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 Intreoir do Léarscáiliú Daonáirimh - Aimsigh do cheantar in Éirinn 

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Introduction to Census Mapping - Find your area in Ireland

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Pirimid daonra na hAetóipe 2024 – Cliceáil ar an íomhá chun rochtain a fháil 

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Pirimid daonra na hAetóipe 2024 – Cliceáil ar an íomhá chun rochtain a fháil 

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Aerfhótagraif 3T sruthchórais na hÉireann 

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3D Drainage Aerial Photograph of Ireland

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Searchable 3D Drainage Aerial Photograph showing the rivers, streams and lakes of Ireland on a 3D landscape.

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Use this tool to create insightful maps! Choose from a variety of global and Irish layers/maps to explore human, environmental and physical geographies.

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Léarscáil idirghníomhach na hAfraice Thoir 

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Léarscáil idirghníomhach na hAfraice Thoir 

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Léarscáil Idirghníomhach Oirthear na hAfraice

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Eispéireas Teicteonaic i dTíreolaíocht na hArdteistiméireachta  

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Eispéireas Teicteonaic i dTíreolaíocht na hArdteistiméireachta  

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Treoracha maidir le hEispéireas na hAfraice Thoir 

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Treoracha maidir le hEispéireas na hAfraice Thoir 

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Grafaic eolais le staitisticí maidir le Teifigh agus Daoine Easáitithe ina dTír Féin (IDPs) Feabhra 2025 

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Póstaer maidir le cóimheas cleithiúnais 

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Póstaer maidir le cóimheas cleithiúnais 

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Líne Brandt a thaispeánann Thuaidh agus Theas Domhanda 

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Líne Brandt a thaispeánann Thuaidh agus Theas Domhanda 

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Gníomhaíocht Teicteonaic – Creathanna talún 

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Gníomhaíocht Teicteonaic – Creathanna talún 

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Fold mountains are created where two of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together.

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Íomhá de Scoiltghleann na hAfraice Thoir 

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Íomhá de Scoiltghleann na hAfraice Thoir 

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Gníomhaíocht múinteora: Obair Léarscáile 

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Gníomhaíocht múinteora: Obair Léarscáile 

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Léarscáil de Bholcáin Bheo agus Creathanna Talún 

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Léarscáil de Bholcáin Bheo agus Creathanna Talún 

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A volcano is a vent in Earth's surface from which lava, rock, ash, and hot gases erupt. Most volcanoes are located along the boundaries of tectonic plates, although some, such as those that built the Hawai'ian Islands, are found over hot spots. Scientists suspect that hot spots occur over mantle plumes.

Scientists use a variety of different classification systems to categorize volcanoes for study. This map layer classifies volcanoes as either composite, cinder cone, shield, fissure, caldera, or unknown types. Composite volcanoes, also called stratovolcanoes, are built by two types of eruption; lava flow and pyroclastic flow. Often the eruption begins with an explosion of ash and debris and ends with thick lava flows. The material from these eruptions builds up forming steep slopes with a crater at the top. One of Earth's most famous volcanoes-Krakatau, located in Indonesia-is classified as a composite volcano.

Cinder cone volcanoes, sometimes called pyroclastic cones, are formed from the build-up of small, loose, pyroclastic debris. Since these hot fragments are small, they cool quickly as they erupt, which prevents them from sticking together. As a result in locations with high winds, the volcanic vent may be located upwind of the cone. An example of this type of volcano is Cerro Negro in Nicaragua.

Shield volcanoes, primarily composed of the igneous rock, basalt, are building over longer periods of time as layer after layer of lava flows and hardens. These appear to be dome-shaped mountains. One example of this type is Mauna Loa, in Hawai'i.

Fissure vents follow the paths of dikes (magma filled fractures in the rock). These dikes may run out the side of another type of volcano or along the ground near a rift zone where two plates are spreading. Iceland has a number of fissure vents as the island sits on two diverging plates, the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

Caldera volcanoes, like Crater Lake in Oregon, United States, are large oval depressions formed by the collapse of the magma chamber after a previous eruption.

The United States Geologic Survey estimates that Earth is home to about 1,500 active volcanoes. Use this layer to explore the awesome force of nature shaping our landscape.
Use this Map Layer in the Classroom
Tectonic Plates and Physical Features: In this activity, students will analyze maps of tectonic plates to predict the location of physical features.

Earth's Major Volcanoes: In this activity, students build an understanding of where volcanoes come from, how they form, and their impact on human civilization and the environment.

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Explore Earth's volcanoes with MapMaker, National Geographic's classroom interactive mapping tool.

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Cairteoir Creathanna Talún National Geographic   

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Cairteoir Creathanna Talún National Geographic   

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Explore major (magnitude of 7.0 or higher) global earthquakes between 1950-2020 filtered from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earthquake Catalog.

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Grafaic eolais le staitisticí maidir le Teifigh agus Daoine Easáitithe ina dTír Féin (IDPs) Feabhra 2025 

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Grafaic eolais le staitisticí maidir le Teifigh agus Daoine Easáitithe ina dTír Féin (IDPs) Feabhra 2025 

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Cad iad Mór-Acmhainní Nádúrtha na hAetóipe? 

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Ethiopia is a nation in the Horn of Africa region. Eritrea borders Ethiopia to the north while Somalia and Djibouti are located to the east of the state. Sudan and the recently formed state of South Sudan are to the west while the south of Ethiopia is bounded by Kenya.

Regarding geography, Ethiopia has varying features. For example, there is a section of raised plateaus between the border with Sudan and the basin of the Upper Nile. This region also has several mountains that make up the Ethiopian Highlands. Within the region, there are also other features such as plains at the bottom of the plateau and rivers such as the Blue Nile and the Awash River. The highest mountain in Ethiopia goes up to elevations of 14,872 feet.

Major Natural Resources In Ethiopia

The country has a few known reserves of precious metals and other natural resources such as gold, potash, natural gas, copper, and platinum. In addition to all these resources, there is also an extensive potential for the generation of hydropower.

However, the most abundant natural resource is arguably natural gas. Explorations in the past have shown that Ethiopia has some of the largest deposits of natural gas compared to most countries in Africa. Despite all this potential, natural gas has not been properly exploited yet. The potential is so high that the geology of some parts of the country, like that of the Ogaden basin, resembles the natural gas-rich geological structures of oil and gas fields in the Middle East.

In addition to the above resources, Ethiopia also engages in a bit of agriculture. As things stand, about 20% is being exploited for agricultural use even though the potential is higher. Forests have greatly reduced with only about 10 to 15% of the land covered by forests. Livestock keeping is also popular with huge swathes of land used for pasture.

