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Lascaux cave painting  17,000-15,000 BCE

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Estimated to be made around 17,000-15,000 B.C.E. These cave paintings were made near the Montignac Village in France. The paintings represent mainly large animals. The Cro-Magnons are believed to have created these paintings during the Paleolithic Era. The artists who made these cave paintings used local minerals such as iron oxide, manganese oxide, charcoal and calcite. It is said that the purpose of such paintings were for rituals, to celebrate successful hunts, or to help others understand the world around them.

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A Stonehenge is a prehistoric megalithic structure located on Salisbury Plain in England. The people who built this structure are early Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of ancient Britain. These structures are believed to be built between 3000-1520 B.C.E. The materials used to build the Stonehenge include sarsen stones and bluestones. It is unknown as to why the Stonehenge was built, but many archaeologists believe it was an area for religious ceremonies linked to astronomical events.

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Sumerian worshipper statues, also known as votive figures, were created between 2900–2350 BCE during the Early Dynastic phase of Mesopotamia. Primarily found in temples like that of the god Abu at Tell Asmar (modern-day Iraq), these figures, crafted from limestone, alabaster, and gypsum, showcase skilled artistry. Their purpose was to serve as offerings, representing perpetual prayer on behalf of the donors, demonstrating devotion even when the worshippers were not physically present.

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The Code of Hammurabi was written about 1754 BCE by King Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon. It was inscribed in the ancient city of Babylon in Mesopotamia, now modern Iraq. Hammurabi himself was the author and supervisor of this important code of laws. The code was carved on a large black diorite stone stele. This durable material was chosen such that the laws would last for centuries. The code was written in cuneiform script, which was used in Mesopotamia. Its main purpose was to apply justice and maintain order in the Babylonian empire.

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The Ishtar Gate was constructed around 575 BCE during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II. It was one of the main entrances into the inner city of Babylon, located in present-day Iraq. The gate is named after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love and war. King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled the Neo-Babylonian Empire, commissioned its construction. The materials used included glazed bricks in vibrant blues and yellows, which featured reliefs of dragons and bulls symbolizing the gods Marduk and Adad. The Ishtar Gate served both a religious and ceremonial purpose, showcasing the grandeur of Babylon and honoring its deities. It also demonstrated the power and wealth of the empire to all who entered the city.

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King Solomon’s Second Temple was constructed around 516 BCE after the return of the Jewish people from Babylonian exile. It was built on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, in the same location as the original temple built by King Solomon. Although King Solomon built the First Temple, the Second Temple was commissioned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, with support from the Persian king Darius I. The materials used in its construction included stone, wood, and precious metals. The Second Temple served as the central place of worship for the Jewish people, where rituals, sacrifices, and religious festivals were conducted. Its purpose was to restore religious life and national identity after years of exile and foreign rule. The Second Temple became a powerful symbol of faith, unity, and continuity for the Jewish community.

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Hatshepsut's Mortuary Temple 1479-1458 BCE.

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Hatshepsut's Mortuary Temple was built around 1479–1458 BCE during the 18th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. It is located at Deir el-Bahari, near the Valley of the Kings on the west bank of the Nile River, across from modern-day Luxor. The temple was commissioned by Queen Hatshepsut, one of Egypt’s few female pharaohs, to honor her reign and secure her legacy. The architect of the temple was Senenmut, Hatshepsut’s trusted advisor and chief steward. The materials used included limestone and sandstone, carefully carved and decorated with detailed reliefs and statues. The purpose of the temple was to serve as a place for offerings and ceremonies for Hatshepsut after her death, and to honor the gods, especially Amun. It also reinforced her divine right to rule and celebrated her achievements as pharaoh.

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The famous bust of Nefertiti was created around 1345 BCE during the 18th Dynasty of ancient Egypt. It is named after Queen Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten. The bust was discovered in Amarna, the capital city established by Akhenaten, which is located in modern-day Egypt. It was crafted by the sculptor Thutmose, whose workshop contained the bust when it was found. The materials used include limestone coated with layers of painted stucco to create lifelike features. The purpose of the bust was likely to serve as a model for other representations of the queen or as an artistic tribute to her beauty and status.

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The Great Bath was built during approximately 2600–1900 BCE in the mature stage of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is located in the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro, in present-day Pakistan. It is referred to as the Great Bath due to its large, open-air bathing area in the middle of a complex of rooms and corridors. The specific architect or author cannot be identified, since the civilization did not leave any written records that have been fully deciphered. The materials used to construct the Great Bath were baked bricks, gypsum mortar, and bitumen for sealing. Its purpose was likely ritual or ceremonial bathing, and it could have been associated with religious or purification rituals. The Great Bath is one of the oldest known public water tanks in history, showing the sophisticated urban planning and engineering of the Indus Valley civilization.

