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First aircraft to study Mercury

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Nation

United States of America (USA)

Objective(s)

Mercury Flyby, Venus Flyby

Spacecraft

Mariner-73J / Mariner-J

Spacecraft Mass

1,100 pounds (502.9 kilograms)

Mission Design and Management

NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle

Atlas Centaur (AC-34 / Atlas 3D no. 5014D / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time

Nov. 3, 1973 / 05:45:00 UT

Launch Site

Cape Canaveral, Fla. / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments

1. Two Telescopes/Cameras

2. Infrared Radiometer

3. Ultraviolet Airglow Spectrometer

4. Ultraviolet Occultation Spectrometer

5. Magnetometer

6. Charged Particle Telescope

7. Plasma Analyzer

First spacecraft sent to study Mercury

First spacecraft to use the gravity of one planet (in this case, Venus) to reach another

First spacecraft to return data on a long-period comet

First mission to explore two planets (Mercury and Venus) during a single mission

First spacecraft to use a gravity assist to change its flight path

The first spacecraft to return to its target after an initial encounter

First probe to use the solar wind as a major means of spacecraft orientation during flight

Key Dates

January 1974: Returned data on Comet C/1973 E1 Kohoutek

Feb. 5, 1974: Closest flyby of Venus

March 29, 1974: First flyby of Mercury

Sept. 21, 1974: Second flyby of Mercury

March 16, 1975: Third and closest flyby of Mercury

March 24, 1975: Last contact with Mariner 10

This photo identifies the spacecraft's science instruments, which were used to study the atmospheric, surface and physical characteristics of Venus and Mercury. This was the sixth in the series of Mariner spacecraft that explored the inner planets beginning in 1962. Image Credit: NASA/JPL

In Depth: Mariner 10

Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft sent to the planet Mercury; the first mission to explore two planets (Mercury and Venus) during a single mission; the first to use a gravity assist to change its flight path; the first to return to its target after an initial encounter; and the first to use the solar wind as a major means of spacecraft orientation during flight.

The primary goal of the Mariner 10 was to study the atmosphere (if any), surface and physical characteristics of Mercury. Soon after leaving Earth orbit, the spacecraft returned striking photos of both Earth and the Moon as it sped to its first destination, Venus.

During the coast, there were numerous technical problems, including malfunctions in the high-gain antenna and the attitude control system. In January 1974, Mariner 10 successfully returned data (sans photographs) on Comet C/1973 E1 Kohoutek, the first time a spacecraft returned data on a long-period comet.

After midcourse corrections Nov. 13, 1973, and Jan. 21, 1974, Mariner 10 approached Venus for a gravity assist maneuver to send it toward Mercury. On Feb. 5, 1974, the spacecraft began returning images of Venus, the first picture showing the day-night terminator of the planet as a thin bright line. Overall, Mariner 10 returned 4,165 photos of Venus and collected important scientific data during its encounter. The closest flyby range was 3,584 miles (5,768 kilometers) at 17:01 UT Feb. 5, 1974.

Assisted by Venusian gravity, the spacecraft now headed to the innermost planet, which it reached after another course correction March 16, 1974. As Mariner 10 approached Mercury, photos began to show a very Moon-like surface with craters, ridges and chaotic terrain.

The spacecraft's magnetometers revealed a weak magnetic field. Radiometer readings suggested nighttime temperatures of minus 297 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 183 degrees Celsius) and maximum daytime temperatures of 369 degrees Fahrenheit (187 degrees Celsius).

The closest encounter came at 20:47 UT March 29, 1974, at a range of 437 miles (703 kilometers). An occultation experiment as the vehicle crossed behind the nightside of the planet indicated a lack of an atmosphere or ionosphere.

Leaving Mercury behind, the spacecraft looped around the Sun and headed back to its target, helped along by subsequent course corrections May 9, May 10 and July 2, 1974. Mariner 10 flew by Mercury once more on at 20:59 UT Sept. 21, 1974, at a range of about 29,869 miles (48,069 kilometers), adding imagery of the southern polar region. The spacecraft used solar pressure on its solar panels and high-gain antenna for attitude control.

