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my initial thought

2 1 6 10

http://www.textiletoolbox.com/media/uploads/resources-pdf/ted-the-ten-cards-english.pdf

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Margo Selby - weave structure and process of making

Maria Sigma - sustainability weave process, wool, weavers
https://www.mariasigma.com/philosophy

Michelle Baggerman - "DESIGN RESEARCH BETWEEN TECH AND CRAFT FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE"
https://www.bureaubaggerman.nl/about.html

Laetetia Forst - Design for Disassembly
https://www.arts.ac.uk/research/ual-staff-researchers/laetitia-forst

Hella Jongerius - 3d weave technologies to flexible buildings
http://www.jongeriuslab.com/work/new-book-interlace-woven-research

Samira Boon - 3D weave
http://samiraboon.com/home/

Scalett Yang - biodegradable and technologies for fashion using algae
https://scarletty.com/decomposition-of-materiality

Carolyn Raff - biosequins
https://carolynraff.de/circular-oceans

Philippa Brock - 3d forms weave, jacquard towards product development
https://theweaveshed.org/about/

Miriam Ribul - Material Activism
https://www.miriamribul.com

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Dissolvable Dress
https://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/id/eprint/293/

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Random interesting sites that I found alongside

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Random interesting sites that I found alongside

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http://www.emiliegiles.co.uk/About-Me E-textiles for self expression

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Upcycle (link to able to separate at the end of life)

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Upcycle (link to able to separate at the end of life)

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https://himanerad.blogspot.com/2014/10/textiles-4-textiles.html
textiles 4 Textiles Debuts Machine That Sorts Fabrics by Type & Color

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https://textileapex.blogspot.com/2018/12/what-is-textile-waste-definition.html

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Introduction

Waste is a very common term and we create different types of wastes in our daily life. But have you ever heard about textile or clothing waste? If not then you must go through this article. Or if yes then you should be clarified about the term and its type.

Waste is a kind of thing that you don’t want to produce but produce unwantedly. It has a great economic impact from the production process to the consumer end. When you use a product for a long time then it becomes a favourite item for you and you don’t want that it becomes a wastage. Such as your favourite underwear someday becomes a piece of waste unwantedly. In the same way, wastage is a big term for the manufacturers like textile or clothing manufacturers in their production process. When the production quantity is large then the amount of wastage will be high.

Definition of Textile waste

Wastage or waste can be defined as such kind of materials that don’t come into use after the end of the process or the basic use of a product. It is one kind of worthless or useless or defective material.

So textile wastage can be defined as the material that becomes unusable or worthless after the end of the production process of any textile product. Wastage produce in every stage of the textile manufacturing process such as spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, finishing and clothing.

Textile wastage is a great threat for any textile industry and the environment as well. When fibre bales are processed through the blow room section in a spinning mill a huge amount of cotton wastage produces. So it is an economic threat. In a dyeing factory tons of fabric dyed and tons of wastewater is produced which is a great threat to the environment.

Types of Textile waste

Textile wastage can come from different textile manufacturing departments like spinning, weaving, dyeing, finishing, garments manufacturing and even from the consumer end. Now we will know about the details from the below points.

Spinning waste

Cotton fibre bale contains a lot of wastages such as foreign particles, dust, seeds, short fibres etc. and so when processed through different sections of a spinning mill then different types of wastage are produced in different sections. The wastage % in blow room is 3% and blow room waste is called lap waste. Carding section wastage % is about 10%. The wastages of carding section are called dropping-1, dropping-2 and sliver waste. The wastage % in the draw frame section is about 0.5%. The wastage of this section is called sliver waste. The wastage % in the comber section is about 14-15% and the wastages are called noils, lap and vacuum waste. The % of wastage in the simplex section is about 0.5% and the wastages are called roving and sliver wastage. The wastage % of the ring frame is 2-2.5% and the wastages are called pneumafil, hard waste, vacuum waste etc.

Weaving waste

Like spinning mills, different types of wastages are found in weaving mills also. Now we will know about it.

Residual yarns which are left on the cones after warping are considered wastages. In the warping creel section, it is not possible to empty all the cones and there will always be a little amount of yarn left on the cones. Sizing waste is another kind of waste in a weaving factory. When in the weaver's beam section a new set of warp yarn is started then it is necessary to eliminate some portions of the yarns to ensure that properly sized yarns are wounded on the weaver's beam. After sizing wastage, comes the knotting wastage. Knotting is done to ensure all the warp ends of two beams are available for attaching together. Beam residual wastage is another kind of weaving wastage. When a weaver beam is finished, a small amount of warp yarn remains unused on the weaver's beam and it is not possible to finish yet. Auxiliary selvedge wastage is also a common weaving wastage. Auxiliary selvedge is a fake selvedge used to hold the weft yarn during the loom beat up period.

Knitting waste

Knitting has a glorious history. Knitting can be done on a machine or by hand. There are various types of knitting styles and methods. If any fault occurs in the knitting process or any fault in the raw materials there will be knitting wastage. Now we will know about the different types of knitting wastage.

When a new order is created the merchandiser makes a sample first. To make a sample, trials run in the knitting machine. Due to trials, knitting wastage is generated. In knitting, floor wastage may occur due to yarn. If the cone is faulty or the yarn is faulty then wastage may generate. Fly generation from different yarn guides also causes knitting wastage. There are various types of knitted fabric faults like barrenness, spirality, thick and thin place, holes, slubs, sinker marks, stains, stripes etc. Due to these fabric faults, knitting wastage is generated. Besides due to the wrong knitting program, knitting wastage was generated.

Dyeing waste

Textile dyeing factories are the most common factories to generate wastewater which is a great threat to our environment. Many machine manufacturing companies are trying to introduce new technologies to reduce wastewater. Some are trying to develop waterless dyeing methods.

Besides, there are various types of dyeing faults. Due to different types of dyeing faults, wastages are generated. The most common dyeing faults are uneven dyeing, batch to batch shade variation, crease marks, selvedge to selvedge shade variation for denim, metamerism etc. Due to these faults wastage is generated in the dyeing floor.

Clothing waste

In the clothing industry, there are different types of sections like cutting, bundling & shorting, sewing, printing, embroidery, finishing. In every section wastages produce. The cutting section is the main section to produce wastage in a clothing factory. Due to several roles and marker utilization, a huge amount of wastages produce in the cutting section. After cutting all the body parts are inspected and then shorted and bundled. For this reason, some faulty pieces may remain in this section as wastage. Then the loaders take these bundled pieces and distribute them in the sewing section. In the sewing section, if a worker finds any faulty piece, he rejects it. Due to this reason wastage is generated in the sewing section. In the printing section, if any print doesn’t match the standard, the garment piece will be a waste. In the embroidery section, if the embroidery is not done in the proper place, the garment will be treated as wastage. In the finishing section if there is a measurement defect, trims or press defect there will generate a wastage.

Consumer waste

Global clothing production has been doubled over the last decade. The average lifetime of a garment product is approximately 3 years. The average person buys 50% more items of clothing every year and keeps them for about half as long as 15 years ago which generating a huge amount of textile waste.

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is clear that textile waste is generated at the manufacturer's end and also at the consumer's end. It has no advantage but disadvantages both economically and environmentally. The manufacturers can put emphasis on new technologies to reduce wastages and the consumers should be more conscious about it. Textile recycling is also a way to minimize wastage.

You may also like: What is Textile Recycling

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What is Textile waste? Definition, Meaning and Types

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Textile wastage can be defined as the material that becomes unusable or worthless after the end of the production process of any textile product.

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example reference to how others use TED TEN

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example reference to how others use TED TEN

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http://www.textiletoolbox.com/media/uploads/project-downloads/sweaver.pdf

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Weaving A Safer Tomorrow With Sustainable Fibres

https://www.infiiloom.com/blog/weaving-safer-tomorrow-with-sustainable-fibres/

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Soil, Sea, and Circularity (link to design for circularity)

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Soil, Sea, and Circularity (link to design for circularity)

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https://growensemble.com/sustainable-textiles/

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Take a look around you-carpets, curtains, sheets, upholstery, the clothes we wear. TeXtiLes aRe evErywheRe!

Textiles are so embedded in our everyday life that we barely notice them, let alone spend time visualizing all the textiles that exist in the world and those still being created.

For this reason, and because textile pollution is much less visible than other kinds, we don't usually think of textiles in terms of sustainability. And yet, the fashion industry is the fourth most polluting industry in the world after energy, transport, and agriculture.

As such, considering the development of sustainable textiles and processing systems is central to addressing the climate crisis.

Developing sustainable textiles and in a more sustainable way won't be easy-the textile industry's ubiquity and ties to agriculture, science, manufacturing, culture, and so many other fields means we must develop multidimensional solutions that reach across industries and ideologies.

As Materevolve's Krystle Moody Wood explains to us, it is exactly this ubiquitous and intersectional nature that makes the textile industry so poised to create revolutionary change.

The sustainable textile movement is key to bringing about a more regenerative world. In this post and accompanying podcast episode, we'll discuss the current environmental impacts of the textile industry and how we, as both consumers and companies, have the power to ignite systematic change at every level.

[VIDEO INTERVIEW] - Check out the full-length interview with Krystle Moody Wood on YouTube

The Ultimate Guide to Sustainable Textiles: For Sea, Soil, and Circularity

To understand the issues and solutions within the textile industry, Materolve's Krystal Moody Wood explains that we must focus within a lens of nature. In the natural world, nothing exists in isolation-an organism is completely dependent on its environment and the myriad of other species around it.

Krystle explains that we, as both consumers and companies, must view the textile industry-its problems and solutions- within a web of its interactions and connections. More specifically, Krystle frames the impacts and relationships of the textile industry within an architecture of Soil, Sea, and Circularity.

She urges us to consider how the systems of the textile industry impact our environment. How do our textile systems and consumption habits degrade the land and sea? How can we instead use the systems to support and enhance them?

Through her work, she refocuses the emerging sustainable textile industry onto the consideration and emulation of the circular and intersectional nature of... well... nature.

For both consumers and companies, the current trajectory of the textile industry is linear, the goal being to sport every trend of the season and reach maximum profit for shareholders. On this path, little consideration is made of the impacts our decisions have on communities, the environment, and the very interdependent relationship between the two.

Krystle urges both companies and consumers to consider how their decisions impact the larger contexts of environment and community by asking themselves questions, such as: How are the materials we are putting out to the world affecting the health of our planet, its peoples, and the collective future? How can we restructure our current mode of operating so that precious resources are not only sustained currently and into the future but also regenerated for our most vulnerable communities and future generations?

The Textile Industry's Impact on the Environment

Within her framework of Soil, Sea, and Circularity, Krystle outlines to us the main problems within the textile industry:

Overproduction

Krystle first explains that the primary problems with the fashion industry and "across the board" are overproduction and overconsumption. "We've created enough beautiful textiles in this world," Krystle elaborates, "and we have plenty in our closets."

Fashion companies do not need to have product launches 52 weeks out of the year, and consumers are forgetting to ask themselves what Krystle believes is the first and foremost question: "do I really need this?"

Compounding the matter is the fact that our society often completely lacks the infrastructure "setup to re-sort these [products] back into other closets if we're done with them."

