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Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech

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TikTok has established itself as one of the top online platforms for U.S. teens, while the share of teens who use Facebook has fallen sharply

For the latest survey data on social media and tech use among teens, see "Teens, Social Media, and Technology 2023."
The landscape of social media is ever-changing, especially among teens who often are on the leading edge of this space. A new Pew Research Center survey of American teenagers ages 13 to 17 finds TikTok has rocketed in popularity since its North American debut several years ago and now is a top social media platform for teens among the platforms covered in this survey. Some 67% of teens say they ever use TikTok, with 16% of all teens saying they use it almost constantly. Meanwhile, the share of teens who say they use Facebook, a dominant social media platform among teens in the Center's 2014-15 survey, has plummeted from 71% then to 32% today.

YouTube tops the 2022 teen online landscape among the platforms covered in the Center's new survey, as it is used by 95% of teens. TikTok is next on the list of platforms that were asked about in this survey (67%), followed by Instagram and Snapchat, which are both used by about six-in-ten teens. After those platforms come Facebook with 32% and smaller shares who use Twitter, Twitch, WhatsApp, Reddit and Tumblr.

Changes in the social media landscape since 2014-15 extend beyond TikTok's rise and Facebook's fall. Growing shares of teens say they are using Instagram and Snapchat since then. Conversely, Twitter and Tumblr saw declining shares of teens who report using their platforms. And two of the platforms the Center tracked in the earlier survey - Vine and Google+ - no longer exist.

There are some notable demographic differences in teens' social media choices. For example, teen boys are more likely than teen girls to say they use YouTube, Twitch and Reddit, whereas teen girls are more likely than teen boys to use TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat. In addition, higher shares of Black and Hispanic teens report using TikTok, Instagram, Twitter and WhatsApp compared with White teens.

This study also explores the frequency with which teens are on each of the top five online platforms: YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat and Facebook. Fully 35% of teens say they are using at least one of them "almost constantly." Teen TikTok and Snapchat users are particularly engaged with these platforms, followed by teen YouTube users in close pursuit. A quarter of teens who use Snapchat or TikTok say they use these apps almost constantly, and a fifth of teen YouTube users say the same. When looking at teens overall, 19% say they use YouTube almost constantly, 16% say this about TikTok, and 15% about Snapchat.

When reflecting on the amount of time they spend on social media generally, a majority of U.S. teens (55%) say they spend about the right amount of time on these apps and sites, while about a third of teens (36%) say they spend too much time on social media. Just 8% of teens think they spend too little time on these platforms.

Asked about the idea of giving up social media, 54% of teens say it would be at least somewhat hard to give it up, while 46% say it would be at least somewhat easy. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to express it would be difficult to give up social media (58% vs. 49%). Conversely, a quarter of teen boys say giving up social media would be very easy, while 15% of teen girls say the same. Older teens also say they would have difficulty giving up social media. About six-in-ten teens ages 15 to 17 (58%) say giving up social media would be at least somewhat difficult to do. A smaller share of 13- to 14-year-olds (48%) think this would be difficult.

Beyond just online platforms, the new survey finds that the vast majority of teens have access to digital devices, such as smartphones (95%), desktop or laptop computers (90%) and gaming consoles (80%). And the study shows there has been an uptick in daily teen internet users, from 92% in 2014-15 to 97% today. In addition, the share of teens who say they are online almost constantly has roughly doubled since 2014-15 (46% now and 24% then).

These are some of the findings from an online survey of 1,316 teens conducted by the Pew Research Center from April 14 to May 4, 2022. More details about the findings on adoption and use of digital technologies by teens are covered below.

Smartphones, desktop and laptop computers, and gaming consoles remain widely accessible to teens

Since 2014-15, there has been a 22 percentage point rise in the share of teens who report having access to a smartphone (95% now and 73% then). While teens' access to smartphones has increased over roughly the past eight years, their access to other digital technologies, such as desktop or laptop computers or gaming consoles, has remained statistically unchanged.

The survey shows there are differences in access to these digital devices for certain groups. For instance, teens ages 15 to 17 (98%) are more likely to have access to a smartphone than their 13- to 14-year-old counterparts (91%). In addition, teen boys are 21 points more likely to say they have access to gaming consoles than teen girls - a pattern that has been reported in prior Center research.