Mariner 10 once again sped away from Mercury before a final and third encounter with Mercury, enabled by three maneuvers (Oct. 30, 1974, Feb. 13, 1975, and March 7, 1975), the last one actually to avoid impact with the planet. The third flyby, at 22:39 UT March 16, 1975, was the closest to Mercury, at a range of about 200 miles (327 kilometers).

Because of the failure of a tape recorder and restrictions in the rate of data reception, only the central quarter of each of 300 high-resolution images was received during this encounter.

Last contact with the spacecraft was at 12:21 UT March 24, 1975, after the spacecraft exhausted its supply of gas for attitude control.

Mariner 10 returned over 2,700 pictures during its three Mercury flybys that covered nearly half of the planet's surface. Some of the images showed detail as small as 328 feet (100 meters) wide. Perhaps the most impressive surface feature was the Caloris basin, characterized by a set of concentric rings and ridges and about 1,550 miles (2,500 kilometers) in diameter.

The mission was the last visit to Mercury by a robotic probe for more than 30 years.

Additional Resources

National Space Science Data Center Master Catalog: Mariner 10

Siddiqi, Asif A. Beyond Earth: A Chronicle of Deep Space Exploration, 1958-2016. NASA History Program Office, 2018.

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In Depth | Mariner 10 - NASA Solar System Exploration

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Nation United States of America (USA) Objective(s) Mercury Flyby, Venus Flyby Spacecraft Mariner-73J / Mariner-J Spacecraft Mass 1,100 pounds (502.9 kilograms) Mission Design and Management NASA / JPL Launch Vehicle Atlas Centaur (AC-34 / Atlas 3D no. 5014D / Centaur D-1A) Launch Date and Time Nov.

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MLK Assassination

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The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute

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At 6:05 P.M. on Thursday, 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was shot dead while standing on a balcony outside his second-floor room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. News of King's assassination prompted major outbreaks of racial violence, resulting in more than 40 deaths nationwide and extensive property damage in over 100 American cities. James Earl Ray, a 40-year-old escaped fugitive, later confessed to the crime and was sentenced to a 99-year prison term. During King's funeral a tape recording was played in which King spoke of how he wanted to be remembered after his death: "I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King, Jr., tried to give his life serving others " (King, " Drum Major Instinct, " 85).

King had arrived in Tennessee on Wednesday, 3 April, to prepare for a march the following Monday on behalf of striking Memphis sanitation workers. As he prepared to leave the Lorraine Motel for a dinner at the home of Memphis minister Samuel "Billy" Kyles, King stepped out onto the balcony of room 306 to speak with Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) colleagues standing in the parking area below. An assassin fired a single shot that caused severe wounds to the lower right side of his face. SCLC aides rushed to him, and Ralph Abernathy cradled King's head. Others on the balcony pointed across the street toward the rear of a boarding house on South Main Street where the shot seemed to have originated. An ambulance rushed King to St. Joseph's Hospital, where doctors pronounced him dead at 7:05 P.M.

President Lyndon B. Johnson called for a national day of mourning to be observed on 7 April. In the following days, public libraries, museums, schools, and businesses were closed, and the Academy Awards ceremony and numerous sporting events were postponed. On 8 April King's widow, Coretta Scott King, and other family members joined thousands of participants in a march in Memphis honoring King and supporting the sanitation workers. King's funeral service was held the following day in Atlanta at Ebenezer Baptist Church. It was attended by many of the nation's political and civil rights leaders, including Jacqueline Kennedy, Vice President Hubert Humphrey, and Ralph Bunche. Morehouse College President Benjamin Mays delivered the eulogy, predicting that King " would probably say that, if death had to come, I am sure there was no greater cause to die for than fighting to get a just wage for garbage collectors " (Mays, 9 April 1968). Over 100,000 mourners followed two mules pulling King's coffin through the streets of Atlanta. After another ceremony on the Morehouse campus, King's body was initially interred at South-View Cemetery. Eventually, it was moved to a crypt next to the Ebenezer Church at the King Center, an institution founded by King's widow.

Shortly after the assassination, a policeman discovered a bundle containing a 30.06 Remington rifle next door to the boarding house. The largest investigation in Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) history led its agents to an apartment in Atlanta. Fingerprints uncovered in the apartment matched those of James Earl Ray, a fugitive who had escaped from a Missouri prison in April 1967. FBI agents and police in Memphis produced further evidence that Ray had registered on 4 April at the South Main Street roominghouse and that he had taken a second-floor room near a common bathroom with a view of the Lorraine Motel.