Plants To Utilize Ethiopia's Natural Resources

In recent years, the Ethiopian government has taken progressive steps to ensure that the valuable resource does not go untapped for much longer. For instance, a plan has been prepared that, if fulfilled, would see the extensive exploitation of the resource by 2023. The idea is to turn the sector into a crucial cog of the Ethiopian economy by then. Some of the strategies put in place to ensure the goal is reached include inviting more private investors to the country and the issuance of licenses to parties interested in the mining sector. The Ethiopian Petroleum Development Enterprise was established in 2012 to oversee the achievement of the set targets. Plenty of firms have already acquired the necessary permits to explore the vast deposits of gas and associated liquids.

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What Are The Major Natural Resources Of Ethiopia?

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Ethiopia is a nation in the Horn of Africa region. Eritrea borders Ethiopia to the north while Somalia and Djibouti are located to the east of the state. Sudan and the recently formed state of South Sudan are to the west while the south of Ethiopia is bounded by Kenya.

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Tír-Mhéadar na hAetóipe 

Daonra beo na hAetóipe (2025) –

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Tír-Mhéadar na hAetóipe 

Daonra beo na hAetóipe (2025) –

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Ethiopia population (2025) live — Countrymeters

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The current population of Ethiopia is 129,767,778 as of Thursday, May 08, 2025. Population clock live, current, historical and projected population. Births, deaths and migration of population.

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Country of the Week

With its 7,112,688 people, Hong Kong is the 101st largest country in the world by population. It is the 179th largest country in the world by area with 1,104 square kilometers.

Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China on 1 July 1997. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic system would not be imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a "high degree of autonomy" in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the subsequent 50 years.

© 2023 Royal Oak Interactive, Inc.

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With its 7,112,688 people, Hong Kong is the 101st largest country in the world by population. It is the 179th largest country in the world by area with 1,104 square kilometers. Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later in the 19th century.

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Ag Fáil Amach faoin Aetóip: Aistear trí Chultúr agus Nádúr 

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Discovering Ethiopia: A Journey Through Culture and Nature"

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AN SAOL SAN AETÓIP: Stair, Príomhchathair, Daonra, Cultúr, Mná Áille  

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LIFE IN ETHIOPIA: History, Capital City, Population, Culture, Beautiful Women

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Grafaic eolais na hÉireann maidir le fás aníos in Éirinn 

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Grafaic eolais na hÉireann maidir le fás aníos in Éirinn 

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Grafaic eolais na Príomh-Oifige Staidrimh (CSO) 202 

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Grafaic eolais na Príomh-Oifige Staidrimh (CSO) 202 

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Sprioc 4 - Comhionannas Inscne in Éirinn

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Sprioc 4 - Comhionannas Inscne in Éirinn

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Monthly Data - Met Éireann - The Irish Meteorological Service

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Met Éireann, the Irish National Meteorological Service, is the leading provider of weather information and related services for Ireland.

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 Institiúid Meitéareolaíoch na hAetóipe 

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 Institiúid Meitéareolaíoch na hAetóipe 

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World-class meteorological services in Ethiopia.

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Coimhlint san Aetóip  | Global Conflict Tracker

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In the aftermath of the war between the Ethiopian central government and the northernmost region of Tigray, Ethiopia is once again engaged in violent internal conflict, this time involving militia groups from the regions of Amhara and Oromia. Conflict began to emerge in the two regions in the spring of 2021, coinciding with the escalation of the Tigray War. During the Tigray War, Amhara groups largely allied with the central government and the Oromo sided with the Tigrayans. In the aftermath of the war, the central government announced a crackdown on the operations of regional security forces. In an effort to consolidate central military control and respond to ethnic violence in the two regions, the Ethiopian government is fighting former allies and enemies alike, including the Amhara regional forces and non-state militias from Amhara and Oromia. In late 2023, the central government escalated its military operations in Amhara, while its peace talks with the largest Oromo militia collapsed for the third time.

Between 2020 and 2022, Ethiopia fought a war with militants from its northernmost region of Tigray, then under the control of the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF). The conflict was one of the deadliest in recent world history and drew international attention for a preponderance of alleged war crimes, human rights abuses, and ethnic cleansing in Tigray. The war formally ended in November 2022; Tigray was left in ruins, and its capital was turned over to the federal government.

For decades before the war, the TPLF was a dominant political force in Ethiopia. Between 1991 and his death in 2012, Tigrayan soldier-politician Meles Zenawi governed Ethiopia as an autocracy with the backing of a TPLF-dominated coalition. The Zenawi regime oversaw rapid development and increased the international prominence of Ethiopia, but his government marginalized ethnic groups, including the Oromo and Amhara, to solidify government power. Additionally, Ethiopia was at war with Eritrea [PDF] from 1998 to 2000. The war was followed by a nearly twenty-year-long frozen conflict, effectively paralyzing both countries politically and economically.

The TPLF continued to govern Ethiopia after Zenawi's passing until 2018, when protests, especially among the Oromo population, prompted the government to appoint Abiy Ahmed Ali as the next Prime Minister. Abiy, born in Oromia, was heralded by international actors and Ethiopians alike as the country's new hope for peace and ethnic harmony. Abiy promised early in his premiership to heal broken trust between the country's ethnic groups and began to roll back restrictions on certain political freedoms. In 2019, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating an end to Ethiopia's two-decade standoff with Eritrea.

By 2020, ethnic relations within Ethiopia once again began to deteriorate. Multiple delays of long-promised national elections and the declaration of an extension on Abiy Ahmed's first term as prime minister in June 2020 drew indignation from the TPLF. The Tigray State Council's choice to hold local elections in defiance of federal orders further inflamed tensions. The elections ultimately solidified the TPLF's control of the region. On November 4, 2020, Abiy accused Tigrayan troops of attacking a federal military camp in the Tigrayan capital of Mekelle and ordered Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) troops north. This began a military operation known as the Mekelle Offensive, which escalated quickly as the ENDF pushed further into Tigray, and the Tigray Defense Force, or TDF, ramped up their response.

Abiy first framed the offensive as a targeted operation against TPLF leadership. A communications blackout implemented at the outset of the conflict shuttered coverage of ground conditions, but media and UN officials began sounding the alarm about improper treatment of civilians, especially ethnic Tigrayans, by December 2020. Ethiopia's neighbor and former adversary, Eritrea, intervened in the conflict militarily on the side of the Ethiopian government. After months of denying their presence, in spring 2021, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed admitted that Eritrean troops were fighting in Tigray.