Access to computers and gaming consoles also differs by teens' household income. U.S. teens living in households that make $75,000 or more annually are 12 points more likely to have access to gaming consoles and 15 points more likely to have access to a desktop or laptop computer than teens from households with incomes under $30,000. These gaps in teen computer and gaming console access are consistent with digital divides by household income the Center has observed in previous teen surveys.

While 72% of U.S. teens say they have access to a smartphone, a computer and a gaming console at home, more affluent teens are particularly likely to have access to all three devices. Fully 76% of teens that live in households that make at least $75,000 a year say they have or have access to a smartphone, a gaming console and a desktop or laptop computer, compared with smaller shares of teens from households that make less than $30,000 or teens from households making $30,000 to $74,999 a year who say they have access to all three (60% and 69% of teens, respectively).

Almost all U.S. teens report using the internet daily

The share of teens who say they use the internet about once a day or more has grown slightly since 2014-15. Today, 97% of teens say they use the internet daily, compared with 92% of teens in 2014-15 who said the same.

In addition, the share of teens who say they use the internet almost constantly has gone up: 46% of teens say they use the internet almost constantly, up from only about a quarter (24%) of teenagers who said the same in 2014-15.

Black and Hispanic teens stand out for being on the internet more frequently than White teens. Some 56% of Black teens and 55% of Hispanic teens say they are online almost constantly, compared with 37% of White teens. The difference between Hispanic and White teens on this measure is consistent with previous findings when it comes to frequent internet use.

In addition, older teens are more likely to be online almost constantly. Some 52% of 15- to 17-year-olds say they use the internet almost constantly, while 36% of 13- to 14-year-olds say the same. Another demographic pattern in "almost constant" internet use: 53% of urban teens report being online almost constantly, while somewhat smaller shares of suburban and rural teens say the same (44% and 43%, respectively).

Slight differences are seen among those who say they engage in "almost constant" internet use based on household income. A slightly larger share of teens from households making $30,000 to $74,999 annually report using the internet almost constantly, compared with teens from homes making at least $75,000 (51% and 43%, respectively). Teens who live in households making under $30,000 do not significantly differ from either group.

This survey asked whether U.S. teens use 10 specific online platforms: YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, Twitter, Twitch, WhatsApp, Reddit and Tumblr.

YouTube stands out as the most common online platform teens use out of the platforms measured, with 95% saying they ever use this site or app. Majorities also say they use TikTok (67%), Instagram (62%) and Snapchat (59%). Instagram and Snapchat use has grown since asked about in 2014-15, when roughly half of teens said they used Instagram (52%) and about four-in-ten said they used Snapchat (41%).

The share of teens using Facebook has declined sharply in the past decade. Today, 32% of teens report ever using Facebook, down 39 points since 2014-15, when 71% said they ever used the platform. Although today's teens do not use Facebook as extensively as teens in previous years, the platform still enjoys widespread usage among adults, as seen in other recent Center studies.

Other social media platforms have also seen decreases in usage among teens since 2014-15. Some 23% of teens now say they ever use Twitter, compared with 33% in 2014-15. Tumblr has seen a similar decline. While 14% of teens in 2014-15 reported using Tumblr, just 5% of teens today say they use this platform.

The online platforms teens flock to differ slightly based on gender. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to say they ever use TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat, while boys are more likely to use Twitch and Reddit. Boys also report using YouTube at higher rates than girls, although the vast majority of teens use this platform regardless of gender.

Teens' use of certain online platforms also differs by race and ethnicity. Black and Hispanic teens are more likely than White teens to say they ever use TikTok, Instagram, Twitter or WhatsApp. Black teens also stand out for being more likely to use TikTok compared with Hispanic teens, while Hispanic teens are more likely than their peers to use WhatsApp.

Older teens are more likely than younger teens to say they use each of the online platforms asked about except for YouTube and WhatsApp. Instagram is an especially notable example, with a majority of teens ages 15 to 17 (73%) saying they ever use Instagram, compared with 45% of teens ages 13 to 14 who say the same (a 28-point gap).