So, where do all the textiles and clothes end up? In our landfills, and worse, in our environment.
Soil, Sea, and Circularity
Globally, an estimated 92 million tons of textile waste is generated per year. More plainly put, every second, the equivalent of a garbage truck full of clothes goes to landfills around the world. Municipal landfills in the U.S. received 11.3 million tons of textiles, or 7.7% of total waste landfilled, in 2018. Many of these materials take 200+ years to break down and, in the process, release microplastics and chemicals that pollute the soil and groundwater (more on this below).

Textile overproduction also dwindles and damages our water resources. The fashion and textile industry is one of the most water-intensive industries in the world. The fashion industry uses 2% of all the freshwater extracted globally and accounts for 10% of all industrial freshwater extraction. To make a cotton shirt, for instance, requires 2,700 liters of water-that's roughly what it takes to supply a year's worth of drinking water for four people.

Furthermore, the water-intensive process by which we dye and treat fabrics releases toxic chemicals into waterways. In fact, textile mills generate one-fifth of the world's industrial water pollution.

And let's not forget agriculture, which, while the connection is not often made, the fashion industry is very intertwined with. Cotton, for instance, is the most common natural fiber used to make clothing, accounting for approximately 33% of all fibers found in textiles.

Not only is cotton a very water-demanding crop but conventional cotton is also farmed in a way that depletes soils and is largely chemical-dependent. Since water is not being absorbed into the depleted soil, it runs off the field, carrying those toxic chemicals into our waterways and eventually into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification.

The overproduction and consumption of textiles exacerbate both the causes and effects of the climate crisis-yes, it's circular! Water scarcity, soil depletion, and environmental pollution are all connected, and they all compound to further threaten natural resources and fragile communities all over the world.

Item Quality and Care

Another big issue for Krystle is the quality of items and how they are cared for. Part of this issue, she explains, is that creators only design a product with the consumer's first purchase in mind and fail to consider the longevity or quality of an item (again, more on this below).

The second part of this issue is that once an item is in the hands of consumers, we fail to abide by care guidelines. She explains that improper care greatly reduces the lifespan of a textile-laundering, for example, is one of the "worst things you can do to an item."

A lack of quality and care means we are going to produce and consume a lot more items, which, for all the reasons listed above, is very damaging to the environment. But Krystle goes on to explain that this shortcoming also increases microfiber pollution.
Soil, Sea, and Circularity

Cumulative microfiber emissions worldwide from 1950 to 2016
Gavigan J, Kefela T, Macadam-Somer I, Suh S, Geyer R (2020) Synthetic microfiber emissions to land rival those to waterbodies and are growing. PLoS ONE 15(9): e0237839.

Let's draw a quick straight line here: 65% of all textile fibers are synthetic. Most synthetic fibers-think polyester, nylon, acrylic-are made from petroleum byproducts, i.e., PLASTICS!

These fibers are already really small (just think of a piece of thread!). So, when we put our textiles through a lot of mechanical agitation, (i.e., laundering), these fibers break down into even smaller pieces, washing microplastics straight into our water systems.

Then, when we are through with the item (which, again, doesn't take very long due to the lack of quality and care), these synthetic textiles end up in the landfill and environment, where they ALSO break down into microplastics.

Textiles are the largest-known source of marine microplastic pollution, producing 35% of the ocean's levels. (Learn more about how plastic ends up in our oceans here.) Marine microplastics end up being consumed by small aquatic organisms, which means microplastics are carried up the food chain, disrupting ecosystems in the process.

But microfiber pollution isn't just affecting our waterways, Krystle explains. Research is revealing the growing prevalence of microfiber pollution in our farmland, as well.

How do microfibers end up in our fields? Krystle first points out that in the U.S., gray and black water ends up in our water treatment plants where part of the filtering process means separating out the "solids." This sludge is a wonderful mix of human biosolids (if you catch my drift), so it is often used on fields as fertilizer. This would be a great way to restore soil microbiology, except that that sludge is full of microfibers! In fact, researchers suggest that 92% of all microfiber land pollution comes from these biosolids.

Microfibers are completely disrupting microbial soil systems, Krystle continues: "We're seeing earthworms uptaking them, [and they're] affecting the way they cast; we're seeing the fibers mimicking route plant fibers."

Microplastics are disastrous for organisms and ecosystems, as Krystle explains, but plastic pollution affects human health, too. Microplastics are in the water we drink, the food we eat, and even the air we breathe! Our exposure to microplastics has been linked to various metabolic disorders, neurotoxicity, and increased cancer risk.

Microplastics aren't going anywhere, either. I hate to be the bearer of bad news, but these plastics never completely degrade. So, the deficit of quality in our production and lack of care in our consumption of textiles will continue to pollute our planet and its peoples for generations to come.

The Framework of the Textile Industry

The overarching problem in the textile industry, which we can glean from the examples above, is the framework in which we create and consume products, Krystle concludes.

The linear thinking and limited purview that pervades the industry at present is at the very center of its destructiveness. It's what allows it all to happen!

When we think only of fit, style, and profitability, we lose sight of the impacts of our actions.

As both consumers and companies, we need to shift our focus and reframe our actions in terms of soil, sea, and circularity.

Fashion entrepreneurs and consumers alike are turning to a new paradigm of circular fashion to address the current issues within the textile industry. Within a circular fashion economy, designers and consumers consider the wider impact of their decisions on the environment and communities and act accordingly.

A Consumer's Guide to Sustainable Textiles

So, how do we as consumers stop supporting an industry responsible for so much harm and start supporting the circular fashion movement? Krystle gives us some of her best tips for making the change.

#1 Change the Way You Think

Krystle urges us to first ask the very important question: "do I need this?" More often than not, we probably don't.

Have "nothing to wear?" Take your first shopping trip right back into your closet. Get out that dusty pair of boots and that dress you only wore once. Be bold! Try that shirt with another outfit! "We need to figure out how to do more with what we already have and be more creative in that way," Krystle tells us.

When we do need something, Krystle encourages us not to "just buy [something] because it's pretty" but to really consider the larger impact of the purchase.

One aspect of this is considering a product's end of life. Before you buy something, think about how long it might last you. Is there an option available that will last you even longer?

As Krystle puts it, as customers and citizens, "we should be buying for our values." For example, she continues, "if we care a ton about water, we should make sure that company is doing something about water." Do we know where and in what conditions an item was made? Is the company using the kind of practices that we would want to support?

#2 Take Care of the Products You Have

Bettering how we care for our clothes and textiles is one of the best ways to 1) prolong their lifespan and 2) limit the amount of microfiber pollution from our own washer machines.

First, we don't need to launder our clothes as much as we think we do. Krystle explains that often, and especially with wool and cotton, we can just put worn clothes right back into the closet without issue.

When we do need to clean our clothes, we should follow the care instructions on the tag. They are literally there to tell you how to best care for your garment. How convenient!

If no care instructions are provided, err on the colder and shorter side of washing. Some studies suggest that washing clothes in cold water on a shorter cycle helps to reduce microfiber shedding.

#3 Understand and Choose Sustainable Textiles

When thinking about sustainable fabrics, it would seem that natural fibers beat synthetic materials every time. But Krystle explains that "it's not about just choosing natural fabrics"-it's about considering the multidimensional characteristics and contexts of an item.

The most sustainable materials are not only going to last a long time and biodegrade at the end of their life but are also going to be produced in harmony with nature and communities.

First, the use of the garment should be considered. Technical materials (which are usually made of synthetic fibers) often have a lot of functional benefits, some of which mean that the item will last a lot longer than a natural fiber cousin (especially now that you're paying attention to care labels).

It is far better to choose reclaimed and recycled synthetic fabrics and clothes over new ones!

There are so many clothes circulating in the world, so shopping at second-hand stores helps to decrease demand for new production and keeps items out of landfills and the environment.

Also, consider choosing synthetic fabrics that are made from old clothes and other post-consumer waste. Companies have developed amazing ways to recycle fishing nets, worn clothing, water bottles, and other post-consumer waste products into recycled textiles.

This framework applies to natural materials, as well. Used and recycled is always better.

When choosing between natural materials, it's also important to consider how they were extracted. As we learned with the cotton production example above, natural fibers have their own paper trail to account for. So, it's important to choose natural materials that are grown and produced in an eco-friendly way-think materials, such as:

Organic hemp

Regenerative organic cotton

Cruelty-free silk

Fairtrade and artisan-made products

Climate Beneficial™ wool and cotton

Responsible down

Recycled cotton or polyester

Reclaimed fabrics

#4 Shopping Responsibly

When you do find yourself shopping, there are some really easy ways to decipher sustainable products. First, check a company's website. Are they transparent about their supply chain and production practices?

Companies that rate high in sustainability usually aren't shy about it; they'll have years of available impact reports, names of partners, and ways to prove they are fulfilling their mission statement on being a "sustainable brand."

Rely on third-party reviewers, too. Certifications to look out for include:

A Company's Guide to Sustainable Textiles

Fashion companies have tremendous power to transform the systemic structures that are key to the sustainability movement. Krystle highlights some of the most important ways companies can address the widespread issues within the industry.

#1 Connect Your Goals and Departments

The first thing Krystle encourages a company to do is to synthesize and broadcast your overarching goals so that each department is working together to meet them.

Strategic planning and goal setting needs to happen in a multifaceted way that includes all operating levels, from executive offices to manufacturing lines. Sustainability goals shouldn't be separate from material development, sourcing strategies, or marketing tactics.

That is why Krystle believes it is a foundational first step to enhance the existing infrastructure that makes communication, collaboration, and integration easier between people, teams, and departments. Narrowing in on existing structures and strengthening them is one of the most efficient and effective ways to reach collective sustainability goals.

#2 Connect to Your On-The-Ground Impact

Krystle points out that part of the problem is that designers are stuck behind a desk. They have no idea what kind of on-the-ground impact their designs are having.

That is why one of Matervolve's key consulting strategies is experiential learning. Taking your executives and team leaders on-site at raw material farms, within production facilities, or inside cutting-edge material labs is the best way to have them start widening their purview and considering the larger impacts of their work. There's no better teacher than experience!

#3 Spend Less on Marketing and More on Materials

Finally, Krystle emphasizes the need for companies across the board to start shifting their strategies and financial resources from marketing toward material development. This shift is not only necessary for the sake of the environment and people but also for companies' futures.

As the climate crisis worsens, sustainable material development and a switch to natural fiber systems will be key to building company resiliency and longevity.

The future of material development is a bright one. Companies at the forefront of solving key issues, such as raw resource protection, biodegradability, and functionality, will be able to navigate the uncertain future ahead. It is fundamentally a smart business decision.

Krystle makes it clear that when she refers to "natural fiber systems," she doesn't mean a simple switch to cotton or hemp. Instead, she urges companies to invest in material science and integrate sustainability within all levels of their operation.

So, she concludes, "it's really investing in how materials are made, who you make them with, and ensuring that they fit those sustainability values that you've really built as a company."

From that fundamental priority shift, marketing campaigns move beyond simply pushing a product and can instead work to "educate on the living systems that you're supporting as you create these materials and products."

I think we can agree that this sounds like a far better strategy!

Materevolve is a technical materials consultancy firm launched in 2018 by Krystle Moody Wood. With a collective experience of over 25 years, Materevolve's team helps individuals, companies, governments, and organizations understand the roles and impacts of textiles through a lens of soil, sea, and circularity.