In 2021, the United States characterized the war as an ethnic cleansing against Tigrayans, and some NGOs raised concerns about the potential of genocide. In March 2021, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights announced a joint probe with the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) to investigate alleged abuses and rights violations in Tigray, although the impartiality and accuracy of the report [PDF] were called into question following its presentation at the United Nations.

Tigrayan forces retook the regional capital of Mekelle from the ENDF in June 2021. A month later, Addis Ababa announced the results of a national parliamentary election-which Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed won in a landslide. The TPLF boycotted the election, and opposition leadership in parliament accused the Abiy government of banning poll observers in some states. Later in the summer of 2021, Abiy called on all capable citizens to join the war against Tigrayan forces as the conflict began to spill over into the Afar and Amhara regions, growing closer to Addis Ababa. In November 2021, Tigrayan troops and allied Oromo militants marched within eighty-five miles of the capital but were forced back north by ENDF forces.

After a series of failed efforts to negotiate a settlement, the TPLF and the Ethiopian central government signed a cessation of hostilities agreement on November 2, 2022, in Pretoria, South Africa. Followed by implementation negotiations in Nairobi, the agreement promised to disarm Tigrayan troops, hand control of Tigray to the Ethiopian government, end the Mekelle Offensive, and permit full humanitarian access to Tigray.

Notably, the Pretoria agreement does not explicitly mention Eritrea, nor were Eritrean representatives present at the negotiations. This omission raised international concern that Eritrean troops would continue operations within Ethiopia in spite of the agreement between the Ethiopian government and TPLF. As of January 2023, displaced Tigrayans reported that Amhara and Eritrean soldiers continued to occupy Western Tigray. The Amhara have contested ownership of the area; the displaced population was informed in late 2023 that they would be returned to their land, and the political fate of the territory would be decided in a referendum.

In 2021 alone, 5.1 million Ethiopians became internally displaced, a record for the most people internally displaced in any country in any single year at the time. Thousands also fled to Sudan and other countries in the region. By the time the Pretoria agreement took effect, the Tigray War and its associated humanitarian disaster had killed approximately 600,000 people. In late 2022, humanitarian groups were permitted to meaningfully operate in Tigray for the first time since November 2020.

The conflict in Tigray contributed to and coincided with worsening conditions throughout Ethiopia. Early in the war, the government declared a state of emergency in Amhara state after a series of violent attacks against ethnic Oromo residents. Oromia's regional army allied itself with the Tigrayans in the civil war, whereas militants from Amhara and Afar (regions bordering Tigray) were accused of assisting federal troops, even attacking civilians they suspected to be Tigrayan or affiliated with the TPLF. In May 2022, Ethiopia arrested over four thousand people in Amhara to weaken a nationalist militia that helped the government repel the TPLF, fearing its growing power could challenge the state. The next month, government forces were accused of neglecting to respond to the killing of hundreds of Amhara people in Oromia.

In April 2023, the central government announced that all regional security forces-permitted to operate under the national constitution-would be integrated into the national security services. The decision was largely seen as an attempt to degrade the autonomy of the regions, and it sparked violent protests and militia activity in Amhara and elsewhere. Also in April, Amhara militants were implicated in a series of killings of ethnically Oromo citizens within their territory.

In a reversal of alliances, the ENDF has spent much of 2023 fighting against Amhara's regional special forces and the Fano, the most powerful non-state militia in the region; both groups refused the order to disband and join the national army. In August, a senior Ethiopian official accused the Fano of trying to overthrow the regional and federal governments. Ethiopia declared a six-month regional state of emergency beginning in August 2023, and residents reported hearing heavy gunfire and seeing military aircraft.

As for Oromia, local militants began a string of attacks on ethnically Amhara enclaves in the region in early March 2021, and waves of Amhara began to flee Oromia. The federal government sent troops to fight the OLA but has failed to put an end to the violence. Toward the end of the Tigray War, violence in Oromia once again flared up, with a particularly deadly attack on an Amhara enclave left approximately two hundred dead in June 2022. By that July, hundreds had been killed in massacres in Amhara-majority parts of Oromia. Abiy-who was born in Oromia- condemned the OLA for the killings, while other elements within the federal government pointed to evidence that regional leadership was involved. In April 2023, Ethiopia began peace talks with the OLA in Tanzania. One obstacle has been the disorganized nature of the OLA, which lacks a clear chain of command. A third attempt to negotiate ended abruptly in November, with the government citing the OLA's obstruction and unrealistic demands and the OLA citing the government's failure to address fundamental issues underlying national unrest. The Oromo have long faced political marginalization in Ethiopia despite their status as the largest ethnic group in the country.

In addition, the country's destabilization has security implications for the entire Horn of Africa, a region that is also facing armed conflicts in Somalia, Sudan, and South Sudan. Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan have been locked in a political dispute since 2011 over Ethiopia's construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), a massive hydroelectric dam on the Nile River that restricts the northern flow of freshwater. During the Tigray War, Sudan also reignited tensions with Ethiopia over the fertile border region of Al Fashaga, where governance rights have been contested since the early 1900s. The dispute was exacerbated by Sudan's support for the TPLF.

Perhaps the most concerning regional development has been a return to political hostility between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ethiopia lost access to a port on the Red Sea when Eritrea initially launched its war of secession in the 1990s, rendering Ethiopia landlocked. In October 2023, Abiy began signaling his country's intention to secure a new Red Sea port, and, through it, access to international maritime trade. While he has said he does not intend to launch an invasion to achieve his objectives, many Ethiopians, Eritreans, other states in the region including Djibouti and Somalia, and U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken have interpreted his more aggressive rhetoric to mean Ethiopia is considering the use of force to secure a port.

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Conflict in Ethiopia | Global Conflict Tracker

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Learn about the world's top hotspots with this interactive Global Conflict Tracker from the Center for Preventive Action at the Council on Foreign Relations.

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Pirimid daonra na hÉireann 2024: Cliceáil ar an íomhá chun rochtain a fháil 

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Pirimid daonra na hÉireann 2024: Cliceáil ar an íomhá chun rochtain a fháil 

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Léarscáileanna Geothairseacha na hAetóipe 

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Léarscáileanna Geothairseacha na hAetóipe 

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This topographic map is designed to be used as a basemap and a reference map. The map has been compiled by Esri and the ArcGIS user community from a variety of best available sources.