Despite Facebook losing its dominance in the social media world with this new cohort of teens, higher shares of those living in lower- and middle-income households gravitate toward Facebook than their peers who live in more affluent households: 44% of teens living in households earning less than $30,000 a year and 39% of teens from households earning $30,000 to less than $75,000 a year say they ever use Facebook, while 27% of those from households earning $75,000 or more a year say the same. Differences in Facebook use by household income were found in previous Center surveys as well (however the differences by household income were more pronounced in the past).

When it comes to the frequency that teens use the top five platforms the survey looked at, YouTube and TikTok stand out as the platforms teens use most frequently. About three-quarters of teens visit YouTube at least daily, including 19% who report using the site or app almost constantly. A majority of teens (58%) visit TikTok daily, while about half say the same for Snapchat (51%) and Instagram (50%).

Looking within teens who use a given platform, TikTok and Snapchat stand out for having larger shares of teenage users who visit these platforms regularly. Fully 86% of teen TikTok or Snapchat users say they are on that platform daily and a quarter of teen users for both of these platforms say they are on the site or app almost constantly. Somewhat smaller shares of teen YouTube users (20%) and teen Instagram users (16%) say they are on those respective platforms almost constantly (about eight-in-ten teen users are on these platforms daily).

Not only is there a smaller share of teenage Facebook users than there was in 2014-15, teens who do use Facebook are also relatively less frequent users of the platform compared with the other platforms covered in this survey. Just 7% of teen Facebook users say they are on the site or app almost constantly (representing 2% of all teens). Still, about six-in-ten teen Facebook users (57%) visit the platform daily.

Across these five platforms, 35% of all U.S. teens say they are on at least one of them almost constantly. While this is not a comprehensive rundown of all teens who use any kind of online platform almost constantly, this 35% of teens represent a group of relatively heavy platform users and they clearly have different views about their use of social media compared with those who say they use at least one of these platforms, though less often than "almost constantly." Those findings are covered in a later section.

Larger shares of Black and Hispanic teens say they are on TikTok, YouTube and Instagram almost constantly than White teens. For example, Black and Hispanic teens are roughly five times more likely than White teens to say they are on Instagram almost constantly.

Hispanic teens are more likely to be frequent users of Snapchat than White or Black teens: 23% of Hispanic teens say they use this social media platform almost constantly, while 12% of White teens and 11% of Black teens say the same. There are no racial and ethnic differences in teens' frequency of Facebook usage.

Overall, Hispanic (47%) and Black teens (45%) are more likely than White teens (26%) to say they use at least one of these five online platforms almost constantly.

As social media use has become a common part of many teens' daily routine, the Center asked U.S. teens how they feel about the amount of time they are spending on social media. A slight majority (55%) say the amount of time they spend of social media is about right, and smaller shares say they spend too much time or too little time on these platforms.

While a majority of teen boys and half of teen girls say they spend about the right amount of time on social media, this sentiment is more common among boys. Teen girls are more likely than their male counterparts to say they spend too much time on social media. In addition, White teens are more likely to see their time using social media as about right compared with Hispanic teens. Black teens do not differ from either group.

This analysis also explored how teens who frequently use these platforms may feel about their time on them and how those feelings may differ from teens who use these sites and apps less frequently. To do this, two groups were constructed. The first group is the 35% of teens who say they use at least one of the five platforms this survey covered - YouTube, TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat or Facebook - almost constantly. The other group consists of teens who say they use these platforms but not as frequently - that is, they use at least one of these five platforms but use them less often than "almost constantly."

When asked how they feel about the time they spend on social media, 53% of teens who almost constantly use at least one of the platforms say they are on social media too much, while about three-in-ten teens (28%) who use at least one of these platforms but less often say the same.

Teens who are almost constantly online - not just on social media - also stand out for saying they spend too much time on social media: 51% say they are on social media too much. By comparison, 26% of teens who are online several times a day say they are on social media too much.

When reflecting on what it would be like to try to quit social media, teens are somewhat divided whether this would be easy or difficult. Some 54% of U.S. teens say it would be very (18%) or somewhat hard (35%) for them to give up social media. Conversely, 46% of teens say it would be at least somewhat easy for them to give up social media, with a fifth saying it would be very easy.

