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Information Creation as a Process - October 25, 2022 at 15.49.21

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Information Has Value - October 26, 2022 at 08.37.17

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Searching as Strategic Exploration - October 26, 2022 at 08.29.59

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Scholarship as Conversation - October 26, 2022 at 08.51.21

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Concept Description
Research is iterative and depends upon asking increasingly complex or new questions whose answers in turn develop additional questions or lines of inquiry in any field.
Experienced researchers usually see research as a process focused on problems or questions within a discipline, or between disciplines, that are unanswered or unresolved, and recognize research as part of a collaborative effort to extend knowledge. Many times, this process includes points of disagreement where debate and dialogue work to deepen the conversations around knowledge. The spectrum of inquiry ranges from asking simple questions that depend upon basic recapitulation of knowledge to increasingly sophisticated abilities to refine research questions, use more advanced research methods, and explore more diverse disciplinary perspectives.

Experienced researchers also understand that research is rarely a simple, straightforward search for one "perfect" answer or source; they are able to accept ambiguity and recognize the need for adaptability and flexibility when they search.

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Research as Inquiry - October 25, 2022 at 16.04.45

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Introduction to Authority is Constructed and Contextual

Authority is Constructed and Contextual is one of six core information literacy concepts highlighted in the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education (ACRL, 2016). For a quick introduction to Authority is Constructed and Contextual, watch the following video:

The transcript of this video is available here: Authority is Constructed and Contextual.

Concept Description
Information resources reflect their creators' expertise and credibility, and are evaluated based on the information need and the context in which the information will be used. Authority is constructed in that various communities may recognize different types of authority. It is contextual in that the information need may help to determine the level of authority required.
Not all information sources have the same level of authority or credibility. A key factor that contributes to the credibility of a source is the authority of the information creator. Authority could be based on many factors, such as education (having an advanced degree), experience (having participated in an event), or social position (having a certain types of jobs). This authority is often "constructed" over a period of time.

Another key factor in identifying authoritative sources is the context in which the information will be used. In some situations, certain types of sources may be considered more authoritative than others. Different "communities," which could be different disciplines, may have different standards for what is considered to be authoritative. Within a discipline or field, there will likely be established authorities (scholars, journals, databases) and identifying these authorities can be a key part of joining a disciplinary community. At the same time, it is important to maintain skepticism in relation to such authorities, because systematic biases may mean that some voices may be unfairly privileged over others.

For students, a key part of the source evaluation process should be considering what sources will be authoritative within the context. An understanding of this concept enables novice learners to critically examine all evidence-be it a short blog post or a peer-reviewed conference proceeding-and to ask relevant questions about origins, context, and suitability for the current information need.

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Authority is Constructed and Contextual - October 25, 2022 at 13.43.46

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Source Evaluation Myths - November 07, 2022 at 09.57.38

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Interpreting a Research or Inquiry-Based Activity

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This is intended to be a quick activity to help ensure that students have a clear understanding of the expectations for a research assignment, and to provide the instructor with an opportunity to address any misunderstandings that students might have about the purpose or requirements for the assignment. This is recommended as a low-stakes activity to be used in the early stages of a research or inquiry-based project.

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Decoding the Disciplines - Pedagogical framework for teaching and learning

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Most instructors notice places in their courses where students find it difficult to learn. Decoding the Disciplines is a theory of pedagogy with principles for identifying where students get stuck (“bottlenecks” to learning), and asking questions to “decode” an expert’s mental process, which allows us to better model the “critical thinking” of a discipline for students, and provide directed practice and feedback, and to better motivate and assess student learning.

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The Writing Center * University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What this handout is about

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well:

1. Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off-reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.

2. Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That's also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

"Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics," or "In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly ..."

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled "Key Terms" for more information.)

"Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution", or "Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin's."

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

"You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as 'the housefly garment industry' or is it just a home-based craft?"

Style Tips

These are the instructor's comments about writing expectations:

"Be concise", "Write effectively", or "Argue furiously."

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

"Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung's death."