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Díocas Sceitseála: An Buneolas ar Bhreacadh Nótaí Amhairc 

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Sketcho Frenzy: The Basics of Visual Note-taking

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Físeán: Teoiric agus fionnachtain teicteonaic plátaí

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Video: The theory and discovery of plate tectonics

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Time for Geography brings together the geography and geoscience community to develop award-winning, open-access educational videos, inspiring more students to take the subject further in their education and careers. Find out about getting involved at timeforgeography.co.uk.

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 Físeán: Oileán na Tine | Cuid 2 | Tionchair agus freagairtí gearrthéarmacha brúchtadh bolcánach

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Video: Isle of Fire | Part 2 | Volcanic eruption short-term impacts and responses

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Time for Geography brings together the geography and geoscience community to develop award-winning, open-access educational videos, inspiring more students to take the subject further in their education and careers. Find out about getting involved at timeforgeography.co.uk.

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 Físeán: Oileán na Tine | Cuid 3 | Tionchair agus freagairtí fadtéarmacha brúchtadh bolcánach

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Video: Isle of Fire | Part 3 | Volcanic eruption long-term impacts and responses

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Time for Geography brings together the geography and geoscience community to develop award-winning, open-access educational videos, inspiring more students to take the subject further in their education and careers. Find out about getting involved at timeforgeography.co.uk.

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Físeán: Oileán na Tine | Cuid 4 | Monatóireacht agus tuar a dhéanamh ar bhrúchtaí bolcánacha

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Video: Isle of Fire | Part 4 | Monitoring and predicting volcanic eruptions

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Time for Geography brings together the geography and geoscience community to develop award-winning, open-access educational videos, inspiring more students to take the subject further in their education and careers. Find out about getting involved at timeforgeography.co.uk.

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 Físeán: Teicteonaic, laibhe agus cineálacha éagsúla bolcán

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Teicteonaic, Laibhe agus cineálacha éagsúla Bolcán 

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Teicteonaic, Laibhe agus cineálacha éagsúla Bolcán 

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&nbsp

Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography

Contents

In this video, we team up with volcanologists Dr Emma Lui and Dr Tom Pering, to look at how different types of tectonic activity affect the chemistry and the character of volcanoes. Using real lava and exciting laboratory demonstrations, we explore:

* Why some volcanoes are more explosive than others

* Different styles of eruption

* Different types of volcano

Acknowledgements

Written and developed by: Tom Pering, Emma Liu, Rob Parker, Dan Boatright, Harriet Ridley, Tim Parker, Tony Escritt

Videography by: Vratislav Karas, Madeleine Duggan, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley
Special thanks to:

* The Icelandic Lava Show for helping us to create this video.

* Tony Escritt and Þorbjörg Ágústsdóttir for making their footage of recent Icelandic eruptions available for use in this video.

* Dr Emma Liu and collaborators at the University of Bristol for making volcano drone video footage available for use in this video.

Attributions

Plate tectonics animation clips from Stern et al. (2017) are used in this video with permission from the author. For more information, see: Robert Stern, Warren Lieu, Asya Mantey, Andrew Ward, Todd Fechter, Eric Farrar, Sean McComber, Jeffrey Windler: A new animation of subduction zone processes developed for the undergraduate and community college audience. Geosphere ; 13 (3): 628-643. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01360.1

"NASA Scientist Reveals Greenland's Geologic Past" by NASA (public domain)

Eyjafjallajokull Volcano Image © by KLIKK / Abode Stock

Volcanic Ash Eruption: Iceland Animation courtesy of NOAA

Eyjafjallajökull eruption in 2010 image by Terje Sørgjerd is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Fimmvorduhals second fissure 2010 image by Henrik Thorburn is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Lava loop.wav sound by Audionautics is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Volcano Eruption sound by smcameron is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Wind, Synthesized sound by InspectorJ is licensed under CC BY 3.0

Pāhoehoe Breakout on Coastal Plain video courtesy of USGS

Summit Lava Lake Activity video courtesy of USGS

Kīlauea Volcano - Fissure 8 Aerial video courtesy of USGS

Kīlauea Volcano - Fountaining at Fissure 20 video courtesy of USGS

Kīlauea Volcano - Fissure 8 video courtesy of USGS

Kīlauea Volcano - USA Overlight of Lower East Rift Zone video courtesy of USGS

Kīlauea Volcano - May 19 Fissure and Flow (LERZ) video courtesy of USGS

Vigorous Breakout Northeast of Pu`u `Ō`ō video courtesy of USGS

Mount St. Helens: Steam, Ash Emissions and Dome Growth, October 2004 video courtesy of USGS

Image of the Week - Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala video courtesy of USGS

Littoral explosions at Waikupanaha entry video courtesy of USGS

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Video: Tectonics, lava and different types of volcano

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nbsp Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography Contents In this video, we team up with volcanologists Dr Emma Lui and Dr Tom Pering, to look at how different types of tectonic activity affect the chemistry and the character of volcanoes.

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography

Contents

The Time for Geography team are in Iceland! Together with Iceland experts from Swansea University, Keele University and Trex - Travel Experiences, we investigate how processes deep in the Earth shape the landscapes of our planet!

In this video, we team up with tectonics expert Dr Rhian Meara, to explore the layered structure of the planet Earth:

* Solid inner core

* Liquid outer core

* Mantle (Mesosphere, asthenosphere and lithosphere)

* The crust

Acknowledgements

Written and developed by: Rhian Meara, Rich Waller, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley, Tony Escritt, Tim Parker

Videography by: Vratislav Karas, Rob Parker
Special thanks to:

* Tony Escritt for making his excellent footage of Icelandic eruptions available for use in this video.

* Jenny Hobley, Dan Hobley and Chris Macleod for making rare rock and meteorite samples available for use in this video.

Attributions

Diagram of the Earth by Kelvinsong is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (edited and recoloured for animation)

Meteorite crash over Russia 2013 video by Astronomy Today is licensed under CC-BY-3.0

Ansia Orchestra - Through the Space music provided by: MFY - No Copyright

Monkeys Spinning Monkeys music by Kevin MacLeod is licensed under CC-BY-3.0

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography Contents The Time for Geography team are in Iceland! Together with Iceland experts from Swansea University, Keele University and Trex - Travel Experiences, we investigate how processes deep in the Earth shape the landscapes of our planet!

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Teorainneacha Plátaí Eisréimneacha (Déanmhasach) - Físeáin

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography

Contents

The Time for Geography team is in southwest Iceland to explore the boundary between two of the Earth's largest tectonic plates!

In this video, we team up with Dr Rich Waller to explore how energy from deep within the Earth drives the plates apart at divergent-or constructive-plate boundaries to create new oceanic crust.

