halberstam, J. Jack. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York University Press, 2005.

Malatino, Hill. “Future Fatigue: Trans Intimacies and Trans Presents(or How to Survive the Interregnum). Transgender Studies Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 4, 2019, pp. 635-658.

Santos, Rita. Beyond Gender Binaries. The History of Trans, Intersex and Third-Gender Individuals. The Rosen Publishing Group, 2019.

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DOCUMENTARY: "Two Spirits" - A documentary on Navajo gender fluidity

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DOCUMENTARY: "Two Spirits" - A documentary on Navajo gender fluidity

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This documentary tells the story of a young two spirt Navajo boy who was killed because of his identity. It explores themes of gender and spirituality in the Navajo tribe.

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Two Spirits (2009) Official Trailer #1 - Documentary Movie HD

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DOCUMENTARY: "Muxes" - A documentary on Zapotec third gender community

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DOCUMENTARY: "Muxes" - A documentary on Zapotec third gender community

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This documentary series produced by HBO explores the traditional role of the Muxes in the Zapotec society of Oaxaca in Mexico.

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DOCUMENTARY: "Hijra: The Struggles of Transgender in Bangladesh"

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DOCUMENTARY: "Hijra: The Struggles of Transgender in Bangladesh"

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This short documentary speaks about the contradictions and discriminations that the Hijra community suffers in Bangladesh.

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Hijra: The Struggles of Transgender in Bangladesh

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Portrait of Kea Loha Mahuta,II, 2019, Kehinde Wiley

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ART: "Thaiti" - A series of decolonising portraits

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ART: "Thaiti" - A series of decolonising portraits

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This is one of the portraits of "Thaiti" a series of potraits done by Kehinde Wiley. She took Gauguin 20th century collection of transgender works, and removed all problematic and colonialistic elements.

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There's no shame in being who you are - Ally Gonzalo

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ART: "There's no shame in being who you are" - A series of portraits of Bakla Community

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ART: "There's no shame in being who you are" - A series of portraits of Bakla Community

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This portrait is one in a series commissioned by the CBC to Ally Gonzalo. These portaits want to explore the uniqueness of the Bakla identity and give it a space in the mainstream media.

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ART: "Honour Dance" - A Cree recovering of traditions

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ART: "Honour Dance" - A Cree recovering of traditions

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This painting made by Cree artist Kent Monkman re-envisions nineteenth-century painter George Catlin’s Dance to the Berdashe from a contemporary Indigenous two-spirit perspective, to counter Indigenous third gender erasure from history and society.

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ART: "MUXHISIMA" - A piece of art about resilience

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ART: "MUXHISIMA" - A piece of art about resilience

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This piece of art made by Muxe Mexican artist Hugo Ximello-Salido represents the resilience and complexity of Muxes communityi and gender fluidity and expression.

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ART: "Hijra- Eunuchs" - A series of art pieces that shows the process of becoming a Hijra

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ART: "Hijra- Eunuchs" - A series of art pieces that shows the process of becoming a Hijra

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This art piece is one in a series called "Hijra - Eunuchs". With this project the artist wants to shed light on the process of becoming a Hijra. It shows all the traditional stages, from the role of the community, to the castration.

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DOCUMENTARY: "Kumu Hina" - A documentary on Mahu experiences

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DOCUMENTARY: "Kumu Hina" - A documentary on Mahu experiences

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This documentary explores the difficulties of negotiating between the Mahu traditions and the Western ideals present in today's Hawai'ian society.

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Fill in the form above to take the Pledge to live with Aloha - love, honor and respect for all - and be included on our Aloha Wall and email list. Click the image to download an 8.5 x 11 Pledge of Aloha poster that can be hung on the wall in your home, workplace, or local school.

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KUMU HINA is the story of Hina Wong- Kalu, a transgender native Hawaiian teacher and cultural icon who brings to life Hawaii's long-held embrace of mahu - those who embody both male and female spirit, and were traditionally respected as caretakers, healers, and keepers of ancient traditions.