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The Toreador Fresco was created circa 1450–1400 BCE during the height of the Minoan civilization. It is named after its depiction of bull-leaping, a ritual or maybe sporting activity involving acrobats and a huge bull. The fresco was discovered in the Palace of Knossos on the island of Crete, a major hub of Minoan culture. The original artist remains unknown, as Minoan paintings were not signed. The fresco was painted in the buon fresco technique, whereby pigments are applied to wet plaster, such that the colors become a part of the surface of the wall. The materials involved are natural mineral pigments and plaster that are smeared on palace walls. The role of the Toreador Fresco was likely both symbolic and ornamental, perhaps illustrating religious ritual, social standing, or mythological subjects pertaining to bull worship in Minoan civilization.

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The Mask of Agamemnon was crafted around 1600–1500 BCE in the Mycenaean period of ancient Greece. It bore the name of the mythic Greek king Agamemnon, but the mask predates his alleged times and is unrelated to him. The mask was found at the ancient Mycenae site in a royal tomb, Grave Circle A. It was excavated by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1876. The mask is hammered gold, created through a process known as repoussé, where the metal is formed by hammering from the back side. Its purpose was funerary, draped over the face of a deceased noble or king to honor and guard their image in death. The Mask of Agamemnon is one of the most famous objects of ancient Greece, symbolizing the wealth and craftsmanship of the Mycenaean civilization.

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The amphora was a type of vessel that was originally manufactured around 1500 BCE and utilized in the ancient Greek and Roman periods. The term amphora is taken from the Greek for "two-handled jar." Amphorae were mass-produced in Mediterranean nations, notably Greece, Rome, and Etruria. They were made by trained ceramic artists and potters, and some of them, like Exekias, became well known for signing their vessels. Made of terracotta clay, amphorae were shaped on the potters' wheel and then fired in kilns to make them durable. These jars were mainly utilized in commodity storage and transportation of items such as wine, olive oil, and grains. In addition to being functional, amphorae were extremely decorative and found use even in a burial or ceremonial context, or as awards for winners in sporting events.

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The Discobolus, or "Discus Thrower," is one of the most famous ancient Greek statues, created around 460–450 BCE during the Classical period. Named after the Greek words "diskos" (discus) and "ballein" (to throw), referring to the athlete's action, the statue was originally created in Athens, Greece, which was the cultural and artistic hub at that time. Myron the sculptor is known to be the artist who crafted the original bronze form of the Discobolus. Even though the original bronze is lost, most Roman marble imitations remain to this day. The Discobolus was created through the use of bronze casting methods, whereas the imitations were later carved out of marble. The Discobolus was created to honor athletic victory, bodily perfection, and the gracefulness of movement, which were Greek ideals of balance and harmony in the human form.

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The Parthenon is a celebrated ancient Greek temple constructed between 447 and 432 BCE during the Classical era of Athens. It was so called after "Parthenos," or "virgin," for Athena Parthenos, the goddess to whom the temple was dedicated. The Parthenon was built on the Acropolis of Athens, a sacred hill overlooking the city. It was ordered by the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates, with the sculptor Phidias in charge, who had built the colossal statue of Athena which originally stood inside it. It was built entirely from nearly white Pentelic marble, which is famous for its unspotted appearance and fine texture. Its purpose was religious and political. It was a temple to Athena, a symbol of Athenian power and pride, and a treasury for the Delian League. The Parthenon remains one of the most enduring symbols of ancient Greek architecture, art, and democracy.

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The Laocoön and His Sons is an antique sculpture that has been estimated to have been made in the 1st century BCE, during the Hellenistic period. It is also known by the name of its subject, Laocoön, a Trojan priest in Greek mythology, who with his sons was attacked by sea serpents. It was discovered in Rome, near where Emperor Titus's palace used to stand, in 1506. There are ancient reports that it was created by three Rhodian artists: Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus. The sculpture was constructed using marble, dramatic detail, emotion, and movement typical of Hellenistic style. The purpose of the sculpture was to depict a renowned mythological event, most likely designed to function as a warning against defying the gods and to evoke powerful emotional reactions in onlookers. The Laocoön is now prized today for technical mastery and emotional power and is employed as a model by Renaissance and modern artists.