Within this larger framework, the consultancy aims to home in on the industry's intersectional nature to inspire systemic solutions and bring about a more regenerative world. Their programs include experiential learning, educational speaking, and strategic partnership, and technical textile consulting.

Krystle Moody Wood, founder of Materevolve, started her career in corporate material development for companies, such as Vans, The North Face, and its parent company, VF Brands.

As a materials developer, Krystle gained valuable expertise in textile production and focused her work on furthering textile sustainability initiatives within the companies she worked for. But after ten years in the corporate world and working within nonprofit education, Krystle realized that her potential for creating high-impact change would be greater if she could have full control over her partners and philosophies.

Thus, she created Materevolve to educate and empower industry, environmental, and community leaders to effect change in a systematic and intersectional way.

Sustainability is no doubt an investment. It requires time, money, education, and resources, both from consumers and companies.

Both groups are realizing that sustainability is not only worth the investment but also that the investment is the ONLY way forward. Scientists and policymakers across the globe agree that regenerative systems between industries, governments, and communities are a necessity if we are to ensure a healthy future for our planet and its peoples.

Krystle believes that the textile industry is pivoting in response to this. Bold, conscious fashion entrepreneurs and the leaders of tomorrow are looking to the regenerative circular movement for solutions to the broken systems that have plagued communities and ecologies.

The textiles we wear and display express how we wish to present ourselves to the world.

Materevolve believes it is time for us all as members of the natural world, as citizens, as consumers, and as leaders to ask ourselves the fundamental question: Does this idea, decision, action, purchase, system, or impact really express how we want to present ourselves in the world?
Additional Resources and Links Mentioned from the Episode:

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Sea, Soil, and Circularity: A New Guide for Sustainable Textiles

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Take a look around you-carpets, curtains, sheets, upholstery, the clothes we wear. TeXtiLes aRe evErywheRe! Textiles are so embedded in our everyday life that we barely notice them, let alone spend time visualizing all the textiles that exist in the world and those still being created.

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https://www.c2ccertified.org/get-certified/product-certification

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example reference to how others use TED TEN

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example reference to how others use TED TEN

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http://www.kategoldsworthy.co.uk/journal/2019/3/31/mono-finishing-2008-2011

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MONO FINISHING (2008-2011) — kate goldsworthy

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Goldsworthy’s project Mono Finishing   explores an innovative application of laser technology for textile finishing in order to improve environmental performance and recyclability. The work consists of a series of fully finished textile samples, each demonstrating a different technique deve

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Random interesting sites that I found alongside

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Random interesting sites that I found alongside

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plant based wetsuit
https://coolhunting.com/tech/patagonias-plant-based-wetsuit/

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https://www.ecovative.com
mycelium
https://www.ecovative.com/pages/mycelium-101

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Single-celled

Free-floating spherical cells

Clustered morphology
(think baker's yeast)

Not used in Ecovative's technology

Multi-cellular

Strands of interconnected cells

Branching morphology
(think spider web)

Used in Ecovative's technology

Lifecycle of a fungus

Fungi live in cyclical patterns. Starting as spores, they grow into mycelium, which then generate mushrooms that in turn produce more spores, beginning the cycle anew.

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Stay connected as we grow

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Free-floating spherical cells Clustered morphology(think baker's yeast) Not used in Ecovative's technology Strands of interconnected cells Branching morphology(think spider web) Used in Ecovative's technology Lifecycle of a fungus Fungi live in cyclical patterns. Starting as spores, they grow into mycelium, which then generate mushrooms that in turn produce more spores, beginning the cycle anew.

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https://www.bureaubaggerman.nl/precious-waste.html
plastic bag stretch and spin into yarns then woven

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3d print in between layers of silk or used kimono fabric
https://www.bureaubaggerman.nl/woven-light.html

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3d print garments
https://www.vogue.com/article/iris-van-herpen-dutch-designer-interview-3d-printing
https://assets.vogue.com/photos/589207017caf41c472cb67d2/master/w_1280,c_limit/02-iris-van-herpen.jpg

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https://ideas.ted.com/the-skirt-and-shoe-made-from-kombucha/

kombucha

"we could look to living organisms like bacteria to produce fibers for us"

biocouture

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https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/this-designer-says-3d-textiles-could-replace-concrete-and-cement

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Textile could replace concrete and cement in the building industry, says Dutch designer, Hella Jongerius.

The 3D weaving technology could create temporary additions to buildings to respond to weather changes, such as balconies or louvres.

The experimental loom is a vehicle to explore the wider application of weaving but also the sustainability of the textile industry.

New three-dimensional weaving technologies could revolutionise architecture and lead to lighter, more flexible buildings according to Dutch designer Hella Jongerius.

Computerised looms that can produce 3D fabrics could lead to a new type of "pliable architecture", the designer said.

"Textile is the lightest and strongest construct that you can have," she said. "So with this, we could replace concrete and cement in the building industry."

3D weaving is in its infancy but it has already been used to create medical implants from polyester and to form aircraft bodies from carbon fibres.

But the technology could be scaled up to create buildings, the designer argued.

Jongerius made the comments during a live Dezeen talk to mark the opening of her Woven Cosmos exhibition at Berlin's Gropius Bau.

In the talk, broadcast live from the museum, the designer shared an early preview of the show and discussed how she has used high-tech weaving applications.

You can have balconies that pop up when the sun shines

As part of the Woven Cosmos exhibition, Jongerius is showcasing a number of experimental prototypes for what this kind of construction could look like in the form of her Pliable Architecture series.

Created over two years, the series consists of fabric modules that are woven as flat units using an advanced digital jacquard machine but can be unfolded into multi-dimensional pop-up structures, achieving a large volume with minimal use of material.

Several of these are interwoven with conductive yarn and laminated strips of photovoltaic cells, in a technique that Jongerius said could one day be used to create new kinds of solar farms.

"With solar yarns, we could replace our solar panels that are now on our roofs or in fields," she said. "You could have structures and sculptures instead of looking at technology."

Jongerius revealed that she is working with university researchers to use the electricity generated by the solar fibres to transform the two-dimensional fabric modules into 3D forms.

She predicts that this kind of technology could be scaled up to create solar-powered, carbon-fibre balconies that automatically unfurl on sunny days.

"You can have balconies that pop up when the sun shines or platforms to have drones arriving," the designer explained.
3D weaves can outperform 3D knits
According to Jongerius, 3D weaving is more versatile than 3D knitting, which has proven popular among footwear and furniture manufacturers in recent years.

"Knitting is not so strong and it's quite a simple technique," she said.

"It's one loop over another loop, so it's restricted."

"In weaving, you have many more possibilities," she added. "In a way, weaving is an empty vehicle. So you have one [yarn] up, one down and then you can add all kinds of functions like absorbing moisture or sound, antibacterial functions, solar cells."

Jongerius first began working with multiaxial weaving for her 2019 exhibition at Lafayette Anticipations in Paris. Here, she created woven bricks using a special multiaxial loom, developed with the team at her studio Jongeriuslab by hacking and combining four separate handlooms.

"I really wanted to build a loom because a machine for this way of working does not exist," she said. "So it's more a vehicle that can raise questions, a research loom."

In contrast to the automated 3D weaving machine created by Nigerian American designer Oluwaseyi Sosanya, Jongerius's version is entirely operated by hand in the hope of offering more space for experimentation.

Called Seamless Loom, the machine will be exhibited as part of Woven Cosmos alongside a number of interactive installations that will take form over the course of the exhibition, with members of the Jongeriuslab team coming in to work on the looms every day.

According to Jongarius, the exhibition also offers a space to consider the healing possibilities of weaving as well as suggesting ways that the textile industry can become more sustainable.

"It's the most polluting industry and the labour conditions in low-wage countries are really terrible," she said. "So I wanted to address this sustainability topic."
The Woven Cosmos exhibition can be explored digitally via the Gropius Bau website and will be open for visitors as soon as coronavirus restrictions allow. See Dezeen Events Guide for an up-to-date list of architecture and design events taking place around the world.
All proprietary rights relating to any links, content, or resources published on the Websites remain with the original source or the author(s) of that material and where any content has been commissioned by the Forum for publication on the Websites, any proprietary rights in such content remain with the relevant author. For more information please refer to our License Terms.

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The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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3D textiles could 'replace concrete and cement'

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Textile could replace concrete and cement in the building industry, says Dutch designer, Hella Jongerius. The 3D weaving technology could create temporary additions to buildings to respond to weather changes, such as balconies or louvres. The experimental loom is a vehicle to explore the wider application of weaving but also the sustainability of the textile industry.

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https://www.treehugger.com/bricks-made-textile-waste-5115277?utm_campaign=treehugger&utm_medium=email&utm_source=cn_nl&utm_content=23139207&utm_term

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These Eye-Catching Bricks Are Made from Textile Waste

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French company FabBRICK upcycles old clothes into bricks that can be used for decorative purposes and thermal or acoustic insulation.

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https://www.instructables.com/Create-Bio-yarn/

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Introduction: Create Bio-yarn

Fashion is the second most polluting industry in the world. During material extraction and production stage, enormous amount of greenhouse gas and toxic waste are released out to the world. In order to solve the problem, we have to think of alternative ways to improve such unsustainable industry. I think biotech can solve the problem, and this is just a warm up to create product with some simple biomaterials.

Note: I'm not a seasoned biologist or chemist yet. So PLEASE correct me if I made mistakes.

Step 1: Material

Some basic chemicals:

- Sodium Alginate (Alginate is a chain of polysaccharide found in the cell wall of Algae.)

- Calcium Chloride (Cures the sodium alginate. Curing means crosslinking of polymer chains.)

- Chitosan (Derived from Chitin, give some rigidity to the end product.)

- Syringe (Create yarn-like form factor.)

Step 6: This Is Just a Reference.

With different Sodium Alginate concentration, you can get an array of properties from soft and transparent to rigid and opaque.

Changing curing solution can also change the material property. For Sodium Alginate paste with chitosan, add Citric Acid(it crosslinks Chitosan) to the curing solution. Watch carefully to see what happens. I'm serious, because I don't know what changed. If you know the chemistry, please let me know.

Step 8: Voilà

If you have an electrospinner. I believe you can spin this with lower viscosity. Something like 5% Sodium Alginate? Let me know the result.

Credit:

The original research of Bioesters team from Fashion Institute of Technology.

Thanks to:

Columbia for helping with material analysis.

Genspace for offering insights on biology.

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Create Bio-yarn: Fashion is the second most polluting industry in the world. During material extraction and production stage, enormous amount of greenhouse gas and toxic waste are released out to the world. In order to solve the problem, we have to think of alternat...

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https://www.designindaba.com/articles/creative-work/students-create-seaweed-based-yarn-tackle-fashion-industry-pollution

The students believe that bio-based materials like theirs could be an answer to creating a circular and sustainable economy for the fashion industry. Not only are they extracted from low-energy-consuming organisms but they are also are biodegradable – important factors when considering that apparel production is the second largest polluter in the world, not far behind number one, the oil industry.

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BioEsters is an innovative bio-based material invented by students at the New York City Fashion Institute of Technology. The filament is made from an organic compound called alginate, which is extracted from a particular kind of brown seaweed that grows in cold waters. With this material, the team hope to further development in sustainable textiles as a means of addressing textile production's harmful impact on the environment.