Acknowledgements

Written and developed by: Rich Waller, Rhian Meara, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley, Tony Escritt, Tim Parker.

Videography by: Vratislav Karas, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley.

Attributions

Plate Boundaries (white) by Science On a Sphere is in the public domain.

NASA Scientist Reveals Greenland's Geologic Past by NASA is in the public domain.

Thingvellir ( Þingvellir ) National Park in western Iceland from drone Phantom 4 by World&Drone is licensed under CC BY 3.0.

Volcano Eruption Sound by SPANAC is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Welcome to Lava Block by Lava Block is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

Scotese, C.R., 2019. Plate Tectonics, Paleogeography, and Ice Ages is licensed under CC-BY-3.0.

Kīlauea Volcano - USA Overlight of Lower East Rift Zone by USGS is in the public domain.

Erta Ale Volcano, Ethiopia by Ifan Chang is licensed under CC-BY-3.0.

Kīlauea Volcano - Fissure 8 Lava Fountain by USGS is in the public domain.

Lava loop.wav by Audionautics is licensed under CC-BY-3.0.

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Video: Divergent (constructive) plate boundaries

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography Contents The Time for Geography team is in southwest Iceland to explore the boundary between two of the Earth's largest tectonic plates!

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Teorainneacha Plátaí Coinbhéirseacha (Claochlaigh) - Físeáin

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography

Contents

Southwest Iceland experiences earthquakes because it's located right on top of a conservative-or transform-plate boundary, where two tectonic plate move past each other side by side.

In this video, the Time for Geography team is in Iceland with tour guide Tony Escritt from Trex - Travel Experiences and tectonics expert Dr Rhian Meara to learn more about conservative plate boundaries and why they produce large earthquakes.

Acknowledgements

Written and developed by: Rhian Meara, Rich Waller, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley, Tony Escritt, Tim Parker.

Videography by: Vratislav Karas, Rob Parker, Harriet Ridley.

Attributions

Plate tectonics animation clips from Stern et al. (2017) are used in this video with permission from the author. For more information, see Robert Stern, Warren Lieu, Asya Mantey, Andrew Ward, Todd Fechter, Eric Farrar, Sean McComber, Jeffrey Windler: A new animation of subduction zone processes developed for the undergraduate and community college audience. Geosphere ; 13 (3): 628-643. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01360.1

Earthquake Inside House Sound Effect (4K Subscribers Special) by Chander Prakash is licensed under CC BY 3.0.

HayWired Scenario by USGS is in the public domain.

NASA Scientist Reveals Greenland's Geologic Past by NASA is in the public domain.

Plate Boundaries by Chris Merkert is licensed under CC BY 3.0.

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Video: Conservative (transform) plate boundaries

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nbsp Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography Contents Southwest Iceland experiences earthquakes because it's located right on top of a conservative-or transform-plate boundary, where two tectonic plate move past each other side by side.

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Time for Geography brings together the geography and geoscience community to develop award-winning, open-access educational videos, inspiring more students to take the subject further in their education and careers. Find out about getting involved at timeforgeography.co.uk.

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB Geography

This award-winning geography case study video resource reflects on the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and looks ahead to potential volcanic eruptions in Iceland.

In this video, we cover:

- The causes and impacts of the eruption, with visits to some of the localities directly affected
- Volcano monitoring and preparedness
- The impacts associated with the future eruption of Katla
- Positive impacts of the volcanic eruption on tourism in Iceland

This teaching resource uses narrative, incisive interviews of local people, stunning archive footage of the eruption itself and supportive maps and diagrams to show that, through detailed scientific knowledge and monitoring, the people in Iceland not only understand the threats posed by volcanic eruptions but also see the rich benefits of living in the 'Land of Fire and Ice'.

Visit Discover the World Education to download the free teaching resources, which accompany this video: http://bit.ly/2xzJ8r5

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Video: Eyjafjallajokull 2010 volcanic eruption case study

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This award-winning geography case study video resource reflects on the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in 2010 and looks ahead to potential volcanic eruptions in Iceland.

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Físeán: Ag Maireachtáil faoi Scáth Bholcáin na hIodáile

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB Geography

Populations living in tectonically active regions face very specific challenges and are forced to accept the risks of living with natural hazards. Simultaneously, there are benefits associated with volcanic activity, including tourism and soil fertility.

In this video, developed by Discover the World Education, Simon Ross investigates the causes and impacts of recent and historic volcanic eruptions in Southern Italy.

In this video, we cover:

* The causes and impacts of recent and historic volcanic eruptions, with visits to some of the localities directly affected

* Informative diagrams to support the study of the complex processes associated with the destructive plate margin in southern Italy.

* Scientific assessments of volcano monitoring and community preparedness.

* Consideration of the possible impacts associated with future volcanic eruptions

* The positive impacts of volcanic eruptions on the local people.

This video is accompanied by supporting resources and classroom worksheets.

Acknowledgements

Written, presented and produced by: Simon Ross, Discover the World Education

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Video: Living in the Shadow of Italy's Volcanoes

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nbsp Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB Geography Populations living in tectonically active regions face very specific challenges and are forced to accept the risks of living with natural hazards. Simultaneously, there are benefits associated with volcanic activity, including tourism and soil fertility.

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Cad é atá taobh thiar den aighneas  sa Níl idir an Éigipt agus an Aetóip? | Tosaigh anseo 

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What's behind the Egypt-Ethiopia Nile dispute? | Start Here

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 An Meigeadhamba $ 5 Billiún ag cruthú teannas ar an Níl

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The $5 Billion Mega Dam Creating Tension on the Nile

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Alt ón Guardian D'athraigh comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta gach rud do Thuaisceart Éireann

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Alt ón Guardian -  “War looms between Ethiopia & Eritrea” 

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Daonáireamh 2022: Daonra chomh hard le 5.1 milliún

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Census 2022: Population up to 5.1 million

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Físeán: Oileán na Tine | Cuid 1 | Tosaíonn brúchtadh bolcánach

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Course links: GCSE * IGCSE * A-level * IA-level * IB * National 5 * Higher Geography

Contents

As the world's population grows, communities in volcanic regions increasingly depend on lessons learned from the study and management of past eruptions. This is evident from examples of the successful management of recent eruptions on Iceland's Reykjanes peninsular.