The assignment's parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment
Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience?

What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss-they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren't sure of the assignment's goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback.

Given your instructor's efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.
Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs
Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words
Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

define-give the subject's meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject's meaning

describe-provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)

explain-give reasons why or examples of how something happened

illustrate-give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject

summarize-briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject

trace-outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form

research-gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words
Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

compare-show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)

contrast-show how two or more things are dissimilar

apply-use details that you've been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation

cause-show how one event or series of events made something else happen

relate-show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words
Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

assess-summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something

prove, justify-give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth

evaluate, respond-state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons

support-give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)

synthesize -put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different-you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper

analyze-determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important

argue-take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose
As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course-ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?

In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?

What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.

How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Who is your audience?

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

Tone means the "voice" of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium-you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful-you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.

The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, "First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw." You also do not say, "This guy found some aliens. The end." Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You'll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience.

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a "thesis" or a "claim."

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: "First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon." Instead, you could say, "Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association." Or, "From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived."

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn't have to say "argument" anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument.

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors-the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor's preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly-see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use "I" and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style ("art historians like wacky creativity," or "political scientists are boring and just give facts") and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato-just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style.

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment's parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples-and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help-as soon as possible.

Tricks that don't work
Your instructors are not fooled when you:

spend more time on the cover page than the essay-graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.

use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length-these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what's possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.

use a paper from another class that covered "sort of similar" material. Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation. Ask the instructor-it can't hurt.

get all wacky and "creative" before you answer the question. Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License.
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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Understanding Assignments - The Writing Center * University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What this handout is about The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and ... Continued

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Carmen Course Modules | Ohio State University Libraries

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Explore our collection of Carmen modules and assignment support that you can download and utilize in your courses. Resources can be used as-is or adapted to fit your context. These resources are intended to teach your students the essentials on topics such as source evaluation or advanced searching.

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How information literacy can be used for misinformation and why we need something new.

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Information literacy in the age of internet conspiracism | Journal of Information Literacy

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The 21st century has been riven by information challenges, from mis/disinformation campaigns, fake news, and propaganda to online conspiracy theories. At a time when more people are literate than perhaps at any other time in history, we still see the rise and viral global spread of unhinged conspiracy theories across the web. The existence of such crowd-sourced conspiracy theories presents unique challenges for scholars and teachers of information literacy (IL), who face intractable challenges in inculcating healthy information practices. This is especially visible when we compare current IL frameworks with principles espoused within these conspiratorial movements. The online conspiracy theory QAnon demonstrates a particularly thorny problem for IL efforts because QAnon operates according to many of the same principles espoused in literacy frameworks. Since its inception in 2017, QAnon has become one of the most complex online conspiracy theories precisely because it relies on a complex set of informational practices enacted by thousands of followers known as anons. In this article, I argue that internet conspiracies such as QAnon weaponise IL through incitement to “do your own research”. I apply a qualitative approach to compare established principles advocated by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) to social media posts by Q and his anons to demonstrate the striking similarity in orientation toward questions of authority, context, literacy and research. In my analysis, we need new models for IL to combat conspiracism through a better understanding of the political contours of information ecosystems precisely because these similarities preclude effective engagement, and I conclude by gesturing toward future interventions. 

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Middendorf, J., & Pace, D. (2004). Decoding the disciplines: A model for helping students learn disciplinary ways of thinking. New directions for teaching and learning, 2004(98), 1-12.

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Winkelmes, M. A. (2019). Why it works: Understanding the concepts behind transparency in learning and teaching. Transparent design in higher education teaching and leadership, 17-35.

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Lang, J. M. (2021). Small teaching: Everyday lessons from the science of learning. John Wiley & Sons.

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No need to go big: Teaching Framework concepts with small teaching | Hammons | College & Research Libraries News

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No need to go big: Teaching Framework concepts with small teaching

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Simmons, M. H. (2005). Librarians as disciplinary discourse mediators: Using genre theory to move toward critical information literacy. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 5(3), 297-311.