While alginate has been used in a number of speciality fields such as molecular gastronomy and medical treatment, the substance has not been as accessible to fashion designers because it is produced in sheets rather than in a workable yarn formation.

To make the alginate suit their purposes, the students use a large syringe to squeeze out the substance in thin spaghetti-like pieces into a calcium chloride solution. The alginate reacts to the chloride and sets in its form the moment it comes into contact with the liquid. The bio-based filament looks like yarn, and can be woven by hand or machine to form a new sustainable material for designers.

While the students have been experimenting with other compounds, they have found that the properties of their alginate can be altered to make the flexible material softer and more transparent.

The students believe that bio-based materials like theirs could be an answer to creating a circular and sustainable economy for the fashion industry. Not only are they extracted from low-energy-consuming organisms but they are also are biodegradable - important factors when considering that apparel production is the second largest polluter in the world, not far behind number one, the oil industry.

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Students create seaweed-based yarn to tackle fashion industry pollution | Design Indaba

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
BioEsters is an innovative bio-based material invented by students at the New York City Fashion Institute of Technology. The filament is made from an organic compound called alginate, which is extracted from a particular kind of brown seaweed that grows in cold waters.

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https://www.thetechathome.org/algaestring

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Introduction

We use plastic objects every day. But what is plastic? If we zoomed in for a closer look, we'd see that it's made of lots of long molecule chains called polymers. Most of today's plastics are made in a lab and not environmentally friendly, but nature can make useful polymers too! For example, natural rubber and paper are both created from natural polymers that are biodegradable. In this activity you will use polymers made by algae and a bit of chemistry to create your own custom string!

​

Design Challenge

Create your own colorful string creations using ingredients that come from algae. Then craft fun things with your string!

Subject

Biodesign, Chemistry, Materials Science

Time

Make algae gel: 20 min

Let gel rest: 1 hr- overnight

Make calcium bath: 5 min

Make string: 30 min

Key Concepts

Polymers, chemical reactions, biomaterials, fiber arts

This activity was made possible by a Science Education Partnership Award (SEPA), Grant Number R25 GM129220, from the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Getting Started

Learn more with our videos

Learn more with our PDF guides

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Introduction We use plastic objects every day. But what is plastic? If we zoomed in for a closer look, we'd see that it's made of lots of long molecule chains called polymers. Most of today's plastics are made in a lab and not environmentally friendly, but nature can make useful polymers too!

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https://biomaterialsres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40824-020-0185-7

Immuno-modulating biomaterials
In the future, the concept of modulating an immune response towards the optimal clinical result will be widely applied in orthopaedic biomaterials. Immuno-modulating biomaterials can be broadly categorized into two: (1) biomaterials for replacement that integrate within the body and remain permanently inside on implantation, causing minimal inflammation and fibrous tissue formation; (2) biomaterials for regeneration that offer initial support and stimulate the formation of new tissue but eventually are degraded in a controlled way over time [2].

Biomaterials for regeneration
Biomaterials for regeneration aim to restore the lost structure and function of damaged tissue [2]. These materials should degrade in a period spanning several days to months while promoting the regeneration of host tissue that includes the regenerated matrices [15, 17].

biomaterials in orthopaedics
but the idea could translate to the short life use for my architecture degradable idea

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Biomaterials Research 24, Article number: 7 (2020) Cite this article

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Abstracts

Orthopaedics owes its current status of advanced care to the development of biomaterial science more than any other clinical medical specialty. The purpose of this brief review is to introduce the history and present status of biomaterials in orthopaedic field and cast a perspective on the future use of biomaterials to treat musculoskeletal disorders with particular emphasis on immune modulation. While the biomaterials in orthopaedics started from inert materials to replace the function and structure of hard tissue such as bone and cartilage, regenerative medicine will play a greater role in preventing the traumatic loss of tissues, as well as in the earlier stages of diseases. The understanding and modulation of immune response to biomaterials will further lead to the better incorporation of implants into host tissue or the near-perfect regeneration of host tissue.

Introduction

A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to take a form which, alone or as part of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components of living systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure [ 1]. Orthopaedics, which is a branch of clinical medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of musculoskeletal disease and trauma in the spine and extremities, owes its current status of advanced care to the development of biomaterial science more than any other clinical medical specialty. Biomaterials can be used to restore or augment the physiological function of diseased or damaged tissues via tissue replacement or regeneration in orthopaedics [ 2]. The purpose of this brief review is to introduce the history and present status of biomaterials in orthopedic field and cast a perspective on the future use of biomaterials to treat musculoskeletal disorders.

History and current application of biomaterials in orthopaedics

Orthopaedics started in the 18th century as a group of techniques which used non-surgical means to correct deformities in growing children. At that time, surgical treatment of bone and joint disorders was not possible due to the lack of antiseptic methods and anesthesia which would make operation safe and endurable. Development of inhalation anesthesia and antiseptic methods in 19th century made general surgery available for suffering patients. On the other hand, a lack of suitable biocompatible material prevented bone and joint surgery from being an option in deformity correction or fracture management until the early 20th century.

The development of metallic engineering in last century produced various biocompatible alloys, including stainless steel. Plates, screws, and nails that can be used to fix the bone were devised using those materials, which revolutionized fracture care. Injuries that were once treated by suspending the limb in traction for a month or by wrapping the injury in a heavy cast were now treated by internal fixation. More refined biocompatible metal alloys, such as cobalt chrome alloys, are now the primary material used for artificial joints, which require permanent implantation.

The development of chemical engineering has also produced polymeric material, such as ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) or polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), which have been gradually employed as bearing materials and bonding materials for artificial joints. Bioinert ceramics such as aluminum oxide or zirconium oxide rank as one of hardest materials found in the earth. These materials are now also used as bearing material in joint replacements. While first generation ceramics were fraught with frequent component breakage, the second generation bioinert ceramics, i.e. alumina augmented with zirconia, are now widely used in Korea, and almost replace UHMWPE as the bearing material of choice in total hip arthroplasty. These materials are expected to be used continuously for joint replacement. On the other hand, bioactive ceramics, such as calcium phosphates or calcium sulfates, are used as bone substitutes which fill up bone defects and function as osteo-conductive materials.

Biocompatible & bioabsorbable polymeric materials such as polyglycolic acid (PGA), polylactic acid (PLA), and polydioxanone (PDO) have been used as suture materials for a decade. These materials are now developed into screws, pins, and plates. Furthermore, these absorbable polymers as used as scaffolds for tissue engineering of cartilage and bone.

Regenerative medicine and immune response in biomaterials

While replacements using biomaterials will continue to be improved upon and will continue to be used to treat advanced diseases at a reduced cost of implanted materials, regenerative medicine will play a greater role in preventing the traumatic loss of tissues, as well as in the earlier stages of diseases. Stem cells, in combination with biomaterials, will be essential for those tissue engineering approaches.

Stem cell-based regenerative approaches have focused on implanting cells that have been seeded or encapsulated in biomaterials. Exogenous stem cell application has not yet proven to be generally effective for the regeneration of most tissues lost by degenerative processes or trauma. While it is expected that these exogenous cells are engrafted into host tissue, most of the cells perish after short period time. Furthermore, inflammation takes place at the site of implantation. As a result, immune response has recently developed into a big issue in the area of tissue engineering [ 2].

Regenerative power and the development of immune system are inversely related relationship in mammals. Evolutionary and developmental advances in the immune system came with the loss of capacity to fully regenerate damaged tissues [ 3, 4, 5]. Most mammalian tissues do not regenerate themselves. This is related to the their highly developed immune system [ 6]. In case of tissue damage, resident precursor cell is activated to proliferate, or a scar is formed. Cellular debris is also rapidly cleared to remove potentially toxic or immunogenic materials. Phagocytes are activated to secrete immune-modulatory factors. Macrophages in mammalian cells are in charge of those functions and play a primary role in innate immunity. Interestingly, macrophages show polarized, biphasic responses to tissue injury. Under inflammatory environments, macrophages polarize into classically activated (M1) or alternatively activated (M2) subtypes which differ in their function and marker/cytokine profiles [ 7]. M1 cells typically produce pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxides for host defense, which can lead to host tissue damage. On the other hand, M2 macrophages secrete anti-inflammatory and immune-modulatory substances, which mediates the resolution of inflammation and the wound healing, causing tissue repair. Timely activation and balance of each macrophage subtype is important for tissue healing. As early infiltration by M1 macrophages clears necrotic tissue [ 8, 9], disruption of macrophage polarization may impair tissue regeneration [ 10].

Immuno-modulating biomaterials

In the future, the concept of modulating an immune response towards the optimal clinical result will be widely applied in orthopaedic biomaterials. Immuno-modulating biomaterials can be broadly categorized into two: (1) biomaterials for replacement that integrate within the body and remain permanently inside on implantation, causing minimal inflammation and fibrous tissue formation; (2) biomaterials for regeneration that offer initial support and stimulate the formation of new tissue but eventually are degraded in a controlled way over time [ 2].

Biomaterials for replacement

Biomaterials for replacement are typically long-term (> 20 years) or permanently implantable devices. They are composed of polymers, ceramics, or metals that are very stable mechanically and show minimal host response when implanted [ 11]. Biologically inert implants that minimize the cell-implant interactions in the microenvironment had been previously preferred [ 12]. Those implants usually have native proteins adsorbed on the surface, which promote the formation of provisional matrix and function as a buffer between the biomaterial and the host. Also, precise surgical techniques minimize the relative motion between the implant and host tissue [ 2].

Contrarily, some cell-implant interactions can enhance immune tolerance and integration of implant into host tissue in certain conditions. Titanium implants for joint replacements demonstrate higher osseointegration when the surface is reformed to induce the migration and attachment of osteoblasts [ 13, 14]. Such alterations may also subsequently induce a pro-M2 polarization, thereby providing a favorable immune environment for bone remodeling. Modifying surface chemistries and roughness can incline the polarization to M2 type, which will in turn lead to greater secretion of regenerative/anti-inflammatory factors and minimize the formation of fibrous tissue [ 13, 15, 16]. Recent advancement in bioengineering blurs the boundary between replacement and regenerative biomaterials. Numerous coating technologies on replacement implants are functionally analogous to those used for regenerative medicine [ 2].

Biomaterials for regeneration

Biomaterials for regeneration aim to restore the lost structure and function of damaged tissue [ 2]. These materials should degrade in a period spanning several days to months while promoting the regeneration of host tissue that includes the regenerated matrices [ 15, 17]. The initial M1 response recruits inflammatory cells to the implantation site and instigates the foreign body response [ 15, 18, 19], which is a necessary early event for wound healing. However, prolonged presence of M1 macrophages leads to the production of cytotoxic reactive oxygen products [ 20, 21]. Also, fibrous capsule formation from extended inflammation can impair the biomaterials' capacity to promote tissue formation or hinder its ability to degrade as intended. Thus, a succeeding transition to the M2 type is necessary to promotes tissue remodeling [ 2].

The anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10) or small molecules (steroids), can be used to modulate the immune response so that native signaling is overwhelmed and directed to M2 polarization to macrophage [ 22, 23]. This could be done by incorporating them into controlled release systems [ 23, 24].