The identification of Ray as a suspect led to an international manhunt. On 19 July 1968 Ray was extradited to the United States from Britain to stand trial. In a plea bargain, Tennessee prosecutors agreed in March 1969 to forgo seeking the death penalty when Ray pled guilty to murder charges. The circumstances leading to the plea later became a source of controversy, when Ray recanted his confession soon after being sentenced to a 99-year term in prison.

During the years following King's assassination, doubts about the adequacy of the case against Ray were fueled by revelations of the extensive surveillance of King by the FBI and other government agencies. Beginning in 1976 the House Select Committee on Assassinations, chaired by Representative Louis Stokes, re-examined the evidence concerning King's assassination, as well as that of President John F. Kennedy. The committee's final report suggested that Ray may have had co-conspirators. The report nonetheless concluded that there was no convincing evidence of government complicity in King's assassination.

After recanting his guilty plea, Ray continued to maintain his innocence, claiming to have been framed by a gun-smuggler he knew as " Raoul. " In 1993 Ray's lawyer, William F. Pepper, sought to build popular support to reopen Ray's case by staging a televised mock trial of Ray in which the " jury " found him not guilty. In 1997 members of King's family publicly supported Ray's appeal for a new trial, and King's son Dexter Scott King supported Ray's claims of innocence during a televised prison encounter. Despite this support Tennessee authorities refused to reopen the case, and Ray died in prison on 23 April 1998.

Even after Ray's death, conspiracy allegations continued to surface. In 1999, on behalf of King's widow and children, Pepper won a token civil verdict of wrongful death against Lloyd Jowers, owner of Jim's Grill, a restaurant across the street from the Lorraine Motel. Although the trial produced considerable testimony that contradicted the original case against Ray, the Justice Department announced in 2000 that its own internal investigation, launched in 1998 at the King family's request, had failed to find sufficient evidence to warrant a further investigation.

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Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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At 6:05 p.m. on Thursday, 4 April 1968, Martin Luther King was shot dead while standing on a balcony outside his second-floor room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. News of King's assassination prompted major outbreaks of racial violence, resulting in more than 40 deaths nationwide and extensive property damage in over 100 American cities.

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World Fair

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Expo 67, international exposition held in 1967 in Montréal, Québec, to celebrate Canada's centennial. Senator Mark Drouin of Québec first developed the idea of a world exhibition in Montréal to serve as a focal point for Canada's celebrations of its 100th birthday. Drouin and senator Sarto Fournier, former mayor of Montréal, first presented the idea to the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) in Paris, but that body initially decided that the 1967 world exhibition should be held in Moscow. In late 1962, however, the Soviet Union cancelled its plans. Montréal's mayor, Jean Drapeau, made a fresh presentation to the BIE, and the exhibition was awarded to Canada. That Expo 67 was sanctioned by the BIE virtually assured participation by many countries. The BIE also designated it as an exhibition of the "first category," the first to be held in North America. The most important aspect of this "first category" classification is that the exposition must cover the full range of activities of contemporary humanity.

Choice of the theme and the site of the exhibition

Legislation passed by the House of Commons in late 1962 established a crown company, the Canadian Corporation for the 1967 World Exhibition, to build and run the exposition. Expo 67 was to be a three-way partnership, with 50 percent participation by the federal government, 37.5 percent by the Québec government, and 12.5 percent by the city of Montréal. With time pressing, the three governments called a conference of educators, literary figures, and intellectuals at Montebello, Québec, to choose a central theme and evolve a philosophy for the exhibition. "Man and His World," the theme chosen at the Montebello conference, derived from the title of a book by the French author, poet, and aviator Antoine de Saint-Exupery, Terre des Hommes. The master plan was completed and submitted to Parliament on schedule in late 1963. By late 1966 the corporation listed approximately $320 million as capital-incurred costs of Expo 67 and $138 million as anticipated revenue, yielding an expected deficit of $82 million.