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Davao, Provincia di Davao del Sur, Filippine

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DOCUMENTARY: "The gender-fluid history of the Philippines" - A TEDTalk about Bakla culture

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DOCUMENTARY: "The gender-fluid history of the Philippines" - A TEDTalk about Bakla culture

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In this TED Talk France Villarta, a native Philipino men, explores the history and traditions connected to gender diversity in his native country. He explains how gender in Philipino tradition is not a binary construct, but is fluid and changing.

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The gender-fluid history of the Philippines | France Villarta

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NEWS: An Article about hope for the Hijras of Pakistan

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NEWS: An Article about hope for the Hijras of Pakistan

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Down a grimy alleyway in Rawalpindi, in the heart of Pakistan's military establishment, a striking figure tweaked her makeup and squirted a dash of perfume under her arms.

Life as a hijra, as Pakistan's transgender minority is known, can be tough, said 21-year-old Alisha, recounting tales of extortion, sexual violence and predatory policemen. But of late things have started to improve.

The government has offered help, the hijras' plight has come into the public eye, and even the police are showing a little respect.

"They call us the chief justice's darlings," she said.

An unlikely revolution is stirring among Pakistan's transgender community. Over the past six months the supreme court has issued a series of ground-breaking judgments in favour of hijras, who have long lived under a cloud of disapprobation and discrimination.

Spurred by the forceful chief justice, Iftikhar Chaudhry, who was restored after countrywide protests last year, normally moribund authorities have been ordered to ensure hijras enjoy the same rights as other Pakistanis, in matters of inheritance, employment and election registration.

Police have been warned to cease harassment and intimidation. Pakistan's national database and registration authority, which issues ID cards, has been told to research a third option under the "sex" column.

"Times are changing," said Almas Bobby, leader of one of the largest group of hijras in Rawalpindi. "Our community feels good for the first time in 60 years."

The changes have triggered a heady sense of possibility.

In October hijras in the southern city of Sukkur fielded the country's first hijras cricket team. After winning their inaugural match, the captain thanked the chief justice.

The exuberance is spreading. Earlier this month about 100 hijras from across Punjab crammed into a tented rooftop area for a raucous dance party.

Showers of rose petals filled the air as hijras of all ages, draped in sequined dresses and bedecked in costume jewellery, danced into the small hours - whirling and swinging their hips in the manner of Bollywood movie stars.

The hijras' roots run deep in Asia: many were respected courtesans in the courts of the Moghul emperors who ruled south Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries. One even commanded troops into battle.

But behind the merriment, hijra life can be lonely and dangerous in a conservative society such as Pakistan.

Most hijras describe themselves as "professional wedding dancers" (women performers are forbidden under Pakistani law) but campaigners say their main sources of income hail from begging and prostitution.

Alisha, who worked as a makeup artist to pay for silicon implants, sported a 36B bra under a red sequinned dress. "I've always felt like a girl in my soul," she said. But her voice also rang with sadness: her middle-class Islamabad family cast her out. She pointed to Azeem, a middle-aged hijra who once worked as head of housekeeping in a five-star hotel.

"Now she is my mother and father," Alisha said.

Although often referred to as "eunuchs", many of Pakistan's hijras have not undergone gender reassignment surgery, according to campaigners. The medical and psychological services available in other Asian countries, such as Thailand, are either absent or operate in the shadows. A plastic surgeon in Rawalpindi, speaking on condition of anonymity, said he would only operate on hijras after hours.

"It would not raise the prestige of the clinic if they were seen," he said.

The surgeon said he also treated a minority of women seeking gender reassignment surgery.

"They come in with bandages on their breasts, which causes ulcers and lesions, threatening to commit suicide if we don't operate," he said.

Back at the party in Rawalpindi a group of men wearing regular shalwar kameez, loose trousers and tunic, watched from the back of the room. They were the "sponsors" - often married men who keep hijras as mistresses.

The men watched silently, filming with their mobile phones, but sometimes stepped forward to cast bundles of 10 rupee notes over their favourite dancers - and in so doing, sent banknote images of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan's founding father, fluttering to the ground.