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The Etruscans were an earlier civilization, which flourished in central Italy from 900 BCE to 100 BCE, before being absorbed into the Roman Republic. The "Etruscan" name is taken from the Latin name Etrusci or Tusci, under which the Romans called this advanced civilization. Etruscan civilization was centered in what is now Tuscany and its major cities were Tarquinia, Veii, and Cerveteri. Though much Etruscan art is anonymous, they used skilled local builders and craftsmen, often in Greek style. They used terracotta, bronze, and stone, particularly for sculpture, tombs, and places of worship. The Etruscans created art and architecture mainly for religious, burial, and civic purposes, particularly lavishly decorated tombs and temples. Their culture greatly influenced the formation of early Roman religion, architecture, and city planning, leaving a lasting legacy in the history of Italy.

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Augustus of Primaporta is a Roman marble statue that was made c. 20 BCE when the early Roman Empire was beginning. It was named after where it was excavated, which is Primaporta, an area of Rome, Italy. The statue portrays Emperor Augustus, Rome's first emperor, in a greatly idealized fashion. The original artist is unknown, but most likely it was made by an accomplished Roman sculptor who followed Greek Classical influences. The statue was a marble one over 2 meters tall with Augustus dressed in military regalia with an arm raised, connoting power and leadership. The function of both was political and propaganda in the sense that each sought to depict Augustus as a strong, divine, and heroic ruler who brought peace and stability across Rome. Augustus of Primaporta remains perhaps the quintessential representation of Roman imperial art and propaganda.

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The Pantheon is a famous ancient temple in Rome, constructed in 126 CE during Emperor Hadrian's time. Its Greek etymology "all gods" is an expression of its initial construction as a temple to all the Roman deities. The Pantheon lies at the center of Rome, Italy, upon two earlier constructed temples by Agrippa. Although the original architect is unknown, the reconstruction and final appearance are credited to Apollodorus of Damascus, one of the favorite architects of Hadrian. The building was composed of a combination of marble, brick, and concrete, the most famous feature of which is the massive concrete dome and central oculus. The role of the Pantheon was both religious and symbolic, serving as a shrine and a monument to Roman engineering skill and imperial authority. It came to be converted into a Christian church, which meant that it survived to the present day.

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The Flavian Amphitheatre, or the Colosseum, was built between 72 and 80 CE during the reign of Emperors Vespasian and Titus. The building was initially named after a colossal statue near it of Nero and later the entire structure was known by the same name. The Colosseum lies in the central part of Rome, Italy, and became one of the most beautiful architectural masterpieces of the Roman Empire. While the architects' names are not very famous, it was planned by Roman engineers and laborers, including slaves. It was constructed with stone, tuff, and concrete, and travertine limestone was used to construct the exterior part. It was planned to stage public events, such as gladiator battles, hunts, and simulated sea battles, to entertain the Roman people and display imperial power. It is still today a powerful symbol of ancient Roman culture, society, and engineering.

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One of the world's most renowned monuments, Hagia Sophia, was built between 532-537 AD by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. The "Hagia Sophia" is referred to as "Holy Wisdom" in Greek because initially it was a cathedral that was constructed in Constantinople, now Istanbul, Turkey. The architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus designed the grand architecture of Hagia Sophia. Hagia Sophia enjoys a reputation for its remarkable architecture and engineering. The building's structure was made of marble, stone, and brick topped by a giant dome that was a marvel in its time. Hagia Sophia's purpose was to serve as the capital church of the Byzantine Empire and symbolize the power and reach of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Over the centuries, Hagia Sophia passed through several stages, such as its conversion into a mosque upon the Ottoman victory in 1453 and into a museum in 1935. Hagia Sophia today continues to represent the great history and cultural wealth of the region, which receives millions of visitors every year.

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The Justinian Mosaic is a famous work of Byzantine art found in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, and thought to have been done sometime around 547 AD. The mosaic portrays Emperor Justinian I, surrounded by courtiers and clergy, and is regarded as one of the greatest works of art of the Byzantine period. The Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna's UNESCO World Heritage site, bears witness to the rich cultural heritage of Ravenna. The artist behind the creation of the mosaic is unknown, but it is credited to the Byzantine artists who embellished the basilica. The mosaic consists of small glass, stone, and gold tiles, which were laid carefully to create the image with intricate and detailed designs. Justinian Mosaic must have likely been made to express the authority and power of the emperor and his connection to the church. The mosaic is a beautiful work of Byzantine art, and it provides revealing insight into the politics, culture, and artwork of the time.