Several biochemical and biophysical properties may be utilized to influence macrophage polarization [ 25, 26]. The surface topography, including pore size of the scaffold, can be modulated to induce optimal macrophage polarization [ 27, 28, 29]. However, these modification of biomaterial designs to modulate macrophage behavior directly should be done with considerations for undesired effects on other types of cells that contribute to tissue regeneration [ 2, 30].

Orthopedic biomaterials in the future

Orthopaedics has benefited from the advances in biomaterials. Orthopaedic biomaterials started from temporary implants to fix bone to permanent implant materials and bioabsorbable implants. In the future, orthopaedic biomaterial will find a place in the regeneration of living tissue, as well as replacing it.

Ongoing research will reveal more details of the inherent qualities of biomaterials and their role in immune-modulation. This insight into biomaterial-immune response interaction will finally lead to an ultimate set of principles and help to create a new group of immuno-modulating biomaterials that can actively direct the innate immune system towards better incorporation of implants into host tissue or the near-perfect regeneration of host tissue.

Conclusion

While the biomaterials in orthopaedics started from inert materials to replace the function and structure of hard tissue such as bone and cartilage, regenerative medicine will play a greater role in preventing the traumatic loss of tissues, as well as in the earlier stages of diseases. The understanding and modulation of immune response to biomaterials will further lead to the better incorporation of implants into host tissue or the near-perfect regeneration of host tissue.

Availability of data and materials

Abbreviations

pdo:

Polydioxanone

pga:

Polyglycolic acid

pla:

Polylactic acid

pmma:

Polymethylmethacrylate

uhmwpe:

Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene

References

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Research Institute for Integrative Regenerative Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University Ilsan Hospital, 814 Siksa-Dong, Goyang, 410-773, Republic of Korea

Gun-Il Im

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GII is responsible for writing whole manuscript and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Gun-Il Im.

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Im, GI. Biomaterials in orthopaedics: the past and future with immune modulation. Biomater Res 24, 7 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-020-0185-7
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Keywords

Orthopaedics

Biomaterials

History

Immune response

Perspective

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Biomaterials in orthopaedics: the past and future with immune modulation - Biomaterials Research

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Orthopaedics owes its current status of advanced care to the development of biomaterial science more than any other clinical medical specialty. The purpose of this brief review is to introduce the history and present status of biomaterials in orthopaedic field and cast a perspective on the future use of biomaterials to treat musculoskeletal disorders with particular emphasis on immune modulation.

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https://www.bbcearth.com/news/six-fashion-materials-that-could-help-save-the-planet

one of the 6 is wool

"Although not all wool farms have adequate welfare standards, and many activist organisations, such as PETA, argue that it isn’t ethical, wool is a sustainable fabric: renewable, durable and biodegradable. Additionally, some sheep farmers produce wool using techniques which sequester carbon from the atmosphere to reduce the environmental impact. The strength and resilience of the fabric - it is both flame-resistant and water-repellent - means that it lasts for a long time, reducing the need for fast fashion replacements."

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https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-51393-5

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Acknowledgements

BFD acknowledges '' Fundación Caja Navarra" and '' Obra Social La Caixa" in the framework of UPNA's program '' Captación de Talento" for funding the project " Biomateriales a partir de queratinas de lanas y plumas". BFD also wants to acknowledge Dr. Santiago Reinoso, Dr. Ismael Pellejero and Dr. Iñaki Pérez de Landazábal from INAMAT for sharing research infrastructures and discussions, as well as UPNA for providing me independence on the research. The author would also like to acknowledge Prof. Arantxa Eceiza from the Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU) for the help in determining the thermo-mechanical character of keratin films.

Author information

Affiliations

Institute for Advanced Materials (INAMAT), Universidad Pública de Navarra (UPNA), Centro Jerónimo de Ayanz, Pamplona, España, Spain

Borja Fernández-d'Arlas

Contributions

B.F.D. conceived and performed the experiments and wrote the manuscript

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Borja Fernández-d'Arlas.

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Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

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Publisher's note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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Fernández-d'Arlas, B. Tough and Functional Cross-linked Bioplastics from Sheep Wool Keratin. Sci Rep 9, 14810 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-51393-5
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Tough and Functional Cross-linked Bioplastics from Sheep Wool Keratin - Scientific Reports

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Novel bioplastic films derived from wool keratins were prepared by protein solution in an alkaline mild oxidative method that splits disulphide (-S-S-) bonds.

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Biosequins

seaweed based

https://www.materialsource.co.uk/carolyn-raff-on-biomaterials-sustainable-manufacturing-and-baking-sequins/

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Carolyn Raff is the brainchild behind "An ocean full of ​​possibilities", an experimental and conceptual design approach based on rapidly renewable raw materials from the sea.

She graduated from the State Academy of Fine Arts in Stuttgart in 2017 after completing a textile design course. Since then, she has worked as a freelance designer, securing a scholarship for her unique project from the State of Baden-Württemberg.

With biomaterials firmly under the design sector's spotlight at present, we were keen to catch up with Carolyn about her fascinating, and beautiful, work. So, we sat down to discuss all things sustainable sequins. Here's what she had to say...

'Biomaterial' is experiencing a lot of publicity at the moment, and was named Material of the Year at the London Design Fair. Have you always had an interest in this field, or is it something you came to through your studies?

"In 2014, I had the chance to do an Erasmus Semester at the Royal Art Academy in Copenhagen and I was amazed at how strong the focus on sustainability was in Denmark, and how far it had been embedded in the teaching method at the Academy.

"After I came back to Stuttgart, I started focusing on natural materials to work with. I discovered algae as a fast growing resource and stuck with it, due to the endless possibilities the organisms offer."

Can you talk us through your making process?

"My studio is based in Stuttgart, far away from the ocean. So I had to improvise and try to get my hands on products that are algae based and already available on the market. I discovered that the food industry has a lot to offer when it comes to algae or extracted products from algae. I started working with Agar because you can buy it in every supermarket and it is a material that can be easily manipulated.

"To create a certain colour range within the algae based biopolymer, I only use natural, mainly plant based colours. I started dying with algae like Spirulina and ended up recycling leftover dye baths from other textile and fashion designers that only use natural dyes in their process. With this procedure I can reuse the dye and water that would ordinarily be poured down the drain after the textiles are dyed."

You predominantly work with materials from the sea - is there a particular reason for this?

"The focus is to work with materials and resources that are biodegradable and natural. I also try to use materials that are either a byproduct of an already existing manufacturing process or resources that can be harvested with the least possible impact on the ecosystem.

"The second reason is the organisation for my experimental and unconventional way of researching and designing, it is really important to set yourself some boundaries. It is easier to get crazy with experiments in the field of material research and sustainability when you already have decided on what kind of material and with what resources you want to work with. When the system is set up, you can start digging deeper into the topic and push your own boundaries."

Can you tell us more about "An ocean full of opportunities"?

"An ocean full of opportunities started as a project during my studies and is now a research project, supported by the State Academy of Fine Arts and Design and financed by a postgraduate scholarship from Ministry of Science, Research and Arts Baden Württemberg.

"I collect ideas and do experiments with bio based materials and collect visual impressions of my process and show it on Instagram. It is an easy tool to communicate with other designers that are interested in sustainability. It should be used as a tool and an encouragement to start experiments on your own."

The material itself is the biggest inspiration. You can turn unexpected outcomes into something useful.

Your work is very beautiful, how important is it for the form to match the function?

"My own definition of function in that sense is the idea of biodegradable and healthy materials for fashion and textiles in general. Therefore the materials I'm working with have to follow the function of biodegradability and the design will follow. The creativity to make something that speaks to all senses comes within the process. My goal is to create something that is ecological and appealing at the same time."

Who is your target customer? And how do you envisage your work should be used?

"I mainly work with textile and fashion designers, but the product has great potential in many areas. There are almost endless possibilities to work with this algae based biopolymer. I'm trained as a textile designer so my way of working with it is influenced by my passion for embroidery and textile manipulation. But it can also be used in the context of product design, packaging and much more."

Are there any materials you like working with best? And why?

"My absolute favourite materials to work with are Agar and Carrageenan. Both powders are algae based vegan gelatine substitutes, that forms jelly when heated up. It is just fascinating to work and play around with it. It is easy to start experimenting with it, it is all natural and you don't necessarily need a laboratory or a workshop to do so."

Who or what is your biggest inspiration?

"The material itself is the biggest inspiration. You can turn unexpected outcomes into something useful. When I started baking the sequins I hoped that the material would stay flat. Instead it created a three dimensional form.

"At first I had no idea what to do with the result but the sequins inspired me. From there on I started to do more experiments that change the surface and structure of the biopolymer. The results are always interesting and a lot of fun to play around with."

Is there a project by any of your peers that has particularly inspired you?

"There are so many talented designers and researchers that it is hard to name only one. During London Design Week 2019 I had the great opportunity to exhibit at Open Cell London, among with 25 other designers, all focused on biodesign and sustainability. It was highly inspiring to see their work and exchange the different experiences, stories and struggles that come with this new way of creating and designing sustainable materials and products."

Does your work have a signature style?

"The three dimension sequins are quite unique in their form and shape. I really like the idea that I can't fully control the results of this heating process and always have to come up with new ideas to apply it on textiles.

"I asked embroidery designers, Adela Fraud Alvarez, based in Copenhagen, and Franziska Wiedemann, based in Stuttgart, to work with the three dimensional sequins and I was amazed how different and unique their embroidery pieces turned out to be."

What project are you most proud of?

"An ocean full of opportunities is a project that I worked on for 18 months and I expected it to be a very traditional textile design project. But instead it turned out to be an approach to biodesign and material research. I'm very contented with this change of focus and surprised that it completely changed my way of designing."

What are you working on currently?

"I'm working on a garment in collaboration with Nikolett Madai, a Berlin based fashion designer, specialising in a natural dyeing process with leftover turmeric and pomegranate peels. I use her leftover dye bath from dying textiles, and recycle it into biopolymer sequins. They will be applied on the turmeric dyed garment.

"We found a way of using the leftovers of a juice production based in Brandenburg and we are able to recycle the dye again within the production of the garment. I really like the idea of getting the most use out of the materials we work with and finding ways of creating sustainably made fashion, that can be bought and worn without any guilt."

And what's next?

"To be part of the shift into a more sustainable world and healthier manufacturing process, we have to think about how to upscale the material from a state of prototype towards a industrialised process.

"The next step is to think about solutions to produce a bigger scale of water resistant but fully biodegradable and recyclable biopolymer that can be used by other designers and manufacturers to create their own sustainable ideas and products."

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Carolyn Raff on biomaterials, sustainable manufacturing and baking sequins.

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Carolyn Raff is the brainchild behind "An ocean full of ​​possibilities", an experimental and conceptual design approach based on rapidly renewable raw materials from the sea. She graduated from the State Academy of Fine Arts in Stuttgart in 2017 after completing a textile design course.

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https://issuu.com/nat_arc/docs/bioplastic_cook_book_3

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Document details

Bioplastic Cook Book

Published on

Our second open source book on Bioplastics, this time the bioplastic cook book gives everyone tips and recipes to make their own bioplastics! The book contains a flyer to print for labeling your bioplastic and creating your material archive. Book written by Margaret Dunne during her internship at Fab Textiles June-July 2018

Articles inside

More from

Create once. Share everywhere.