The choice of a site for the exhibition presented many difficulties, not the least of which was the shortage of time. Many proposals were studied, but it was finally decided that Île Ste-Hélène, a park in the centre of the St. Lawrence River linked to Montréal by the Jacques Cartier Bridge, would be expanded using silt and rock dredged from the bottom of the river. A new island, Île Notre-Dame, would also be created adjoining Île Ste-Hélène and alongside the St. Lawrence Seaway. River bottom sources of landfill proved insufficient, and for months parades of dump trucks bringing landfill moved to the site on a 24-hour-a-day basis. The cost of building the site rose from the original estimate of $10 million to $40 million.

Despite all the problems, the site was formally turned over to the exhibition corporation on July 1, 1964. As finally developed, it was divided into four main areas. The entrance at Cité du Havre was formerly known as Mackay Pier, a part of the port of Montréal. From the Cité du Havre, the new Concordia Bridge across the St. Lawrence led to the first exhibition area on the western section of Île Ste-Hélène. The third area was the Île Notre-Dame. The fourth, La Ronde, at the eastern end of Île Ste-Hélène, contained most of the amusement activities.

Buildings and exhibitions

The theme program was divided into five main groups: Man the Creator, Man the Explorer, Man the Producer, Man the Provider, and Man and the Community. These, in turn, were divided into subgroups. To implement the theme, the exhibition corporation invested almost $40 million in buildings strategically located around the site for the theme groups. For example, illustrating Man the Creator was an exhibit of approximately 160 paintings borrowed from museums and individuals worldwide and exhibitions of sculpture, photography, and industrial design. The social sciences and humanities were grouped under Man and the Community.

Pavilions

The nations that agreed to participate in Expo 67 either built their own pavilions or combined with other nations in regional pavilions. Among them, the Soviet Union spent approximately $15 million; Czechoslovakia, $10 million; and the United States, more than $9 million. The approaches taken by some of the world's greatest architects in designing the theme buildings and the national pavilions were varied and frequently breathtaking. Arthur Erickson's pyramidal Man in His Community was built from hexagonal frames of Douglas fir. Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod's German pavilion, a 15-story, multi-peaked tent of plastic, indicated how concept and materials might radically alter the design of buildings such as auditoriums. Buckminster Fuller's United States pavilion helped popularize the geodesic dome. The interiors of the pavilions also varied greatly. Some presented prosaic displays of consumer goods and machinery, while others imaginatively depicted their countries' history and cultural traditions. Montréal architect Moshe Safdie's revolutionary Habitat 67 was a graphic demonstration that by industrializing the building process, there are better and cheaper ways to house people. Expo 67 also witnessed the development of new approaches to viewing film. The multiscreen technique was omnipresent, transforming everyday sights and sounds into more vital images.

Expo 67 also encouraged participation by private industry and by special groups. In the latter category, seven Christian churches combined to present a Christian pavilion; others included the United Nations Association, the European Economic Community, the House of Judaism (sponsored by the Canadian Jewish community), and the Youth Pavilion.

Under BIE rules, each country taking part in the exhibition may send performing artists as a part of its participation. The World Arts Festival was thus able to include on its schedule such internationally known groups as the La Scala Opera Company from Milan, Sir Laurence Olivier's National Theatre from Great Britain, the New York Philharmonic, the Amsterdam Concertgebouw, and classical theatre from Greece. Expo 67 and the Montréal International Film Festival combined to present a festival of more than 30 feature films during August. Sports events included an international soccer tournament, a lacrosse tournament, and a European-American track meet. Spectacles such as a western rodeo and the first North American appearance of the Gendarmerie française rounded out the festivities at this, the crowning event of Canada's birthday celebration.

Impact

Some 120 governments were present at Expo 67 in 60 pavilions, and thousands of private exhibitors and sponsors participated in 53 private pavilions and through various facilities on the site. The exhibition site was planned to accommodate 26 million individual visits over a 183-day period. In fact, there were over 50 million paid admissions recorded from April 28 to October 27, not counting over 5 million admissions by performers, the press, official visitors, and employees. Expo 67 cost Canada, Québec, and Montréal $283 million to put together and to run. Independent economic studies indicated that the return to federal, provincial, and municipal taxpayers was almost double that amount. The increase in tourist revenues in 1967 directly related to Expo 67 was calculated at $480 million.
Maude-Emmanuelle Lambert
An earlier version of this entry was published by The Canadian Encyclopedia.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

Western architecture: After World War II

...several notable examples at Montreal's Expo 67: the West German pavilion by Frei Otto, the United States pavilion by R. Buckminster Fuller, and the startling Constructivist apartment house, Habitat 67, by the Israeli Moshe Safdie, in association with David, Barott, and Boulva, whose 158 precast-concrete apartment units were hoisted into...