Teenage girls are slightly more likely to say it would be hard to give up social media than teen boys (58% vs. 49%). A similar gap is seen between older and younger teens, with teens 15 to 17 years old being more likely than 13- and 14-year-olds to say it would be at least somewhat hard to give up social media.

A majority of teens who use at least one of the platforms asked about in the survey "almost constantly" say it would be hard to give up social media, with 32% saying it would be very hard. Smaller shares of teens who use at least one of these online platforms but use them less often say the same.

The teens who think they spend too much time on social media also report they would struggle to step back completely from it. Teens who say they spend too much time on social media are 36 percentage points more likely than teens who see their usage as about right to say giving up social media would be hard (78% vs. 42%). In fact, about three-in-ten teens who say they use social media too much (29%) say it would be very hard for them to give up social media. Conversely, a majority of teens who see their social media usage as about right (58%) say that it would be at least somewhat easy for them to give it up.

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Emily A. Vogels, Risa Gelles-Watnick and Navid Massarat

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The landscape of social media is ever-changing, especially among teens who often are on the leading edge of this space. A new survey of American teenagers ages 13 to 17 finds that TikTok has established itself as one of the top online platforms for U.S.

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Over half of teens prefer healthy snacks, and nearly one-third of teenagers say they are eating more organic foods in 2021 compared to 2020. (Source: Taking Stock With Teens)

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Nestle has lost its battle to trademark the four-finger shape of a Kit Kat - something it has been trying to do for more than a decade.

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Nestle has lost its battle to trademark the four-finger shape of a Kit Kat - something it has been trying to do for more than a decade.

The company had reason to be hopeful, with trademarks and patents existing for many food and drink shapes around the world.

In the UK, one of the most iconic examples is Jif lemon juice.

Image Copyright @IL0VEthe80s @IL0VEthe80s Report

Image Copyright @IL0VEthe80s @IL0VEthe80sReport

A pancake day staple, Jif lemon juice is instantly recognisable.

But for a brief period in the late 1980s its shape faced competition from an American brand, RealLemon, with pretty similar packaging.

A legal case involving Jif lemon juice created a three-part test for "passing off" - when a business or brand seeks to pass off another party's goods or services as their own.

Despite not having a registered trademark for its shape, the House of Lords decided that Jif was recognisable enough to feel that it was being misrepresented by the American company, and that it could hurt Jif's profits.

RealLemon wasn't banned from producing packaging that looked like a fake lemon - the lemon just had to be distinctive from Jif's packaging.

Toblerone

While Kit Kat failed to meet the criteria necessary to trademark a shape, Toblerone has previously been successful.

It was decided that the triangular shape of the chocolate bar alone is distinctive enough to identify it as a Toblerone.

The chocolate's shape is also considered central to its advertising - "made from triangular almonds from triangular trees, triangular honey, from triangular bees", went a famous 1990s advert.

It's not been completely smooth sailing for the Swiss chocolate bar though - Poundland recently tried to claim that after a slight change to their bars, Toblerone's shape was no longer distinctive.

Poundland eventually agreed to re-design its Twin Peaks bars though.

Coca-Cola's contour bottle

Coca-Cola is another one to benefit from the distinctiveness of its design.

Its famous shape was first introduced in 1916 after warnings that Coke's original straight-sided bottle was being confused for copycats.

The contour bottle was first trademarked in 1960, with a version of the bottle with the words Coca-Cola written on it.

But by 1977 it was decided that the shape of the bottle alone was enough to identify it as Coke, leading to a second trademark.

It has since had trademarks for a version of its contoured bottle without grooves denied.

Pringles

What shape is a Pringle? One identifiable enough to be trademarked.

Its patent was granted in 1976, for "dough sheets" that can be "cut into elliptical pieces having the approximate size and shape of sliced potatoes and then fried in conventional chip frying apparatus".

Mmm, sounds appealing.

Hershey's Kisses

These American treats might be less familiar to UK residents, but Hershey's Kisses are famous for the "plume" that rises from the top of the chocolate.

It was enough to get them a trademark in the 1920s.

Listen to Newsbeat live at 12:45 and 17:45 every weekday on BBC Radio 1 and 1Xtra - if you miss us you can listen back here.