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Our second open source book on Bioplastics, this time the bioplastic cook book gives everyone tips and recipes to make their own bioplastics! The book contains a flyer to print for labeling your bioplastic and creating your material archive.

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seaweed based
leather??
https://materialdistrict.com/article/a-leather-and-plastic-alternative-made-of-seaweed/

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Anna Watkins, a student at the University of Huddersfield in the UK, developed a seaweed based material that aims to replace materials like leather and plastic.
The aim of the project was to create a biomaterial to replace the often unsustainable materials used in fashion.

The main ingredient is powdered seaweed, often used as a gelling agent in food production. By heating this powder, it becomes a jelly-like substance that becomes firm within two minutes. The material can be poured in moulds, allowing for the creation of various products.

Watkins started het project by trying grow mycelium and later making a composite material with industrial textile wool. As she was stuck at home because of the corona lockdown, she turned to seaweed, which can be easily experimented with without the need for a lab.

Using the material, Watkins makes objects including seaweed-bound notebooks, card wallets and lampshades. With her start-up Uncommon Alchemy, she received a 5,000 pound grant by winning a Young Innovator award from the Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN).
Photos: University of Huddersfield

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A leather and plastic alternative made of seaweed - MaterialDistrict

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Anna Watkins, a student at the University of Huddersfield in the UK, developed a seaweed based material that aims to replace materials like leather and plastic. The aim of the project was to create a biomaterial to replace the often unsustainable materials used in fashion.

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https://www.c2ccertified.org/news/article/green-grows-up-building-in-the-age-of-the-circular-economy

There is economic value in the materials that are used every day in the built environment. But, we need to design products, buildings, and cities differently to realize that value. When we create value through intelligent design, we not only create economic value but we also create positive impacts for people and the planet.

There’s no denying that the green building movement has made tremendous strides to reduce impact on people and planet by improving efficiencies in water and energy consumption. But bigger challenges remain: We are plundering our world of precious, finite resources at an increasing rate.

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https://www.engen.org.au/index_htm_files/DFD-guidelines.pdf

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after trying to find research to support the end of life seperate-able material between wool and my bio experiments by the time they take to biodegrade this link mentioned

Alginate is a natural polysaccharide exhibiting excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, having many different applications in the field of biomedicine. Alginate is readily processable for applicable three-dimensional scaffolding materials such as hydrogels, microspheres, microcapsules, sponges, foams and fibers.

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https://libsearch.arts.ac.uk/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=1453221&query_desc=

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Catalogue: Powered by Koha, Supported by PTFS-Europe

Articles Plus: Powered by Explorit, Supported by Deep Web Technologies

© 2021 University of the Arts London. All Rights Reserved.

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University of the Arts Library Catalogue

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Catalogue: Powered by Koha, Supported by PTFS-Europe

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https://libsearch.arts.ac.uk/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=645965&query_desc=kw%2Cwrdl%3A%20building%20from%20waste

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Enhanced descriptions from Syndetics:

"Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Recover" is the sustainable guideline that has replaced the "Take, Make, Waste" attitude of the industrial age. Based on their background at the ETH Zurich and the Future Cities Laboratory in Singapore, the authors provide both a conceptual and practical look into materials and products which use waste as a renewable resource.

This book introduces an inventory of current projects and building elements, ranging from marketed products, among them façade panels made of straw and self-healing concrete, to advanced research and development like newspaper, wood or jeans denim used as isolating fibres. Going beyond the mere recycling aspect of reused materials, it looks into innovative concepts of how materials usually regarded as waste can be processed into new construction elements. The products are organized along the manufacturing processes: densified, reconfigured, transformed, designed and cultivated materials.

A product directory presents all materials and projects in this book according to their functional uses in construction: load-bearing, self-supporting, insulating, waterproofing and finishing products.

Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources.

Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, Michigan : ProQuest Ebook Central, 2020. Available via World Wide Web. Access may be limited to ProQuest Ebook Central affiliated libraries.

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Enhanced descriptions from Syndetics: "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Recover" is the sustainable guideline that has replaced the "Take, Make, Waste" attitude of the industrial age. Based on their background at the ETH Zurich and the Future Cities Laboratory in Singapore, the authors provide both a conceptual and practical look into materials and products which use waste as a renewable resource.

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https://www.ebaumsworld.com/pictures/37-images-of-nature-reclaiming-what-we-abandon/84296024/

**add Pinterest page

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https://blog.patra.com/2016/12/09/proudly-made-in-britain-luxury-lambswool/

https://www.materialsource.co.uk/wool/

https://www.healabel.com/lambswool/

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https://www.close-the-loop.be/en/phase/3/end-of-life

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https://www.worsteadweavers.org.uk/woolly-weekend

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greener making pallet from material library guides

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greener making pallet from material library guides

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https://padlet.com/nkhazem/65135x0uxk1xh1iq

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-the butterfly model

-material and people

Reconnecting and Healing the Relationship between Humans and
Mother Earth
Dr. Carmen Hijosa

Designing with the end in mind

You might consider the impact of mixing materials at the product design phase, routes/methods for disassembly and opportunities for reuse/recycling/repurposing of the materials and its products.

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This research developed novel material design processes with regenerated cellulose obtained from post-consumer textile waste in a non-toxic circular chemical recycling process inscribed within the context of a circular bioeconomy.

https://www.miriamribul.com/denature-copy-1
https://www.miriamribul.com/recipes-for-material-activism

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Material Driven Textile Design: Designing Fully Integrated Fabrication and Finishing Processes with Regenerated Cellulose in the Materials Science Laboratory (PhD)

This research developed novel material design processes with regenerated cellulose obtained from post-consumer textile waste in a non-toxic circular chemical recycling process inscribed within the context of a circular bioeconomy.

The new processes are the result of the development of an innovative practice that applies methods from materials science and design. The research was structured around three research residencies in pioneering material science laboratories: the Cellulose-based Textiles Section of the Biorefinery Unit's Bioeconomy Division at RISE Research Institutes of Sweden in Stockholm and Borås, as well as the Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems at Aalto University's School of Chemical Engineering in Finland.

The textile artefacts were first shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum Fashioned from Nature conference in London in November 2018 and exhibited at the Burberry Material Futures Research Group display during London Design Festival in September 2019.

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Material Driven Textile Design | dr Miriam ribul

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Material Driven Textile Design: Designing Fully Integrated Fabrication and Finishing Processes with Regenerated Cellulose in the Materials Science Laboratory (PhD)

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https://issuu.com/miriamribul/docs/miriam_ribul_recipes_for_material_a

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https://fibershed.org

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We develop regional fiber systems that build soil &
protect the health of our biosphere.

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We develop regional fiber systems that build soil.

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-biophillic design
-outcome could use as a plant pot

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http://www.bristolcloth.co.uk

https://www.instagram.com/wovenbywood/?hl=en

https://www.instagram.com/materialexperiencecenter/?hl=en

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NatureFlex™ Packaging Solutions

NatureFlex™ cellulose films are part of the overall compostable solution for a variety of product and package types. All of our packaging films can be made-to-order and completely custom. No matter your industry, the shape, size or specific requirements of your products, NatureFlex™ by Futamura offers something for everyone. We never miss a step when it comes to tailoring your film needs to you and your company.

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https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.625878/full

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Introduction

Plastics are widely used in food packaging applications primarily for its low costs (Kirwan et al., 2011; Mandal, 2015). Macarthur Foundation estimated in 2016 that 78 million tons of plastic packaging is produced worldwide (Axelsson and van Sebille, 2017), and an estimated 69% of which is contributed by food industry (Geueke et al., 2018). After short use (mostly single-use) as food packaging, 40% of the plastics packing materials, corresponding to 22 million tons, ends up in landfill and amasses in soil, which is a huge threat to underground water resources; while another 32%, corresponding to 17 million tons, leaks out of the collecting and sorting systems, becomes trashes and litters all over cities and oceans, and finally enters into ecosystems and food chain that is fatal to human and animal health (Guillard et al., 2018). The growing concerns on health and environment call for immediate acts worldwide to develop a sustainable and biodegradable alternative to replace plastics as packaging materials.

Additionally, as the most commonly used food packing material, polyethylene (PE) film is actually detrimental to long-term shortage of some fruits. Mango is a kind of tropical fruit, which is climacteric and ethylene-sensitive. Mangoes are typically under-ripe at harvest and ripen quite rapidly after harvest. The ripening of mangos usually takes 6–7 days at room temperature, after which the fruit quality decreases, gradually becomes diseased and rotted afterward (Su et al., 2001). Furthermore, the natural harvest season of mango is usually wet and rainy with temperatures of up to 35°C, which accelerates the deterioration and decay of mangos. Packaging is a necessary and vital step for fruit preservation, which not only provides protection from physical damage, but also keeps fruits from diseases and chemical contamination so that retains freshness and nutritional quality for long-distance transportation and prolonged storage (Mangaraj et al., 2009; Guillard et al., 2018). Film packaging with an modified atmosphere has been widely used in fruit and vegetable storage (Wilson et al., 2019). Modified atmosphere packaging maintains a balance between fruit respiration and the air permeability of packaging films, which forms a microenvironment with high CO₂ but low O₂ so that inhibits the metabolism of fruits and vegetables and retains freshness for extended shelf life (Dhalsamant et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2019). However, as the primary packaging materials, gas permeability of PE films is limited. Therefore, from perspective of fruit preservation, it is also necessary looking for an alternative material with enhanced moisture and vapor transmission to replace PE films for some fruits.

As one of the primary components of lignocellulosic biomass, cellulose is biodegradable and readily available, which makes it a promising alternative to plastics for food packaging applications. However, owing to strong hydrogen bonds interactions, natural cellulose possesses high orientation and crystallinity, which makes it nearly insoluble in ordinary solvents so that limits its applications. Regenerated cellulose can be obtained by chemically modifying cellulose into carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose xanthate (Weißl et al., 2018) or a cuprammonium cellulose complex (Sayyed et al., 2019). Ionic liquids are a new category of molten salts at room temperature and certain of them have good capability for dissolving cellulose. By formation of strong hydrogen bonds with hydrogen atoms of hydroxyls in cellulose, cellulose dissolves in ionic liquids (Zhang et al., 2017). The dissolved cellulose can be easily regenerated from ionic liquid solutions via addition of water, ethanol or acetone (Zhu et al., 2006). After its regeneration, the ionic liquids can be recovered simply by vacuum evaporation and reused for several times without significant deterioration in the performance (Mai et al., 2014). Ionic liquids have been extensively investigated as cellulose-dissolving solvents to synthesize cellulose-based materials, including blends (Mundsinger et al., 2015), composites (Mahmood et al., 2017), fibers (Hummel et al., 2015), hydrogels (Xu et al., 2015), and other cellulosic materials (Isik et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2017). Zheng et al. (2019) used ionic liquids [Bmim][Cl], [Amim][Cl] and [Emim][Ac] for dissolution of coniferous pulp and it was found that the regenerated films from [Amim][Cl] had the highest crystallinity, transparency, and tensile strength. Xu et al. (2020) reported a [Amim][Cl] based dissolution system for producing cellulose films from waste cardboard and the regenerated films had a smooth and uniform surface and high transmittance.