An unlikely revolutionary

The man leading the hijras' modern crusade is an unlikely warrior: a lawyer who specialises in Islamic law. Islamabad barrister Muhammad Aslam Khaki instigated the supreme court cases last year after reading about a brutal incident in Taxila, near the capital, where police allegedly robbed and raped a group of eight hijra wedding dancers.

"People don't consider them as human beings. They don't like to eat with them, drink with them or shake their hands," he said. "But they are full citizens of Pakistan like everyone else."

It is not the first time the softly-spoken lawyer has challenged Pakistan's status quo. Last year Khaki persuaded a federal Islamic court to overturn the punishment for drinking alcohol - 40 lashes of the whip - on the basis that it was not in accordance with the Qur'an. Later, he won a declaration that prisoners should be allowed conjugal rights with their wives during visiting hours - also, he says, a little-known provision of Islam.

"Ours is the most misunderstood religion," he said.

But his advocacy for hijras is a bridge too far for some. He has received death threats from Shabab e-Milli, an offshoot of the youth wing of Pakistan's main religious party, Jamaat e-Islami. "They say I am protecting the gay culture. But I am protecting them from the police culture of torture and sex abuse." Declan Walsh

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Harassed, intimidated, abused: but now Pakistan's hijra transgender minority finds its voice

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New civil rights for Pakistan's long-oppressed 'wedding dancers' offer hope of a better life Audio slideshow: Declan Walsh meets the hijras

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Travesti - The large third gender community of Brasil

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Travesti - The large third gender community of Brasil

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In Brazil lives one of the largest third-gender communities in all the world, despite the fact that Brazil is a highly transphobic country.

In fact, gender roles in Brazil are strict and controlled, because of the colonial caste system introduced by Portuguese colonizers in order to control the population.

However, a strong and diffused community of gender non-conforming people arose and is still thriving in contemporary Brazil. They are called Travestis, and are assigned men at birth who present themselves as women. The travesti community is different from the Western conception of transgendersim, because it merges feminine and masculine traditional features of Brazilian identity. In fact, the majority of travesti doesn't undergo surgical procedures, they are satisfied with their genitals, and they may also display heterosexual behaviour in romantic and sexual relationships.

In this community appearance is the most important thing, hence travestis work hard on their feminine looks, clothes and makeup. This is also why a part of the community started to undergo gender-related surgery, to fit the beauty standards, even though this is still a less practised solution.

The social condition in which Travestis live is defined by a contradiction. In fact, on one hand, they undergo high levels of violence, and police brutality and they are murdered because of the stigma associated with the community and the intolerance of Brazilian people towards them. On the other hand, though, during some festivities such as carnivals and beauty competitions, they are highly celebrated.

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 'E se a arte fosse travesti?' - Rosa Luz

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ART: "E se a arte fosse travesti?" - A piece of art about resistance

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ART: "E se a arte fosse travesti?" - A piece of art about resistance

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This piece of art is part of the 36th Panorama of Brazilian Art held in 2019. The title of the edition was "Sertao", a sense of experimentation and resistance.

Rosa Luz proposed, a travesti this self-portrait to express a form of resistance expressed by dissident bodies and identities.

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 DOCUMENTARY: "Boys from Brazil" - A documentary about the struggles of Travestis

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 DOCUMENTARY: "Boys from Brazil" - A documentary about the struggles of Travestis

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This documentary made in 1993 follows the journey of travestis Samira and Luciana, their struggles living in Brazil and the difficulties they faced in migrating to Italy, as well as portraying the process undergone by these two travestis to embrace their identity.

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Part 1 of 5 Documentary about Brazilian Travestis - Boys from Brazil

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NEWS: An art project to shed light oh Mahu culture

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NEWS: An art project to shed light oh Mahu culture

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HONOLULU (AP) - More than 500 years ago, Hawaiians placed four boulders on a Waikiki beach to honor visitors from the court of Tahiti's king who had healed the sick. They were "mahu," which in Hawaiian language and culture refers to someone with dual male and female spirit and a mixture of gender traits.