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The food and drinks with trademarked shapes

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Nestle has lost its battle to trademark the four-finger shape of a Kit Kat - something it has been trying to do for more than a decade. The company had reason to be hopeful, with trademarks and patents existing for many food and drink shapes around the world.

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"Hershey’s is thought to be made with milk that has been put through a process called controlled lipolysis. This result of this process can result in the by-product of butyric acid, a chemical that is found in sour milk, rancid butter, parmesan cheese, and which is responsible for the horrible taste and smell of baby vomit."

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For many people there's nothing more American than biting into a bar of Hershey's chocolate or using the little rectangles to make yummy s'mores over the campfire. But, there is a whole other group of people, who try as they might, have never been able to enjoy Hershey's chocolate. It's kind of like cilantro or even floral flavored cookies: usually you either love it or hate it. As it turns out, in the case of Hershey's there might be good reason why some folks just don't like it.

To some people Hershey's chocolate contains a flavor that other chocolates do not. This has been alternately described as acidic, goaty, tangy, unpleasant, or rotten tasting. It's one reason why many people believe that it has to do with the quality of the chocolate. But, it turns out that there's something else that could be going on here.

Hershey's chocolate (and some other American brands) are thought to taste particularly bad in European countries, areas where the world's best chocolates from Belgium, Switzerland, France, and Germany are regularly on offer. In these countries chocolate must contain at least 20% cacaco in order to be legally called chocolate. In the U.S. it's only 10% that's required. But, it appears that quality is not the only factor.

Hershey's is thought to be made with milk that has been put through a process called controlled lipolysis. This result of this process can result in the by-product of butyric acid, a chemical that is found in sour milk, rancid butter, parmesan cheese, and which is responsible for the horrible taste and smell of baby vomit.

Americans are believed to be used to the taste of butyric acid in their chocolate, having grown up eating Hershey's and similar brands. On the other hand residents of Europe find this flavor out of place in a confection.

There is another factor at play here. Hershey's -like many chocolatiers- adds polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) to some of their confections. This additive is made from castor oil and helps the chocolate flow nicely into molds, around fillings, and also reduces the amount of expensive cocoa butter needed to make chocolate candy. In theory this chemical is supposed to have little to no taste, but some claim that this chemical also adds that baby vomit taste and smell. And, since 90% of taste is smell, the two cannot help but be linked.

In 2015 Hershey's revamped the recipe for their chocolate bars, but they still include PGPR as an ingredient. Hershey's has never commented on the presence of butyric acid or any "tangy" flavors in their products.

So, if you've never enjoyed Hershey's there could be some solid scientific reasoning as to why this brand of chocolate isn't appealing to your taste buds.

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Why Hershey's Chocolate Tastes Bad to Some People

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For many people there's nothing more American than biting into a bar of Hershey's chocolate or using the little rectangles to make yummy s'mores over the campfire. But, there is a whole other group of people, who try as they might, have never been able to enjoy Hershey's chocolate.

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Introduction to chocolate

Chocolate is a food typically associated with pleasure and indulgence. It is a sugary food, high in fat and energy, which should be consumed in moderation. Many individuals consume chocolate as a treat or share chocolate at special occasions like birthdays and Christmas. Boxes of chocolates may be given as gifts on special occasions and in Australia it is common to exchange chocolate eggs to celebrate Easter.

There is considerable temptation to also buy chocolate at other times. The confectionary industry in Australia, which monitors chocolate sales, reports that some 70% of confectionary is purchased on impulse and encourage sellers to display confectionary prominently to tempt customers. Australians spend more money on chocolate confectionary products (including chocolate blocks, bars, boxes of chocolates and novelty chocolates like Easter eggs) than on other type of confectionary combined. In 2002, Australians spent $1,550 million on chocolate products (compared to $950 million and $220 million on sugar confectionary and gum).

History of chocolate

The consumption of cocoa, which gives chocolate its flavour, has a long history. Since as early as 1500BC, ancient Olmec and Mayan civilisations of South America have consumed cocoa (usually as bitter, aromatic drinks) and associated cocoa with the gods.