In this series of videos, we team up with leading volcanic hazards experts from Swansea University, the University of Leicester, the University of Liverpool and Manchester Metropolitan University, to tell the story of one of the most important eruptions in the history of volcanic hazard management: The 1973 eruption on the island of Heimaey in southwest Iceland. By taking a unique, 50-year perspective, we explore the causes of the eruption, its primary and secondary impacts, and the short- long-term responses. Building on this understanding, we then investigate how geoscientists today monitor and predict volcanic eruptions, and manage volcanic crisis scenarios.

In this first video, we go back to 23 January 1973, to discover how Iceland's tectonic processes produced an effusive, fissure eruption, that forever changed the lives of a small island fishing community.

To develop this series, we teamed up with leading education travel provider Rayburn Tours. To find out about inspiring geography trips to the island of Heimaey, visit Rayburn Tours | Group travel and school trip specialists since 1965.

Acknowledgements

Written and developed by: Rhian Meara, Rob Parker, Josh Carron, Emily Bilbie, Catherine Rule, Marc Reichow, Tim Parker, Nicky Astle, Janine Kavanagh, Jane Boygle, Iestyn Barr

Special thanks to:

Photographs of Heimaey from 1973, taken by Sigurgeir Jónasson, were provided by the Eldheimar Museum.

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Video: Isle of Fire | Part 1 | A volcanic eruption begins

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Thank you to Rayburn Tours, educational travel for schools and universities for helping us make Time for Geography, here on the geographically fascinating volcanic island of Heimaey in southwest Iceland. Iceland, land of ice and fire. 400,000 people living on top of an ......

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Resource

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

The Nile River flows over 6,600 kilometers (4,100 miles) until emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. For thousands of years, the river has provided a source of irrigation to transform the dry area around it into lush agricultural land. Today, the river continues to serve as a source of irrigation, as well as an important transportation and trade route.

Subjects

Anthropology, Sociology, Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Image

Women and Children on the Banks of the Nile

Even today, families come to the banks of the Nile River to gather water for their day, against the backdrop of ancient Egyptian ruins.

Photograph by David Boyer

The Nile River flows from south to north through eastern Africa. It begins in the rivers that flow into Lake Victoria (located in modern-day Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya), and empties into the Mediterranean Sea more than 6,600 kilometers (4,100 miles) to the north, making it one of the longest river in the world. The Nile River was critical to the development of ancient Egypt. In addition to Egypt, the Nile runs through or along the border of 10 other African countries, namely, Burundi, Tanzania, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia, and South Sudan. Its three main tributaries are the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara.

The soil of the Nile River delta between El Qâhira (Cairo) and the Mediterranean Sea is rich in nutrients, due to the large silt deposits the Nile leaves behind as it flows into the sea. The banks of the Nile all along its vast length contain rich soil as well, thanks to annual flooding that deposits silt. From space, the contrast between the Nile's lush green river banks and the barren desert through which it flows is obvious.

For millennia, much of Egypt's food has been cultivated in the Nile delta region. Ancient Egyptians developed irrigation methods to increase the amount of land they could use for crops and support a thriving population. Beans, cotton, wheat, and flax were important and abundant crops that could be easily stored and traded.

The Nile River delta was also an ideal growing location for the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptians used the papyrus plant in many ways, such as making cloth, boxes, and rope, but by far its most important use was in making paper. Besides using the river's natural resources for themselves and trading them with others, early Egyptians also used the river for bathing, drinking, recreation, and transportation.

Today, 95 percent of Egyptians live within a few kilometers of the Nile. Canals bring water from the Nile to irrigate farms and support cities. The Nile supports agriculture and fishing. The Nile also has served as an important transportation route for thousands of years. Today, some residents of El Qâhira (Cairo) have begun using private speed boats, water taxis, or ferries to avoid crowded streets. Dams, such as the Aswân High Dam in Egypt, have been built to help to tame the river and provide a source of hydroelectric power.

However, the silt and sediment that used to flow north, enriching the soil and building the delta, is now building up behind the dam instead. Instead of growing in size through the soil deposits, the delta is now shrinking due to erosion along the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, routine annual flooding no longer occurs along parts of the Nile. These floods were necessary to flush and clean the water of human and agricultural waste. As a result, the water is becoming more polluted.

The Nile River also continues to be an important trade route, connecting Africa with markets in Europe and beyond.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society

Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

August 2, 2023

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The Nile River flows over 6,600 kilometers (4,100 miles) until emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. For thousands of years, the river has provided a source of irrigation to transform the dry area around it into lush agricultural land. Today, the river continues to serve as a source of irrigation, as well as an important transportation and trade route.

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Daonra Addis Ababa | Cé mhéad duine atá ina gcónaí in Addis Abeba, an Aetóip?

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Population of Addis Ababa | How many people live in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia?

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 Cogadh Inmheánach na hAetóipe | VICE ar SHOWTIME 

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Ethiopia's War Within | VICE on SHOWTIME

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An choimhlint san Aetóip – cé atá ag troid agus cén fáth? | Tosaigh anseo 

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The conflict in Ethiopia—who’s fighting who, and why? | Start Here

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Comhionannas Inscne in Éirinn – Colláis 

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Comhionannas Inscne in Éirinn – Colláis 

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Comhionannas Inscne san Aetóip – Colláis 

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Comhionannas Inscne san Aetóip – Colláis 

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Ráitis an Triantáin Halaib don ghníomhaíocht maidir le Zón Tábhachta 

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Ráitis an Triantáin Halaib don ghníomhaíocht maidir le Zón Tábhachta 

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On July 21, 1970, Egyptian engineers completed the Aswan Dam, which controls the flow of the Nile River.

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Cairteoir National Geographic – áit a ritheann aibhneacha 

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Cairteoir National Geographic – áit a ritheann aibhneacha 

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This map helps students describe water’s local and global movement as it flows over land as part of the water cycle.

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An dóigh ar imigh Oidhreacht Núibiach le Damba Aswan na hÉigipte 

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Damba Aswan agus Oidhreacht Núibiach na hÉigipte 

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Damba Aswan agus Oidhreacht Núibiach na hÉigipte 

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Over the course of the 20th century, the population of Nubia - the region that straddles today's Egyptian-Sudanese border - experienced the progressive flooding and destruction of their homes, as two dams were constructed just south of the Egyptian city of Aswan. The first, the "Khazan Aswan" (or Aswan Dam), was built and heightened during the century's first few decades under British rule. The second - the larger and infinitely more destructive "al-Sadd al-Ali" (High Dam) - became a centerpiece of Gamal Abdel Nasser's presidency as the structure took shape during the 1960s.