The stones were neglected for many years, as Christian missionaries and other colonizing Westerners suppressed the role of mahu in Hawaiian society. At one point a bowling alley was built over the boulders.

Officials restored the stones multiple times since the 1960s but informational plaques installed next to them omitted references to mahu.

The stones and the history of the four healers now are featured in an exhibit at Bishop Museum in Honolulu. The display highlights the deep roots of gender fluidity in Polynesia.

Hinaleimoana Wong-Kalu is mahu and one of the exhibit's curators. She said the healers were revered for their skill and hopes their story will show children in Hawaii that "proper Hawaiian culture" doesn't pass judgment against those "who have elements of duality."

"They were respected and honored because the people knew that their male and female duality made them even more powerful a healer," Wong-Kalu said.

Kapaemahu was the leader of the four healers, and the exhibit is named The Healing Stones of Kapaemahu. Their story was passed down orally, like all Hawaiian stories, until a written language was developed in the 1800s.

But Hawaiians were discouraged from talking about mahu. DeSoto Brown, a Bishop Museum historian and the exhibit's lead curator, said Christian missionaries who arrived in 1820 forbade anything that deviated from "clearly defined roles and presentation" of male and female genders.

The earliest known written account of the mahu healers is a 1906 manuscript by James Alapuna Harbottle Boyd, the son-in-law of Archibald Cleghorn, who owned the Waikiki property where the stones were at the time. Cleghorn's wife, Princess Likelike, and daughter, Princess Kaiulani, were known to place seaweed and offer prayers at the stones when they swam.

Boyd's manuscript "Tradition of the Wizard Stones of Ka-Pae-Mahu" said the Hawaiian people loved the healers for their "tall stature, courteous ways and kindly manners" and their cures became famous across Oahu.

"Their ways and great physique were overshadowed by their low, soft speech, and they became as one with those they came in contact with," Boyd wrote. "They were unsexed, by nature, and their habits coincided with their womanly seeming, although manly in stature and general bearing."

When it was time for the healers to leave, four boulders were brought down from Oahu's Kaimuki area. Two were placed at the site of the healers' hut and the others where they bathed in the ocean. Idols indicating the dual spirit of the healers were placed under each stone.

Many Hawaiians grew up not knowing about Hawaiian concepts of mahu or the stones because the American businessmen who overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 banned Hawaiian language instruction in schools and discouraged speaking it in homes. Generations of Hawaiians lost connections to cultural traditions.

Wong-Kalu, 50, said as a child she was made to believe mahu was a derogatory word. She remembers being among those who would sit on the stones and drape towels over them after swimming, oblivious to their significance.

Mahu are akin to "two-spirit" common in many Native American cultures, Wong-Kalu said, adding there are physical, emotional, mental and spiritual elements to being mahu. The representation of male and female depends on the person, she said.

"In Hawaii, one could exist really in the middle," she said.

The stones nearly were lost just before the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. At the time, the Honolulu Star-Bulletin reported the boulders would be blasted or removed after a developer leased Cleghorn's property to build a bowling alley.

Following an outcry, plans emerged for a concrete walkway between the stones. But the developer instead built over them.

The stones were uncovered two decades later when the city tore down buildings to build a public beach park. Elders recalled the story of the stones and urged they remain. The city agreed and created a plaque that mentioned the Tahitian healers but didn't say anything about them being mahu.

In 1997, the city fenced off the stones and dedicated a new plaque. It also didn't reference mahu.

During both periods, waves of homophobia and transphobia washed over Honolulu. In the 1960s, a new state law prohibited cross-dressing and police forced drag performers to wear a button saying: "I Am A Boy." Three decades later, there was backlash in Hawaii and nationally when the Hawaii Supreme Court sided with same-sex couples seeking the right to marry.

The Bishop Museum exhibit, on display through Oct. 16, recounts this history and displays artifacts like massage sticks and a medicine pounder that healers would have used centuries ago. Islander concepts of gender fluidity are explored through stories like that of King Kamehameha III and his male lover.