Banana stalk is a waste biomass after fruit harvesting produced in large volume due to each plant bearing fruit only once. The inedible parts, including pseudo-stems and leaves, representing about 88% of the weight of the whole plant (Reddy and Yang, 2015), are discarded as wastes. China alone will generate about 29.0 million tons per year of banana stalk residues (Li et al., 2016). The banana pseudo-stem has a high cellulose fiber content (Guimarães et al., 2009). Therefore, banana stem is an important yet underutilized cellulose resource, which is available to be converted into a variety of value-added products. In this study, regenerated cellulose films synthesized from delignified banana stem fibers using ionic liquid [AMIm][Cl] were evaluated as packaging material for mangos preservation. Furthermore, the biodegradation properties of the cellulose films were evaluated using a compost soil burial test. The study demonstrates a promising environmental-friendly solution to the problematic plastic packaging.

Materials and Methods

Materials

Banana stem fibers were obtained by scraping banana pseudo-stems, which was collected from a local banana plantation in Haikou, China. Figure 1 shows photographs of banana trees, banana pseudo-stems, banana stem fibers, and extracted cellulose by following the delignification procedure in “Delignification of Banana Stem Fibers” section. 1-Allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([AMIm][Cl], purity ≥ 96%) used to dissolve extracted banana stem cellulose was purchased from Chemer Chemical Co., Ltd. (Shandong, China). Mango fruits (Mangifera Indica L. cv. “Xiaotainong”) were purchased from a local fruit market in Haikou, China. The fruits were just picked within a few hours and did not undergo any fresh-keeping treatment.

Figure 1. Photographs of of (a) banana trees with fruits and leaf sheaths, (b) banana stems, (c) banana stem fibers, and (d) extracted banana stem cellulose.

Delignification of Banana Stem Fibers

The banana stem fibers (shown in Figure 1c) were soaked in H₂SO₄ solution (2 g/L) at 50°C for 2 h without agitation at a solid loading of 5% (w/v) to remove pectin and free sugars. The solid residue was separated by filtration and washed thoroughly with DI water until the pH value of the filtrate is neutral. The washed solid residue was then soaked in NaOH solution (200 g/L) at 30°C for 30 min to remove lignin (Shang et al., 2016). The delignified residue was thoroughly washed with DI water, squeezed to remove excess water and dried in an oven (Figure 1d). The cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents were measured according to detergent fiber method (Soest and Wine, 1967). Briefly, by boiling in deionized water and extracting with a neutral detergent solution the soluble fraction was removed and the neutral detergent fiber residue (NDF) was obtained. Followed by the extraction with the Van Soest acid detergent, the acid detergent fiber residue (ADF) was obtained. By extracting the ADF by sulfuric acid, the acid detergent lignin residue (ADL) was obtained. The cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin contents are calculated as ADF–ADL, NDF–ADF, and ADL, respectively. The raw banana stem fiber contains 48.0% of cellulose, 21.1% of hemicellulose and 15.7% of lignin and the delignified residue 79.1% of cellulose, 7.6% of hemicellulose and 3.2% of lignin.

Preparation of Cellulose Films

Extracted banana stem cellulose (1 g) and [AMIm][Cl] (19 mL) were loaded into a 50 mL round-bottom flask, and then heated in a heating mantle at 80–90°C with agitation at 200 rpm for 3–4 h. Once a transparent appearance was obtained, the mixture of dissolved cellulose and ionic liquid was cast onto a glass plate and spread with a spreader to obtain a 0.5 mm-thick layer, which was then immediately immersed in a coagulation bath (aqueous ethanol solution, 20%) to form a cellulose hydrogel. The regenerated cellulose hydrogel was then washed at least five times with distilled water to remove residual [AMIm][Cl]. The cellulose film was obtained by drying at room temperature.

Mechanical Testing of Cellulose Films

Mechanical testing was conducting following procedures recommended in the Chinese National Standards. According to GB/T 6672-2001 (adopted from ISO 4593-1993), cellulose film thickness was determined by using a thickness gauge (CH-10-AT, Liuling Instrument, Shanghai, China) to the nearest 0.001 mm at 13 positions, and the mean values was reported. Tensile properties tests were conducted using a universal testing machine (WDT20, KQL Testing Instruments, Shenzhen, China) at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min in accordance with the procedure specified in GB/T 1040.3-2006 (adopted from ISO 527-3:1995). Water vapor transmission were determined by sheet-cup method using a tester (W3/031, Labthink Instrument, Jinan, China) in accordance with GB/T 1037-1988 (adopted from ASTM E96-1980). The water vapor transmission (WVT) of the films was calculated by Eq. 1.

W V T=24×△m A×t(1)

where WVT (g/m²⋅24 h) is the water vapor transmission rate; t (h) is the time required to reach an equilibrium (the increased weight of permeability cup is less than 5%); Δm (g) is the weight gain during the time t; A (m²) is the test area of the film sample.

The gas permeability was determined using an oxygen permeation analyzer (VAC-V1, Labthink Instrument, Jinan, China) in accordance with GB/T 1038-2000 (adopted from ISO 2556-1974). The gas permeability rate (GP) of the films was calculated by Eq. 2.

G P=△p△t×V S×T 0 p 0 T×24 P 1-p 2(2)

Where GP (ml/m²⋅24 h) is the oxygen permeability rate; Δp/Δt (Pa/h) is the average value of the pressure change of low-pressure chamber in unit time after oxygen permeation is stable; V (cm³) is the volume of the low-pressure chamber; T₀ is standard temperature (273.15 K); S (m²) is the test area of the film sample; p₀ is standard pressure (1.01 × 10⁵ Pa); T (K) is the test temperature; p₁–p₂ (Pa) is the pressure difference between the two sides of film sample.

Characterization Analysis of Cellulose Films

The morphology of cellulosic materials was monitored using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (S-3000N, Hitachi). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were obtained using an FTIR spectrophotometer (Tensor27, Bruker) by mixing ground samples with KBr to prepare pellets. FTIR spectra were recorded in the spectral range of 400–4,000 cm–1. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed using a thermal analyzer (SDT Q600, TA Instruments) under a nitrogen atmosphere by increasing the heating temperature up to 800°C at a linear rate of 10°C/min. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using X-ray powder diffractometer (D8-Advance, Bruker). Samples were scanned in the 2q range of 10–30°.

Preservation of Mango Using Cellulose Films

Two sheets of cellulose film were glued together to fabricate a packaging bag (approximately 10 × 10 cm in size). Plastic packaging bags of the same size were also prepared from commercially available polyethylene wrap. The mango fruits were purchased from a local fruit market without any preservation treatment. Fruits of similar shape and size, and without visible mechanical and pathological damage, were selected for preservation experiments. The selected fruits were washed with tap water for 1 min, dried with absorbent paper, and then individually packed into cellulose or polyethylene film bags, and stored at room temperature or kept in an incubator at 11°C. Each group consisted of at least 10 fruits. The color index, disease index, diseased fruit rate, marketable fruit rate, and weight loss ratio were calculated on days 7 and 14.

The color index for recording the process of fruit peel degreening was calculated using equation (3) (Gong et al., 1994).

Color index=∑color score×Fruit number The highest color score×Total number of fruits×100(3)

where the following scoring system was adopted: 0 points for all green; 1 point for a yellow fruit pedicel; 2 point for localized parts turning yellow; 3 points for most parts turning yellow; 4 points for all yellow.

The disease index was evaluated by assessing the total decayed area using Eq. (4) (Gong et al., 1994).

Disease index=∑Disease score×Fruit number The highest Disease score×Total number of fruits×100(4)

where the following scoring system was adopted: 0 points for no visible decay; 1 point for less than 1% decay spots; 2 points for less than 20% decay spots; 3 points for more than 20%, but less than 50% decay spots; 4 points for more than 50% decay spots.

Fruits with disease scores of 0 and 1 have commercial value. The total percentage of fruits with these scores was defined as the marketable fruit rate. The total percentage of fruits with scores of 1–4 is defined as the diseased fruit rate. The percentage cumulative weight loss of fruits is defined as the weight loss ratio.

Biodegradability Evaluation of Cellulose Films

The soil burial test was conducted with reference to similar methods (Rudnik and Briassoulis, 2011; Gautam and Kaur, 2013; Maran et al., 2014). This degradation test was conducted using natural microorganisms, which better reflected the degradation of biomaterials in natural environments. To facilitate the removal of samples from the soil, the polyethylene film, cellulose film, and quantitative filter paper (Xinxing 202, Hangzhou Special Paper Factory, Hangzhou, China) were clamped between two pieces of nylon mesh. A container was filled with a 10 cm-thick soil layer, samples were tiled with nylon mesh on the soil layer, and then covered with another 10 cm-thick soil layer. The soil moisture was maintained at approximate 50%. Samples were taken each week, and the attached soils were carefully rinsed with deionized water. The constant weight of each sample was measured before and after degradation and the weight loss of each sample was calculated.

Statistical Analysis

Tests for statistical significance were performed using Statistical Product and Service Solutions (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 19.0, IBM Corp., New York, United States).

Results and Discussion

Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of Cellulose Films

The intensity of ionic liquid processing significantly affects the properties of the banana stem-derived cellulose film. When the banana stem fiber-derived cellulose was treated in [AMIm][Cl] at 90°C for 3 h, the resulting cellulose film was transparent and exhibited a tensile strength of 32.8 MPa. As the intensity of treatment decrease to 80°C for 4 h, the prepared cellulose film had an obviously improved tensile strength of 77.0 MPa. However, it turns to be translucent, probably due to incomplete dissolution of cellulose. The mechanical properties of cellulose films acquired through [AMIm][Cl] treatment under different operation conditions are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of cellulose films.

The prepared cellulose films possess an enhanced permeability. The moisture vapor transmission rate and gas transmission rate are measured to be 1,969.1 g/(m²⋅24 h) and 10,015.4 ml/(m²⋅24 h), respectively, which were significantly higher than those of traditional polyethylene films (Yaptenco et al., 2007; Table 1). The high permeability of cellulose film is beneficial to ethylene release in the modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables, which can delay the postharvest ripening of climacteric fruits, such as mango, resulting in an extended storage period.

The morphology changes associated with the banana stem fiber derived cellulose film can be observed from SEM images, as shown in Figure 2. Fiber bundles were separated from the banana pseudo-stem by mechanical scraping (Figure 2a) to obtain banana pseudo-stem fiber (Figure 2b). The images show that no obvious change was observed in the fiber morphology during mechanical scraping, but the fiber bundles became loose and irregular (Figure 2c) after removing lignin fraction. Cellulose film (Figure 2d) prepared from alkaline-delignified cellulose fiber by ionic liquid dissolution (at 90°C for 3 h) had a smooth surface without obvious fibrous structure. While in the translucent cellulose film, as can be seen from Figure 2e, the cellulose fibers were not completely dissolved, and the tiny fibers were intertwined in a network structure. As mentioned above, the mechanical strength of the translucent cellulose films was higher than that of the transparent cellulose films, probably due to the incomplete dissolution of cellulose fibers that resulted in a homogeneous mixture of microfibers and nanofibers. In a micro- and nano-hybrid cellulose film, nanofibers fill the voids among neighboring microfibers, making the hybrid film densely packed, and hence a higher mechanical strength (Wang et al., 2020).