Nubia, archaeologists now suggest, had long been a region culturally entangled with the areas surrounding it. It was also an area whose population had a distinctive identity and way of life, a fact that the building of the dams helped to emphasize, as Nubian matters came more into the public eye. When construction of the first Aswan Dam began, however, Nubia found itself subject to Egyptian ideas of the "unity of the Nile Valley" and of maintaining an Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (founded in 1899), which was dominated by the northern country and its British overlords.

Consequently, it should come as no surprise that the work of damming at Aswan engendered the forced migration of Nubians. At the same time, by simultaneously stimulating archaeological surveys and preserving Nubia's soon-to-be flooded ancient remains, the construction of the dams created and solidified a colonial view of the region's past. The Nubian (non-)role in the process resounds with loud, clear and contentious reverberations today. Classing Nubians as racially degenerate, both colonial and postcolonial officials prioritized Pharaonic and Greco-Roman history and archaeological work in the region, which meant that Nubia's past - and heritage - have never been seen as "Nubian." As Nubians themselves become increasingly vocal about their plight, however, and demand a "right to return," the question is: Can that heritage ever be theirs? Likewise, can anything from the Nubian archaeological projects be salvaged to help address this question?

The destruction caused by the successive dams at Aswan was meticulously documented, largely with a view to the ancient sites. Yet, as I combed through archives relating to that work, other versions of Nubia came into view. Here was the disappeared Nubia, clearly showing what contemporary accounts and history alike have chosen to ignore, with photos of Nubian settlements alongside photos of the non-Nubian remains taken so seriously. Many different actors played a role in the sidelining of the Nubians themselves by eliminating their culture from the narratives created of the area, including anthropologists, archaeologists and politicians, whether colonial or revolutionary. Today, their actions are increasingly being called into question.

For millennia, Nubian life had been lived across the then-fluid border of Egypt and (the once Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan. When these two countries signed the Nile Waters Agreement of November 1959 and approved the High Dam's construction, officials in both places made plans for the resettlement of their respective Nubian populations. Nubians would henceforth become significantly less mobile. Tied to two new nation-states - and a border that would soon be flooded - Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians (as they had become known) would be firmly entangled within burgeoning and developmentalist national identities. Such developmentalism both propelled the High Dam's construction and promoted very particular visions of past, present and future.

In Sudan, officials led by Wadi Halfa District Commissioner Hassan Dafalla planned for Nubians to move to a new settlement and land reclamation scheme at Khashm el-Girba, many hundreds of miles to the southeast on the Atbara River. Dafalla later published a book about the project and its population surveys named "The Nubian Exodus." That move happened from 1963 until 1965, despite demonstrations at Wadi Halfa, which not only meant that some Nubians remained living in hardship in temporary structures built out of railway ties but also that, from 1970 onward, Sudan's government rebuilt the Egyptian-Sudanese border town above the High Dam's floodwaters.

In Egypt, meanwhile, officials made plans for the country's Nubians to migrate to the planned settlement of New Nubia, or al-Nuba al-Jadida. Located 30 miles north of Aswan at Kom Ombo, this new home (other than playing a central role in the Upper Egyptian sugarcane industry) is most famous elsewhere for a Greco-Roman temple dedicated to the crocodile god Sobek. This temple is a favorite stopping point of the Nile cruises that have long formed a part of Egypt's tourism industry and is one of many iterations of the "eternal" ancient Egyptian imagery that helps to power it. When, during 1963 and 1964, Egypt's Nubians found themselves forced to move there, their place in relation to that vision of Egypt coalesced into a vision in which their regional past was subsumed into the wider whole. Of course, the wider region had long been subsumed into ideals about Egypt's dominance of the Nile Valley.

Plans for the High Dam had originally been proposed in 1947, before the July 1952 Free Officers' coup that ultimately led to Nasser's presidency and the 1953 referendum that sanctioned Sudanese independence. However, the dam's links to the Nasserist moment now became irresistible. Here, built with the aid of Soviet expertise (after Britain, the United States and the World Bank withdrew support for the project in 1956), was a "new pyramid" of Egypt. The Egyptian state, meanwhile, cast Nubians as willing victims of its construction: "living relics," almost, of what everyone else depicted as a premodern - and prerevolutionary - time, now traveling north to a new and better future.

Not providing much consolation to the Nubians, Nubian life would be recorded. In Egypt, the records would be subject to a Ford Foundation-funded "ethnological survey," based at the American University in Cairo, and to smaller-scale ethnological work conducted on behalf of the Sudan Antiquities Service. Yet what seemed to matter most (whether to the Egyptian and Sudanese governments or to numerous different people and institutions) were the other relics that the country's Nubians lived among: archaeological sites and ancient temples dating originally to the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman eras.

In 1960, at the request of the Egyptian and Sudanese governments (and with the backing of many other countries, most notably France and the U.S.), UNESCO launched its International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia. Today, the Nubian campaign is most famous for the cutting up, movement and reassembly of the temples of Ramses II and Nefertari at Abu Simbel above the floodwaters in Egypt and the similar action carried out on the Greco-Roman temple complex located on the Egyptian island of Philae. The campaign finally ended in 1980 and became connected to the development of UNESCO's 1972 World Heritage Convention.

Less discussed, however, is that the priorities of the project to dam the Nile had a colonial history: one that made possible the campaign's preference for ancient ruins over people. The High Dam's prerevolutionary origins in much older schemes for the utilization of the Nile help to explain why. Those schemes included the original Aswan Dam, which was built and heightened over the early decades of the 20th century. Its floodwaters themselves caused a process of (Egyptian) Nubian migration, both to higher ground and, in some cases, to domestic work in Cairo and Alexandria.

When British authorities of the Egyptian "veiled protectorate" (whereby the colonial power ruled the Egyptian rulers) authorized construction of the Aswan Dam in 1898, concerns about the flooding of Nubia's ancient ruins became as clear as they would again 60 years later. Subject as the ruins already were to the vagaries of the Nile's annual inundation, now the potential for the flooding of those structures would become worse. The temple complex of Philae (known as the "Pearl of the Nile") was located on an island just to the dam's south, and officials consequently limited the new barrage's height after French public outcry about the possibility of the island's total deluge by the reservoir that would be formed north of it.

After construction of the dam finished in 1902, however, officials made plans for the structure's heightening almost immediately. The British quest to enable perennial irrigation of the Egyptian Nile knew no bounds: Doing so would increase the occupied territory's agricultural productivity and help repay the debt that had been one reason for the British occupation of 1882.