Cocoa has been consumed in many cultures for medicinal purposes. The word 'chocolate' (derived from the Mayan cacauatol) was coined by Spanish colonisers of South American in the 16 th century and since that time chocolate preparation has changed considerably. Cocoa is now usually consumed as sweet beverages or snacks. Mass production of chocolate sweets dates back to the 1800s.

How is chocolate made?

Chocolate is made from cocoa beans which are derived from the cacao tree, a tropical rainforest plant. The cacoa tree is native to Latin America, but is now grown in other tropical areas of the world, mostly to meet the demand for chocolate production. It grows brightly colours pods of seeds, roughly the size of a football. The 30-50 seeds (sometimes called beans) contained within each pod are the key ingredients from which chocolate is made. The seeds are harvested, fermented and dried or roasted to enhance their aroma, before being heated and mixed with other ingredients (e.g. sugar, milk, cocoa butter) to make chocolate. These typically include cocoa or cocoa liquor (non-alcoholic), milk and/or milk solids, sugar and cocoa butter (or vegetable fats).

Types of chocolate

There are many different types of chocolate, which can be broadly classified as white chocolate, milk chocolate and dark chocolate, depending on the relative proportions of cocoa and milk they contain.

White chocolate contains milk but no cocoa, while dark chocolate contains cocoa (in higher concentrations than milk chocolate) but no milk. Milk chocolate contains both milk and cocoa.

White, milk and dark chocolate can be manufactured in different ways and may therefore take different forms. For example, they may be sold as blocks of plain chocolate, as chocolate bars with additional ingredients such as nuts and wafers or as sauces or drinks.

Another means of classifying chocolate is as either block or compound chocolate. Compound chocolate, most often used for cooking, is made from cocoa and vegetables fats. Block chocolate (white, milk and dark) mixes cocoa with cocoa butter. The distinct compositions of compound compared to block chocolate have an effect on the relative proportions of saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fat levels in each (see Table 1).

Nutritional content of chocolate

Chocolate contains a variety of ingredients which contain different nutrients and affect the body's functioning in different ways. Depending on the relative proportions of cocoa, milk and other ingredients, the overall nutritional content of a bar or piece of chocolate varies considerably. For example, chocolate containing greater quantities of milk or milk solids (white or milk chocolate) has a higher calcium content, while chocolate containing greater concentrations of cocoa (dark chocolate) is higher in caffeine. Adding nuts, fruit or other ingredients to chocolate changes its nutritional composition (see Table 1). Chocolate also contains over 400 chemicals including micronutrients which protect the body and its function in various ways. These include Vitamin E, phosphorous, magnesium, iron, copper and plant chemicals.

Cocoa and cocoa butter also contains three types of fat, a monounsaturated fat known as oleic acid, and two saturated fats, stearic acid and palmitic acid. Oliec acid, like other monounsaturated forms of fat including olive oil, does not affect cholesterol levels. There is also evidence that stearic acid, despite being a saturated form of fat has a neutral effect on cholesterol. While palmitic acid (which comprises about one third of chocolate's fat content) is a saturated fat which is known to affect cholesterol levels, there is no evidence that eating chocolate raises cholesterol levels.

Please note that the values in the table are a general guide and that the nutritional value of a particular brand of chocolate may vary, depending on the relative proportions of cocoa and other ingredients and the manufacturing process used to make the chocolate.

Table 1 - Nutritional composition of chocolate (all per 100g)

Click here to view the table.

Nutrients derived from cocoa

In terms of the health benefits which may be derived from chocolate consumption (discussed below) the cocoa content is of key importance. Cocoa contains high concentrations of a powerful type of antioxidant known as polyphenols. Flavanoids, the most common subclass of polyphenols, are found in higher concentrations in chocolate than in other flavanoid rich substances (e.g. red wine). A further subclass of flavanoids, flavanols (or flavan-3-ols), are also found in particularly high quantities in cocoa.

Flavanol in chocolate is derived from its cocoa content, and thus the quantity of flavanol varies depending on the amount of cocoa in the chocolate. White chocolate does not contain cocoa and presumably contains no flavanol, while dark chocolate contains more flavanol than milk chocolate. The flavanol content of various types of milk and dark chocolate also varies depending on the quantity of cocoa contained (some types of dark chocolate contains more cocoa than other types), the agricultural environment in which the cocoa was grown and the method used to process the chocolate. Heating of ingredients and other steps in the chocolate production process can reduce the flavanol content by as much as 90%.