Montreal: Evolution of the modern city

...transportation, and the hosting of Expo 67. Being on the international stage did not end with Expo 67. Montreal won the right to host the the 1976 Olympic Games, which, unfortunately, were a financial disaster for the city. The high cost of building and maintaining facilities, including the Olympic Stadium...

R. Buckminster Fuller: Life

...United States exhibition dome at Expo 67 in Montreal. One houses the tropical exhibit area of the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, Another, the Union Tank Car Company's dome, was built in 1958 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and, at the time of its construction, was the largest clear-span structure...

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Expo 67 | world's fair, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

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Expo 67, international exposition held in 1967 in Montréal, Québec, to celebrate Canada's centennial. Senator Mark Drouin of Québec first developed the idea of a world exhibition in Montréal to serve as a focal point for Canada's celebrations of its 100th birthday. Drouin and senator Sarto

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Malcom X Assassination

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A half-century ago, the war in Vietnam was escalating, the space race was in full swing, the Rolling Stones were on a world tour, the bravery of those who marched to Selma led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act, and the St. Louis Arch was completed. The United States occupied the Dominican Republic, Malcolm X was assassinated, NASA's Mariner 4 flew by Mars, race riots erupted in Watts, California, and Muhammad Ali defeated Sonny Liston. Let me take you 50 years into the past now, for a photographic look back at the year 1965.

View this page Hints: full screen. Skip to the next and previous photo by typing j/k or ←/→.

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A half-century ago, the war in Vietnam was escalating, the space race was in full swing, the Rolling Stones were on a world tour, the bravery of those who marched to Selma led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act, and the St. Louis Arch was completed.

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Cuban Missile Crisis

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The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 was a direct and dangerous confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and was the moment when the two superpowers came closest to nuclear conflict. The crisis was unique in a number of ways, featuring calculations and miscalculations as well as direct and secret communications and miscommunications between the two sides. The dramatic crisis was also characterized by the fact that it was primarily played out at the White House and the Kremlin level with relatively little input from the respective bureaucracies typically involved in the foreign policy process.

After the failed U.S. attempt to overthrow the Castro regime in Cuba with the Bay of Pigs invasion, and while the Kennedy administration planned Operation Mongoose, in July 1962 Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev reached a secret agreement with Cuban premier Fidel Castro to place Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter any future invasion attempt. Construction of several missile sites began in the late summer, but U.S. intelligence discovered evidence of a general Soviet arms build-up on Cuba, including Soviet IL-28 bombers, during routine surveillance flights, and on September 4, 1962, President Kennedy issued a public warning against the introduction of offensive weapons into Cuba. Despite the warning, on October 14 a U.S. U-2 aircraft took several pictures clearly showing sites for medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) under construction in Cuba. These images were processed and presented to the White House the next day, thus precipitating the onset of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Kennedy summoned his closest advisers to consider options and direct a course of action for the United States that would resolve the crisis. Some advisers-including all the Joint Chiefs of Staff-argued for an air strike to destroy the missiles, followed by a U.S. invasion of Cuba; others favored stern warnings to Cuba and the Soviet Union. The President decided upon a middle course. On October 22, he ordered a naval "quarantine" of Cuba. The use of "quarantine" legally distinguished this action from a blockade, which assumed a state of war existed; the use of "quarantine" instead of "blockade" also enabled the United States to receive the support of the Organization of American States.

That same day, Kennedy sent a letter to Khrushchev declaring that the United States would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba, and demanded that the Soviets dismantle the missile bases already under construction or completed, and return all offensive weapons to the U.S.S.R. The letter was the first in a series of direct and indirect communications between the White House and the Kremlin throughout the remainder of the crisis.