A map shows terms used in Polynesia for those who don't identify as male or female, including "fa'afafine" in Samoa and "leiti" in Tonga.

Dean Hamer and Joe Wilson helped curate the exhibit and hope it will spur the city to tell the full story of the mahu at the site of the stones.

Ian Scheuring, spokesperson for Honolulu Mayor Rick Blangiardi, said the city is researching the issue and local leaders plan to meet with members of the LGBTQ and Native Hawaiian communities to learn how they can help tell the "true and complete" story of the healers, he said.

Tatiana Kalaniopua Young, a Native Hawaiian anthropologist, mahu and a director of the Hawaii LGBT Legacy Foundation, said the story the stones and healers helped her family understand that she was not "this weird creature that's outside of the norm." And that in a Hawaiian sense, she was part of the norm.

"It gave me a sense of place and purpose as a mahu and it really made me proud to be Kanaka Maoli, or Native Hawaiian," she said.

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Hawaii museum revisits history of gender-fluid healers

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More than 500 years ago, Hawaiians placed four boulders on a Waikiki beach to honor visitors from the court of Tahiti's king who had healed the sick.

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NEWS: Violence and support in contemporary Two-Spirit youth communities

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NEWS: Violence and support in contemporary Two-Spirit youth communities

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In the summer of 2015, an 8-year-old Choctaw child named Twelve walked in their first Two-Spirit LGBTQ Pride parade, recognizing Native people with a male and female spirit within them. They wore their hair in braids and a black suit, their mother and auntie by their side. Out and proud adults waved hello to Twelve from their colorfully decorated floats. The streets of Oklahoma City were filled with music, dancing and drag performances. It was a celebration that seemed like a step toward a future of acceptance for Oklahoma's Indigenous queer community.

"That memory sticks in my mind - seeing someone that young and seeing loving parents be so supportive," said Auntie Sage, youth leader at Cousins, a group for queer Indigenous youth in the state. "I had not seen that in my lifetime."

Nine years later, queer and Two-Spirit youth in Oklahoma have witnessed the introduction of more than 50 bills targeting LGBTQ people this year alone - more than any other state - from bans on gender-affirming health care to penalizing public school employees for asking a student their pronouns.
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In addition, LGBTQ communities continue to reel from the death of Nex Benedict, a 16-year-old transgender student who lived on a Cherokee reservation in Oklahoma and reportedly faced bullying over their gender identity.

"With all these anti-LGBTQ bills going on right now, it is very dangerous and it is a very sad time for Oklahoma," Auntie Sage said.

Today, Twelve is a member of Cousins, which has been offering a sanctuary for queer Indigenous youth in a time of rising anti-LGBTQ hostility. Through outdoor activities, out-of-state trips, theater shows, monthly counseling, group talks and mentor pairing, the group is cultivating a community.

"Cousins is a place of education, fun, community, support, love and all this good stuff," Twelve said. "But at the end of the day, it's also a safe space for kids who need it."

Reeling from the death of 'our relative'

Sarah Adams, the mother of Twelve, and Kendra Wilson Clements - both of whom are Choctaw and Two-Spirit - co-founded Cousins in 2022 after observing a lack of support systems in Oklahoma for queer Indigenous youth. That year, U.S. lawmakers proposed a record 238 bills that would limit the rights of Two-Spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and/or questioning (2SLGBTQ) Americans, including religious exemptions to discriminate against queer people, and limits on trans people's ability to play sports and receive gender-affirming health care.

"We wanted it to be a safe place for us to be able to celebrate what it is to be LGBTQ in the Indigenous community," Adams said. "When you feel safe, then you can be exactly who you are. You can remove all those masks that you put on from your day to day."

Adams and Clements began reaching out to local queer leaders to find mentors and advocates for queer Indigenous youth. Mentors can share their experiences, show kids they are not alone and let them know they are supported.

"We want [our youth] to be strong. We want them to be inspired," said Auntie Sage. "And we want them to know what it looks like to be visible and out and proud."