The extent to which flavanol from chocolate is absorbed by the body after consumption also varies depending on the type of chocolate. Dark chocolate flavanol is absorbed more readily by the body than milk chocolate flavanol. However, this does not appear to result from the differing milk content of milk and dark chocolate.

For more information on nutrition, including information on types and composition of food, nutrition and people, conditions related to nutrition, and diets and recipes, as well as some useful videos and tools, seeNutrition.

Health risks associated with consuming chocolate

There is no conclusive evidence linking chocolate consumption to a higher risk of any health conditions, although chocolate is widely perceived to cause migraines, acne and obesity. Evidence suggests that chocolate consumption alone cannot cause any of these health conditions. However, acne is associated with high glycaemic index diets and high intakes of refined carbohydrates, and consuming large quantities of chocolates could considerably increase the glycaemic index and refined carbohydrate content of a diet. Similarly, chocolate consumption alone does not cause obesity, which is a disease that arises from excessive calorie intake. However, consuming large quantities of chocolate can considerably increase an individual's calorie intake and may lead to weight gain and obesity, which in turn increase the risk of cardiovascular disorders including high blood pressure (hypertension), diabetes and dyslipidaemia.

Dental health

Consumption of chocolate may also increase the risk of dental health problems. Dental caries (cavities) are associated with high sugar intakes, so chocolate products with high concentrations of sugar increase the risk of dental caries. There is also evidence that regular intake of chocolate can cause tooth discolouration.

Health benefits of consuming chocolate

Improved endothelial function and cardiovascular parameters and chocolate

Proposed mechanism

Evidence suggests that consuming chocolate can improve cardiovascular health by improving endothelial function, that is, by increasing the amount of nitric oxide produced by the endothelium. The endothelium is the layer of tissue which lines the inside of the arteries. It regulates the flow of blood through the arteries, by producing (or not producing) a substance called nitric oxide. Nitric oxide causes the arteries to expand to facilitate blood flow. The more nitric oxide produced by the endothelium, the more easily blood can flow through the arteries and the less likely an individual is to experience cardiovascular problems such as stroke and heart attack. This may also influence a man's erectile function and the orgasmic function of men and women, as erection and orgasm are nitric oxide dependent processes (see sexual health and chocolate).

The cardiovascular health benefits of chocolate consumption are related to the activity of the polyphenols (and particularly flavanol) found in the cocoa content of chocolate. Flavanols stimulate nitric oxide secretion and thus consumption of cocoa and flavanol-containing chocolate enhances nitric oxide secretion and widens the arteries. This in turn enhances blood flow and improves a range of cardiovascular parameters. Nitric oxide also has anti-platelet effects (meaning it protects against the formation of blood clots), anti-inflammatory and anti-atheroschlerotic effects (protects against hardening of the walls of the blood vessels).

The anti-oxidant effect of flavanols is also thought to provide cardiovascular protection. Antioxidants are compounds which scavenge and neutralise free radical molecules, or molecules which contain unpaired oxygen atoms. The unpaired oxygen atoms react with and can damage other chemical compounds and cells in the body and also reduce the production of nitric oxide (and thus impair endothelial function). Antioxidants also react with the unpaired oxygen atoms on free radical molecules, and in doing so they neutralise the oxygen atoms and prevent them from damaging the body's cells. The antioxidant effects of flavanols are thought to underlie the association between chocolate consumption and improved cholesterol. Flavanols assist in the oxidation of low density lipoproteins (LDLs) which are "bad" forms of cholesterol. In doing so, they reduce blood concentrations of LDLs.

Anti-oxidants also counter the nitric oxide suppressing effects of free radical molecules and stimulate nitric oxide secretion. There is also evidence that the flavanols contained in chocolate improve glucose metabolism (and thus reduce insulin sensitivity and other markers of diabetes), by stimulating nitric acid production. Insulin sensitivity is regulated by the availability of nitric oxide concentrations.