The President also went on national television that evening to inform the public of the developments in Cuba, his decision to initiate and enforce a "quarantine," and the potential global consequences if the crisis continued to escalate. The tone of the President's remarks was stern, and the message unmistakable and evocative of the Monroe Doctrine: "It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union." The Joint Chiefs of Staff announced a military readiness status of DEFCON 3 as U.S. naval forces began implementation of the quarantine and plans accelerated for a military strike on Cuba.

On October 24, Khrushchev responded to Kennedy's message with a statement that the U.S. "blockade" was an "act of aggression" and that Soviet ships bound for Cuba would be ordered to proceed. Nevertheless, during October 24 and 25, some ships turned back from the quarantine line; others were stopped by U.S. naval forces, but they contained no offensive weapons and so were allowed to proceed. Meanwhile, U.S. reconnaissance flights over Cuba indicated the Soviet missile sites were nearing operational readiness. With no apparent end to the crisis in sight, U.S. forces were placed at DEFCON 2-meaning war involving the Strategic Air Command was imminent. On October 26, Kennedy told his advisors it appeared that only a U.S. attack on Cuba would remove the missiles, but he insisted on giving the diplomatic channel a little more time. The crisis had reached a virtual stalemate.

That afternoon, however, the crisis took a dramatic turn. ABC News correspondent John Scali reported to the White House that he had been approached by a Soviet agent suggesting that an agreement could be reached in which the Soviets would remove their missiles from Cuba if the United States promised not to invade the island. While White House staff scrambled to assess the validity of this "back channel" offer, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a message the evening of October 26, which meant it was sent in the middle of the night Moscow time. It was a long, emotional message that raised the specter of nuclear holocaust, and presented a proposed resolution that remarkably resembled what Scali reported earlier that day. "If there is no intention," he said, "to doom the world to the catastrophe of thermonuclear war, then let us not only relax the forces pulling on the ends of the rope, let us take measures to untie that knot. We are ready for this."

Although U.S. experts were convinced the message from Khrushchev was authentic, hope for a resolution was short-lived. The next day, October 27, Khrushchev sent another message indicating that any proposed deal must include the removal of U.S. Jupiter missiles from Turkey. That same day a U.S. U-2 reconnaissance jet was shot down over Cuba. Kennedy and his advisors prepared for an attack on Cuba within days as they searched for any remaining diplomatic resolution. It was determined that Kennedy would ignore the second Khrushchev message and respond to the first one. That night, Kennedy set forth in his message to the Soviet leader proposed steps for the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba under supervision of the United Nations, and a guarantee that the United States would not attack Cuba.

It was a risky move to ignore the second Khrushchev message. Attorney General Robert Kennedy then met secretly with Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, and indicated that the United States was planning to remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey anyway, and that it would do so soon, but this could not be part of any public resolution of the missile crisis. The next morning, October 28, Khrushchev issued a public statement that Soviet missiles would be dismantled and removed from Cuba.

The crisis was over but the naval quarantine continued until the Soviets agreed to remove their IL-28 bombers from Cuba and, on November 20, 1962, the United States ended its quarantine. U.S. Jupiter missiles were removed from Turkey in April 1963.

The Cuban missile crisis stands as a singular event during the Cold War and strengthened Kennedy's image domestically and internationally. It also may have helped mitigate negative world opinion regarding the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Two other important results of the crisis came in unique forms. First, despite the flurry of direct and indirect communications between the White House and the Kremlin-perhaps because of it-Kennedy and Khrushchev, and their advisers, struggled throughout the crisis to clearly understand each others' true intentions, while the world hung on the brink of possible nuclear war. In an effort to prevent this from happening again, a direct telephone link between the White House and the Kremlin was established; it became known as the "Hotline." Second, having approached the brink of nuclear conflict, both superpowers began to reconsider the nuclear arms race and took the first steps in agreeing to a nuclear Test Ban Treaty.

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Milestones: 1961-1968 - Office of the Historian

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One navy man welcomes another as Lovell and brings his crew aboard a much larger ship. Lovell is now in Hawaii saluting for the National Anthem after Richard Nixon awarded him and his crew the Medal of Freedom. The Apollo 13 crew also had a tickertape parade celebrated for them in Chicago unplanned because of their successful mission.

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About five hours before splashing down into the water, the crew of Apollo 13 jettisoned their service module for the first time and saw how much damage was caused by the exploding oxygen tank. A whole external panel was blasted away. Their ship was still up right because of the flotation balloons and inflatable collars.