Through word of mouth, the group has become home to over a dozen youth ages 12 to 22, representing numerous tribes. With the help of donations, grants and volunteers, the group goes hiking, takes self-defense classes and attends virtual meet-ups.

When Benedict died in February, it shook the community. Police bodycam video showed Benedict in a hospital bed recounting how they were attacked by three students after standing up to their bullying at school. The next day, Benedict died. A full autopsy report ruled the death a suicide.

Benedict's death sparked global interest and criticism from LGBTQ advocates who link their alleged bullying to anti-LGBTQ legislation in Oklahoma and other states. In the weeks following Benedict's death, the Rainbow Youth Project, a national LGBTQ nonprofit focused on youth suicide prevention, saw a 238% increase in crisis calls from Oklahoma. The Centers for American Indian and Alaska Native Health reported last year that 60% of Indigenous youth have experienced severe mental distress.

"I was already dealing with so much of my own mental health stuff, and then hearing [about Benedict's death], it just made me hate so much more about the state we live in and the world we live in and how people don't care until someone dies," said Bear, 15, a Cousins member.

Cousins members say they are concerned about discrimination in their schools, which has only been highlighted by Benedict's death.

"There's no amount of safety here that can really make me feel confident enough in the public school system at this point, especially after what happened with Nex," said Angelina Steinmeyer, 21, a Cousins mentor and member.

In response to safety concerns from the group, Dan Isett, director of communications at the Oklahoma State Department of Education, told NBCU Academy in an email: "The safety of every student in Oklahoma schools is prioritized equally, with equal care taken for all our students."

Shortly after Benedict's death, Adams brought in a grief counselor during Cousins' monthly circle talks. Members learned how to recognize grief and how it might show up in their lives. Twelve said they were coping through writing.

"We wanted to help them through this moment, this terrible, horrible moment when we lost a relative," Adams said. "Nex is our relative, that's how I see it."

Raising the next generation of leaders

To open up the lines of support, Cousins recently decided to make some of their events inclusive to all LGBTQ youth in the state, not just those who are Indigenous.

"My son said, 'We don't have the luxury of cherry-picking anymore. We have to make sure that everybody has spaces,'" said Adams. "And now we're trying to figure out how we do that."

In February, the group took a trip to San Francisco to participate in the Bay Area American Indian Two-Spirit Powwow. The event honored traditional Indigenous culture through song, dance, drumming and contests; it also offered a supportive gender-affirming experience for the diverse Two-Spirit community and allies.

"I was just like looking all around myself and I was like, 'Wow, they made it,'" said Twelve. "'Oh my God, there's so many people like me around here.'"

Auntie Sage said she wants to take members away from spaces that often exclude 2SLGBTQ people and put them into environments where they can see possibilities and take pride in who they are.

"I hope they can have those kinds of stories for themselves one day," Auntie Sage said. "They spread their little wings and they fly."

In the meantime, the group will continue to host open conversations, expand its space and counsel queer Indigenous youth and others in the face of rising tensions in schools and opposition to 2SLGBTQ events in the state.

"If there were to be an end goal, I hope that the end is us breaking the cycle," said Steinmeyer, adding that it's important to "teach children what it's like to be different."
This article first appeared on NBCU Academy.

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How queer Indigenous youth are finding safety and support after Nex Benedict's death

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After the death of transgender student Nex Benedict, who lived on a Cherokee reservation in Oklahoma, the group Cousins is expanding its offerings to queer youth.

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NEWS: Violence and murder still present in the Muxe community

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NEWS: Violence and murder still present in the Muxe community

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High-profile murders inspire calls for justice at Mexico’s ‘muxe’ festival | LGBTQ News | Al Jazeera

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NEWS: Brazil and transphobia a cultural issue of violence

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NEWS: Brazil and transphobia a cultural issue of violence

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For the 14th consecutive year, Brazil was named the nation with the highest number of transgender people killed.

In 2022, 131 trans people were murdered in the country. Another 20 took their own lives as a result of discrimination and prejudice. Next on the list are Mexico and the US.