The ruins of Nubia would have to suffer. At the same time, however, officials in Egypt's Ministry of Public Works - overseer both of the dam and of the country's Antiquities Service - continued to enjoy a soft spot for the ancient Nile-side remains. Attuned as the Egyptian officials were to viewing those remains from the decks of the steamers that plied the river, the vision of a ruined, riparian Nubia was one that continued to appeal. Officials were torn between the benefits of modernization and their enjoyment of the Egyptian past.

Consequently, as heightening of the Aswan Dam began in 1907, the Antiquities Service organized an archaeological survey of the Egyptian Nubian sites that were due to be flooded. Taking place first under the direction of the U.S. archaeologist George Reisner, then the British archaeologist Cecil Firth, the survey concluded in 1911. Yet that date did not represent an end to either damming or archaeological work. In the years after 1922, when Britain declared Egypt's (nominal) independence, the Egyptian government ordered the further heightening of the dam, which took place for the second time from 1929 until 1933. Again, the floodwaters to the south of the structure would rise, and again the Antiquities Service organized an archaeological survey to mitigate the destruction those waters would cause, this time led by the British archaeologist Walter Emery.

As the dam's floodwaters forced Egypt's Nubians to move their homes higher up the Nile's banks, both of these surveys cemented an overriding image of the region's ruination. Constructing a vision of partially flooded temples and archaeological sites and of a place once dominated by ancient Egyptian civilization, the surveys echoed both the racial tropes of contemporary Egyptological thought and the racial ideas that helped drive the building of modern Egypt. This is a long and complex story. Familiar from all racial narratives relating to Egypt, however, was the presumed backwardness of the Nubians. Thus they were ripe for sublimation into new Egyptian glories. These new images of glory ensured that the country's liminal southern region (and, beyond that, Sudan) would be dominated by its north, whose fortunes, considered great in antiquity, would either be revivified by Egyptians or the territory's British occupiers, depending on who was doing the telling. Nubia's ancient glories, meanwhile flooded and ruinous, took center stage in popular representations of the region, geared as they were toward political and tourist profit.

Thirty years later, as UNESCO's Nubian campaign sought to record and preserve the archaeological sites and temples on both sides of the Nubian border, a vision of picturesque - and sometimes salvageable - ruin took hold. Among many others, Walter Emery would play a central role in the work in both countries. Thus, in 1964, when the first stage of the High Dam was completed and the last annual inundation of the Egyptian Nile took place, the barrage's floodwaters began to submerge Nubia's ruins permanently, even as workers continued to take certain structures apart and move the pieces of temples to storage on dry ground. Those structures found themselves reassembled in Egypt, Sudan and farther afield, often to spectacular acclaim. Among other international moves, one need only think of the temple of Dendur at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

At the same moment, however, the Nubian settlements that had been located next to and around these ruins were subject to forced abandonment and were left to lie under a reservoir named Lake Nasser in Egypt and Lake Nubia in Sudan. Nubians seemed to have little connection left to these places in the eyes of the international cast of experts who helped to organize the work and define what heritage was, let alone the governments who wanted them enfolded safely within new nation-states.

What connections might be made to these places, moreover, depended on the ability of the concerned national governments to represent them in the multilateral institution that had come to help seal their fate. In 1979, UNESCO added the second set of sites to its new World Heritage List. Among the places added were the "Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae," a geographical description taking only Egyptian Nubia into account. Sudan did not manage to get anywhere on the World Heritage List until 2003, which is a reflection of the instrument's dependence on state action.

Nubia, however, never truly disappeared. Alongside the excavation and preservation of huge amounts of material culture, the Nubian campaign (and its connection to the development of World Heritage) was nothing if not a process of creating massive archives, documentary and photographic. Pictures taken during UNESCO's project in particular tell a different story from that of the disconnect between Nubia's past and present that many accounts of the region, then and now, like to relate.

Whether inadvertently or intentionally, such photos often document the close relationship between Nubian settlements and the region's ruins, in addition to visualizing the people who lived there - and who sometimes worked to take ruined structures apart. Stored in archives used by archaeological researchers, these records have mostly been used to narrate ancient archaeological and monumental pasts. Within themselves, however, they hold the key to why assertions of Nubian identity remain contested.

These photos are one of the forms in which "Nubia still exists," as the scholar Menna Agha has noted. Combing through the photo archive of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo, I came across many such examples of this slippage in time. For example, I viewed many images of the disassembly and reconstruction of the Egyptian Nubian temple of Kalabsha, built during the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus. Kalabsha today stands clustered with a group of other reconstructed temples on the island of "New Kalabsha," just south of the High Dam; it was originally located about 30 miles to the new barrage's south. Archival photos, however, illustrate the original proximity of the temple to the settlement of Kalabsha in a way that makes the entanglement of the two clear.

Since the construction of the first Aswan Dam, Nubian cultural associations have always existed, not least in Cairo. Such organizations serve as a meeting point for the Nubian community living in the city. Within certain bounds, they also work to represent Nubians to the government, media and other institutions.

Cairo's Society for Nubian Heritage, for example, was consulted on the ethnographic displays in Aswan's Nubia Museum, which opened in 1997 and was a follow-up project to UNESCO's Nubian campaign. The reaction to that process from at least one of the society's members was far from positive: UNESCO and the Egyptian government "didn't listen to a thing we said," reported the anthropologist Elizabeth A. Smith. Nevertheless, in 2019, the society became a consultative body to the International Governmental Committee of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage program. Nubians are engaged with institutions that, at times, have hurt them.

The final years and aftermath of the presidency of Husni Mubarak saw calls for Nubian rights grow stronger. Younger Nubians in particular saw Egypt's political shifts as an opportunity not only to make demands for such rights but also to make the case for a "right to return" to control of the land around the High Dam's reservoir. This shift in strategy yielded Article 236 of Egypt's 2014 Constitution. If nothing else, this article gives Nubians - and residents of other Egyptian "border and underprivileged areas" - the right to return to their former lands via the specific medium of development projects.

Unfortunately, the appearance of this Article did not lead to its application. In 2014, the government of Abdel Fattah al-Sisi promulgated Presidential Decree no. 444, which decided that 16 Nubian villages located on the Egyptian border should become military territory. This decree means that, even if action were taken in relation to Nubian development, that land could no longer be part of the work and Nubians could no longer return to it.

Nubians, whether in Egypt or in Sudan, remain sidelined. The deeper history of this sidelining, however, is one that needs to acknowledge the roles of archaeology, anthropology and heritage practice in creating the neglect. Together with irrigation programs, over the course of the 20th century, those disciplines helped to create the conditions that produced Nubian marginalization.

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