Figure 2. SEM images of (a) untreated banana stem, (b) banana stem fiber, (c) extracted banana stem cellulose, (d) transparent cellulose film (90°C, 3 h), and (e) translucent cellulose film (80°C, 4 h).

The XRD profiles of banana stem, stem fiber and extracted cellulose show well-defined diffraction peaks at 16.4° and 22.6°, while, clearly, that of transparent cellulose film exhibits only a broad peak at 20.3° (Figure 3). This broad peak is considered an overlapped peak of two peaks at 20.1° and 21.9° and the peak of amorphous cellulose at 17.3° (Xia et al., 2016), indicating that after ionic liquid dissolution and regeneration, type I cellulose was transformed into type II cellulose along with a large number of amorphous cellulose structures (Cheng et al., 2012). The XRD profile of translucent cellulose film is quite different from that of transparent film. The translucent cellulose film maintained the crystal structure of type I cellulose, but the diffraction peak at 22.6° had a relatively low value, indicating that part of type I cellulose transformed to type II cellulose and amorphous cellulose. This XRD result is in conformity with the SEM observation that only part of cellulose fibers was dissolved by ionic liquid when preparing translucent cellulose films. Transparency is a necessary characteristic of cellulose film, so, unless otherwise specified, the cellulose film mentioned below refers to a transparent cellulose film.

Figure 3. X-ray diffraction profiles of banana stem, banana stem fiber, extracted banana stem cellulose, transparent cellulose film (90°C, 3 h), and translucent cellulose film (80°C, 4 h).

Application of Cellulose Films in Mango Fresh-Keeping

Freshness is one of the most important qualities of fruits. Fresh-keeping packaging requires good moisture-resistance, mechanical strength, and heat and mass transfer properties, which are necessary to keep the fruits hydrated and intact, and transfer heat and gas produced by the physiological activities of fruits (Soltani et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016). The cellulose film has high moisture vapor transmission rate and gas transmission rate, which is good for humidity diffusion, heat dissipation and ethylene release. A high humidity results in water condensation on the surface of both film and fruits, and the in-pack condensation leads to a rapid decay (Aharoni et al., 2007). The internal heat generation from respiration and accumulation of ethylene produced by autocatalytic ethylene synthesis accelerate the ripening and even decay of fruits (Blanke, 2014). Therefore, cellulose film with high permeability could be suitable for mango preservation and storage.

Figure 4 and Supplementary Table S1 demonstrates the effectiveness of cellulose film on mongo fresh-keeping compared to PE film. As shown in Figure 4, polyethylene film packaging accelerated the deterioration and decay of mangoes. At room temperature, the disease indexes of mango packaged with polyethylene film was 8.5 at 7 days, which was higher than that without packaging (5.25). At 11°C, the disease indexes of mango packaged with polyethylene film was 3.5 at 14 days, which was higher than that without packaging (2.75). When cellulose film packaging was used, the disease index was significantly reduced, and the marketable fruit rate significantly increased. When stored at room temperature for 7 days, the marketable fruit rate of cellulose film packaging was 80%, while those of polyethylene film-packaged and unpackaged samples were 0 and 10%, respectively. Cellulose film packaging also slowed the pericarp yellowing rate. When stored at room temperature for 7 days, the color index of cellulose film-packaged pericarp was 0.5, while those of polyethylene film-packaged and unpackaged pericarp were higher, at 8.5 and 5.25, respectively. Polyethylene is the most dominant packaging material used in fruit preservation, but not in mango preservation. Owing to the low tolerance of mango to CO₂, sealed preservation using polyethylene film can accelerate mango fruit deterioration. For example, when the CO₂ concentration was higher than 8% and the O₂ concentration was less than 2%, the color of mango pericarp turned gray and the flavor was lost (Zong, 2007).

Figure 4. Comparison of fresh-keeping effects of cellulose film and polyethylene film on mango storage at room temperature (left) and 11°C (right).

An appropriate low temperature can effectively inhibit the respiration intensity and delay the occurrence of fruit ripening and disease (Coates and Johnson, 1997). Mango as a climacteric fruit has a very short shelf life. The shelf life ranges from 4 to 8 days at room temperature, while it can be extended to 2–3 weeks in cold storage at 13°C (Carrillo-Lopez et al., 2000). As can be seen from Figure 4, low temperature storage can significantly inhibit the occurrence of diseases and pericarp yellowing, increase the marketable fruit rate, and extend the storage life. When stored at 11°C, the effect of packaging materials on mango preservation was consistent with that of storage at room temperature, with cellulose film packaging able to further improve the fruit commodity rate and extend the storage period. However, lower temperatures cannot further extend the storage life, on the contrary, it will cause chilling injury (Phakawatmongkol et al., 2004). The chilling injury symptoms include skin browning and pulp discoloration. The minimum tolerance temperatures of mango varied among cultivars, ranging from 10 to 13°C (Phakawatmongkol et al., 2004; Yan et al., 2014).

According to Liu et al., in China the annual loss of fresh fruits and vegetables in transportation is 10–20%, that is, every year nearly 14 million tons of fruits and 100 million tons of vegetables are wasted in transit from farm to market (Liu, 2014). The loss rate of fruits and vegetables in developed countries is controlled within 5% (Hailu and Derbew, 2015), because of the well-established cold chain facilities and infrastructure. The overall coverage rate of cold chain logistics of fruits and vegetables in Europe and US has reached more than 95%, while that in China in 2015 is merely 19% (Hu et al., 2019). Cold chain management is a key player in the maintenance of the quality and minimization of the loss of fresh fruits and vegetables (Mercier et al., 2017). As the results shown in Figure 4, low-temperature storage effectively maintained mango quality and significantly reduced the loss, which has a greater impact than packaging materials. However, at room temperature storage conditions, where cold storage infrastructure is scare, cellulose film packaging can help to improve the fruit commodity rate and extend the storage period.

Biodegradability of Cellulose Films

Disposable plastics are widely used in fruit packaging, but it might take hundreds of years to be decomposed in landfills. Andrady (1998) calculated that only 0.1% per year of the carbon of PE polymer is converted into CO₂ by biodegradation under best laboratory exposure condition. In natural environment the degradation processes are even slower, as the conditions are not optimized for polymer degradation (Gewert et al., 2015).

As a biomass-based material, the cellulose film exhibited an excellent degradation property (Figure 5 and Supplementary Table S2). The mass loss of cellulose film and filter paper in the early stage of degradation was low, while the mass loss rate in the later stage were accelerated. In the first week, about 4 and 6% by weight of filter paper and cellulose film was lost; in the following 2 weeks, filter paper lost 17 and 22% of its weight each week, respectively, and cellulose film 25 and 31%, respectively. After 4 weeks of simulated natural degradation in soil, the mass residual rates of the cellulose film and filter paper were 7 and 15%, respectively. Cellulose had a higher crystallinity in the filter paper, while the crystallinity of the cellulose film was decreased during ionic liquid dissolution. Moreover, the specific surface area and number of hydrophilic groups increased. These factors make the cellulose film more vulnerable to soil microorganisms (Mohan, 2011), resulting in the fast degradation of cellulose film when compared with filter paper.

Figure 5. Weight changes during 4 weeks periods in soil-buried cellulose film, polyethylene film, and filter paper.

As shown by the morphological characteristics of the soil-buried samples (Figure 6), yellow/brown spots appeared on the surface of the filter paper and cellulose film after the first week of burying in soil, as characterized by microbial infection (Zorec et al., 2014). After the second week of burying, obvious etches, holes, and cracks appeared on the filter paper surface, while the cellulose film degraded faster and became fragmented. After the third week of burying, the holes on the filter paper surface were further expanded, while the cellulose film was completely fragmented. After the fourth week of burying in soil, the filter paper was completely fragmented, while the cellulose film showed only flocculent residues.

Figure 6. Morphology changes of polyethylene film, filter paper, and cellulose film at different soil-burying stages.

The soil burial method and activated sludge method for testing biodegradability of biomaterials use microorganisms existing in the natural environment to degrade tested polymers. The advantage of these methods is that they simulate in situ condition (Itävaara and Vikman, 1996). However, they have poor repeatability caused by soil and activated sludge sources, season, environmental conditions, and are not suitable for determining decomposition products. The methods using specific microorganisms and enzymes are designed to determine the inherent biodegradability of biopolymers under optimal controlled conditions. These methods may not be necessarily representative of any specific environmental conditions but they ensure repeatability (Briassoulis and Degli Innocenti, 2017). Good methods reflecting the actual process of polymer biodegradation in nature with good repeatability and reproducibility still need to be investigated.

Biodegradable films for fruits and vegetables packaging have been commercially available, derived from various biopolymers including poly(lactic acid), starch, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (Abdul Khalil et al., 2018). In present study, commercial implementation of cellulose-based film are facing many challenges. Cellulose film possesses poor mechanical properties as compared to its commercial competitors. Various additives has been proposed to use to improve the film characteristics (Abdul Khalil et al., 2018). Also, the benefits gained from the low cost of lignocellulosic feedstock is completely counteracted by the cost of ILs. Moreover, harsh solvents such as H₂SO₄ and NaOH were used in the processes of lignin removal and cellulose extraction, which would cause secondary pollution. Still much work is needed to be done to make the manufacturing process green. Although it is just impossible to completely replace synthetic plastics with biomaterials and it may be even unnecessary, the use of biodegradable packaging materials should be the future (Tharanathan, 2003; Siracusa et al., 2008).

Conclusion

Cellulose films were prepared from banana stem fibers by ionic liquid dissolution. The moisture vapor transmission rate and gas transmission rate were 1,969.1 g/(m²⋅24 h) and 10,015.4 ml/(m²⋅24 h), respectively, which were significantly higher than those of commercial polyethylene films. The high permeability of cellulose film was beneficial to ethylene release, resulting in delayed fruit ripening. Cellulose film packaging decreased the disease indexes of mango, increased the marketable fruit rates, and decreased the color indexes, which could extend the storage and shelf life at room temperature. The mass residual rate of cellulose film was 7.0% after 4 weeks of burying in soil, indicating that cellulose film has excellent biodegradability. This study provides a method for preparing cellulose films from low-grade cellulosic resources as promising packaging materials for fresh-keeping tropical fruits.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author Contributions

BA: funding acquisition, project administration, conceptualization, resources, methodology, investigation, data curation, visualization, formal analysis, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. LZ: investigation, data curation, and writing—original draft. WL: writing—original draft and writing—review and editing. XZ, YY, and DX: investigation. JS: funding acquisition, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. ZS: funding acquisition, resources, methodology, investigation, writing—original draft, and writing—review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Funding

This work was financially supported by the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund for Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences (No. 17CXTD-05) and China Scholarship Council (No. 201803260012). Co-authors at University of Kentucky acknowledge support from the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Hatch-Multistate project under accession number 1018315.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The handling editor declared a past co-authorship with the authors BA, WL, and JS.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.625878/full#supplementary-material

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Biodegradable Cellulose Film Prepared From Banana Pseudo-Stem Using an Ionic Liquid for Mango Preservation

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The excessive use and disposal of plastic packaging materials have drawn increasing concerns from the society because of the detrimental effect on environment and ecosystems. As the most widely used fruit packing material, polyethylene (PE) film is not suitable for long-term preservation of some tro…