The data can be found on the Dossiê Assassinatos e Violências contra Travestis e Transexuais Brasileiras ("Report on Murders and Violence against Brazilian Travestis and Transsexuals") of the National Association of Travestis and Transsexuals (ANTRA), released during a ceremony at the Ministry of Human Rights and Citizenship Thursday (Jan. 26).

Of the total, 130 victims were trans women and one was a trans man. The youngest was 15 years old. Almost 90 percent of them aged 15-40.

Minister of Human Rights and Citizenship Silvio Almeida referred to the figure as "a tragedy," adding it should serve as an opportunity to change the reality faced by transgender people.

"When we talk about gender and sexuality, we are accused of being identitarian. I ask these people if we can build a country with the numbers we see now," he said.

According to head researcher and ANTRA Secretary of Political Integration Bruna Benevides, the lack of measures to address violence against LGBTQIAP+ people contribute to this picture. Underreporting and the lack of government data can also contribute to creating an inaccurate scenario over the years and making it difficult to identify the individuals accountable.

"How much visibility have trans people received? If you look up 'travesti' online, eight out of ten news stories are about violence. This landscape needs to change. We stand on the front line, but it also means we're the first to be killed," Benevides pointed out.

Victims

The profile of the victims in Brazil remains virtually the same as in other years-black and impoverished transgender women. Prostitution is their most common source of income. Among the victims, 76 percent were black and 24 percent were white. The survey shows that trans women are up to 38 times more likely to be murdered compared to trans men and non-binary people.

Translation: Fabrício Ferreira - Edition: Aline Leal

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Report: Brazil has highest number of trans people killed in 2022

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The country stood atop the list for the 14th year in a row. The human rights minister said it should serve as a chance to change the reality faced by transgender people.

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NEWS: Philippines and the contradictions on accepetance and discrimination

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NEWS: Philippines and the contradictions on accepetance and discrimination

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The Philippines president Rodrigo Duterte invited four women onto the stage in Japan to kiss him

The president of the Philippines claims he used to be gay but that he was 'cured' by beautiful women.

President Rodrigo Duterte, 74, began a speech in Japan on Thursday by telling the crowd his critic Senator Antonio Trillanes IV was 'similar' to him because they were both gay.

But, he said, he was 'cured' by beautiful women who helped him 'become a man again' when he married his first wife Elizabeth Zimmerman.

Speaking to the Filipino community in Japan he invited three attractive women standing at the side of the room to take empty seats at the front.

He went on to say someone gay had told him that based on the senator's movements, his critic Trillanes is homosexual, Rappler reported.

"I said, "Are you sure?" They said, "You ask any gay person who sees Trillanes move, they'll say he's gay." No wonder. Good thing Trillanes and I are similar. But I cured myself," he said.

He added: "'When I began a relationship with Zimmerman, I said, this is it. I became a man again."

Elizabeth Zimmerman, 71, was married to President Duterte from 1973 until 2000 and they had two children together.

At the speech his long-term girlfriend Honeylet Avanceña, 49, sat behind him.

As he invited the women up he explained he was only looking for unmarried women of an appropriate age.

He said: "First you shouldn't be married okay. Second you are not a minor. You ma'am. You want a smooch?

"Those four come here. Let them come up. Let them in."

Duterte has previously used terms like 'bakla' and 'bayot' - meaning gay - as insults towards his political enemies.

He has been inconsistent with his views on gay marriage. In 2017 he said under Filipino law marriage was only between a man and a woman.

By the end of the same year he told an LGBT gathering he thinks the law can change to allow same-sex marriage.

During Thursday's speech Duterte professed his love for Ms Avanceña, calling her his 'one and only'.

The couple met in 1998 when she was runner-up of Mutya ng Dabaw - an annual beauty pageant - and he was a first-term mayor of Davao City.

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Philippines president claims he was 'cured' from being gay by 'beautiful women'

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The Philippines president Rodrigo Duterte invited four women onto the stage in Japan to kiss him

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Diehl, Alessandra et al. “Social stigma, legal and public health barriers faced by the third gender phenomena in Brazil, India and Mexico: Travestis, hijras and muxes”. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, vol. 63, no. 5, 2017, pp. 389-399.