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In Jim Lovells house, the first three men on the moon watch Tv coverage of Apollo 13 with the family of the man who would have been the fifth man.

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A priest, Father Donald Raish, leads Jim Lovells wife and 8 other astronaut wives and friends in a communion at Jim Lovells home.

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Deke Slayton has a makeshift lithium hydroxide air filter that the Apollo 13 crew has to build to filter poisonous carbon dioxide out of their spacecraft cockpit in order to survive.

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At 8:24 in the evening of April 13, 1970, the Apollo 13 crew began its last TV transmission to Earth. Only forty-three minutes later one of the oxygen tanks exploded.

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Apollo 13's target on the moon was the Fra Mauro highlands near the western edge of the moon. Jim Lovell at home is looking at the moon's surface with his wife and kids for familiarity.

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Jack Swigert the Apollo 13's backup command module pilot was promoted to the prime crew when a main pilot Ken Mattingly got German measles.

Quote #10 - "The flight plan called for Swigert to remain in lunar orbit while his crewmates descended to the surface.

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Jim Lovells fourth and final trip to space was the Apollo 13, the third lunar landing mission. He is answering reporters' questions after test-piloting the training vehicle.

Quote #9 - "At Ellington Air Force Base in Houston he answers reporters' questions after test-piloting the lunar landing training vehicle."

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Fred Haise, a rookie astronaut and leading candidate for one of the lunar landing missions is practicing retrieving important samples on a moon-like patch of ground at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

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The Apollo 8 was still orbiting the moon on Christmas Day while someone rolls up to the Lovells' house to deliver a card from, " the Man on the Moon."

Quote #8 - "Later that day, Marilyn took Jeffrey, Susan, Barbara, and Jay to church, wearing her min in the mild Houston weather." Page 179

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Jim Lovells wife and three children are watching the Saturn 5 Booster sending the Apollo 8 crew into orbit towards the moon.

Quote #7 - "Marilyn Lovell and three of her children watch as the Saturn 5 booster leaves the ground on December 21, 1968, launching the crew of Apollo 7 toward the moon." Page 179

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Not even 2 years after the fire in Apollo 1, Jim Lovell, Bill Anders, and Frank Borman were chosen to fly the Apollo 8. This was the first mission of human beings being able to orbit the moon.

Quote #6 - "When the mission was over, all three astronauts were named Time Magazine's Men of the year." Page 179

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On January 27, 1967, a fire started in the Apollo 1 spacecraft during one of their rehearsals. This fire caused the temperatures in the cockpit to go over 1,400 degrees. This fire killed White, Chaffee, and Grissom.

Quote #5 - "The temperature inside the cockpit was thought to have climbed to over 1,400 degrees." Page 178

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Mercury, Gemini veteran Gus Grissom, Gemini veteran Ed White, and rookie pilot Roger Chaffee were chosen for the first Apollo mission.

Quote #4 - "It was a mission they would never get to fly." Page 178

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Jim Lovell and Buzz Aldrin are carrying out their final flight of the ten-mission Gemini series. The aircraft that was used is called the "Wasp."

Quote #3 - "Lovell and Aldrin aboard the aircraft carrier Wasp after the splashdown of Gemini 12, the final flight in the ten-mission Gemini series." Page 177

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In November 1966, Jim was back in the Gemini 12 but in the commanders seat going back into space. He was in orbit for five days with Buzz Aldrin who was in the right seat.

Quote #2 - "For this fight, Lovell was in the left-hand seat, the commander's seat; Buzz Aldrin was in the right." Page 177

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Jim Lovell and his partner, Commander Frank Borman set a record of space endurance by being sealed inside Gemini 7 for two weeks straight. They also achieved the first-ever randevous.

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Jim Lovell is rehearsing for his first trip into space in the Gemini Stimulator in 1965

Quote #1 - "In the right-hand seat of a Gemini simulator in 1965, Lovell rehearses for his first trip into space." Page 176

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Jim Lovell, who was an Annapolis graduate and a Navy test pilot as well. He was one of the nine men to be chosen in 1962 to fly in the upcoming Gemini and Apollo programs.

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Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. Apollo 13. Houghton Mifflin, 2000.