Lynn, Stephen. "Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca". Latin American Perspectives, vol. 29, issue 123, 2002, pp. 41-59.

Pena, Alejandra Gall. Reflections and conceptions of muxe gender identity in contemporary Mexican society. 2022. Linkoping University, Master's thesis.

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Kalei, Kalikiano. “Hawai’ian Sexuality and the Mahu Tradition”.  Medium. 28 Mar. 2019, https://kalikianokalei.medium.com/hawaiian-sexuality-and-the-mahu-tradition-b235a76066c6#:~:text='Mahu'%2C%20or%20transgendered%20individuals,the%20ancient%20kauhale%20or%20community.

Robertson, Carol E. “The Mahu of Hawai‘i”. Feminist Studies, vol. 15, no. 2. 1989, pp. 312-326.

Robes, Austin. “Mahu Identity and Globalized Queerness: Examining We’re Here”. The American Papers, vol. 41, 2023, pp. 157-163.

Zanghellini, Aleardo. “Sodomy Laws and Gender Variance in Tahiti and Hawai’i“. Laws, vol. 2, 2013, pp. 51-68.

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Morgensen, Scott Lauria. Spaces between Us: Queer Settler Colonialism and Indigenous Decolonization. University of Minnesota Press, 2011.

Robinson, Margaret. “Two-Spirit Identity in a Time of Gender Fluidity”. Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 67, no. 12, 2020, pp. 1675-1690.

Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom Through Radical Resistance. University of Minnesota Press, 2017.

Singer, Phoenix A. Colonialism, Two-spirit identity, and the Logics of White Supremacy. 2020 https://files.libcom.org/files/two-spirit%20identity.pdf

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Diehl, Alessandra et al. “Social stigma, legal and public health barriers faced by the third gender phenomena in Brazil, India and Mexico: Travestis, hijras and muxes”. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, vol. 63, no. 5, 2017, pp. 389-399.

Fernandes, F. "Murder of Transvestites and 'pais de santo' in Brazil: Homophobia, transphobia and religious intolerance". Saùde em Debate, vol. 37, 2013, pp. 485-492.

Garcia, Marcos. "Identity as a 'patchwork': Aspects of identity among low-income Brazilian travestis". Culture, Health & Sexuality, vol. 11, 2009, pp. 611-623.

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Goel, Ina. "Hjira Communities of Delhi". Sexualities, vol. 19, issue 5, 2016, pp. 535-546.

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© Sovilla, Gaia

Email: gaia.maria09@gmail.com

To cite:

Sovilla, G. 2024. "Third Gender Cultures around the World", SEXTANT: Masculinities, Sexualities & Decolonialities, Padlet. Vol 2, Issue 1: 14.

SEXTANT: Masculinities, Sexualities &, Decolonialities

ISSN 2990-8124

University College Dublin, Ireland

https://sextantnotes.com

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SEXTANT is an online journal which navigates the lenses of masculinities, sexualities, and decolonialities.

SEXTANT aims to shift our understanding of these subjects while looking at the ways they intersect, especially in areas that are often overlooked.

SEXTANT features the work of students, activists, artists, and scholars, welcoming submissions in a wide variety of mediums, such as research papers, book reviews, creative writing, visual art, and digital projects.

.

/ˈsɛkst(ə)nt/
noun

an instrument with a graduated arc of 60° and a sighting mechanism, used for determining the angle between the horizon and a celestial body such as the Sun, the Moon, or a star, used in celestial navigation to determine placement.

SEXTANT: masculinities, sexualities and decolonialities
ISSN 2990-8124
University College Dublin
sextant@ucd.ie

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
SEXTANT is an online journal which navigates the lenses of masculinities, sexualities, and decolonialities. SEXTANT aims to shift our understanding of these subjects while looking at the ways they intersect, especially in areas that are often overlooked. SEXTANT features the work of students, activists, artists, and scholars, welcoming submissions in a wide variety of mediums,...