Evidence

Endothelial function

There is considerable evidence that cocoa consumption improves endothelial function. One study in which participants consumed either dark chocolate (containing 22g of cocoa) or cocoa-free chocolate daily, reported significantly improved endothelial function (increased arterial blood flow) in the dark chocolate group. Participants who consumed the dark chocolate then tested a cocoa beverage (containing 22g of cocoa). They also experienced improved endothelial function compared to participants who drank a cocoa free beverage. Evidence shows that endothelial function improves after both short-term and long-term consumption of chocolate.

Cardiovascular disease

There is also evidence that chocolate consumption protects against ill-health and death associated with cardiovascular disease. One large study reported that men with high cocoa intake were 50% less likely to die of cardiovascular causes than men with the low cocoa intake. Another study reported a dose-response relationship between cocoa consumption and cardiovascular mortality, meaning that the more chocolate an individual consumed, the less chance they had of dying from cardiovascular complications. Individuals who consumed chocolate more than once a week were 66% less likely to die of cardiovascular causes compared to those who never ate chocolate, while those who consumed chocolate less than once a month were 27% less likely to experience cardiovascular mortality.

Studies have also reported a protective effect regarding cardiovascular ill health. One reported that elderly individuals (aged 70-74) who consumed chocolate in the previous year were significantly less likely to have a history of cardiovascular disease compared to those who did not.

Blood pressure

There is also considerable evidence that chocolate consumption can reduce blood pressure. For example, a study of Dutch men reported that those who consumed high quantities of cocoa had lower blood pressure than those with low chocolate consumption. Another compared blood pressure in healthy individuals consuming 100 grams of dark chocolate everyday for 15 days, with blood pressure of subjects consuming 90 grams of white chocolate everyday. It reported significantly lower blood pressure amongst the dark chocolate consumers. Evidence suggests that consuming chocolate can reduce blood pressure as much as some medications used to reduce blood pressure, and chocolate consumption could reduce the risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease by 20% and 10% respectively.

Inflammatory markers

There is also some evidence that cocoa consumption reduces inflammation which contributes to vascular ill-health. For example, one study showed consumption of dark chocolate was inversely associated with c-reactive protein levels. High levels of c-reactive protein are a marker of inflammation and an indicator of coronary heart disease. However, the study found that the relationship was only present when chocolate was consumed in moderation (~20 grams of dark chocolate every three days). The association disappeared when greater quantities of dark chocolate were consumed. The authors of this study concluded that moderate consumption of dark chocolate could reduce the risk of coronary events in men by 26% and in women by 33%.

Platelet activity

Evidence that cocoa consumption positively effects platelet activity, that is reduces the risk of platelets forming clots in the blood and causing blockages in arteries, is also growing. Studies have shown that cocoa consumption can reduce platelet clotting and thin an individual's blood, in a similar way to which aspirin does.

Diabetes

Evidence also suggests that chocolate consumption can improve insulin sensitivity and reduce the risk of diabetes. A Norwegian study reported a significantly lower prevalence of diabetes amongst elderly subjects (70-74) who consumed chocolate in the previous year compared to those who did not. A study of healthy individuals (average age 34 years) reported improved insulin sensitivity in subjects who consumed polyphenol-rich dark chocolate compared to those who consumed polyphenol-free white chocolate. Insulin sensitivity improved after just 15 days of consuming 100 grams of dark chocolate per day.

Improved cholesterol

Studies have also shown that consumption of dark chocolate improves cholesterol. One study, in which healthy individuals consumed either a flavanol-enriched dark chocolate bar or a dark chocolate bar with no added flavanols, reported significant reductions in total cholesterol and LDLs (bad cholesterol) amongst flavanol-enriched chocolate consumers. As high cholesterol is a significant risk factor for heart disease, dark chocolate consumption therefore also indirectly reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, by improving cholesterol.

For more information on cholesterol, including the health effects of high cholesterol and ways to lower cholesterol levels, as well as some useful tools, seeCholesterol.

Cancer and chocolate

Proposed mechanism

The anti-oxidant properties of cocoa are thought to protect against cancer by protecting cells from oxidative damage which contributes to the growth of cancerous cells. Flavanoids in cocoa appear to interrupt the cell cycle of cancerous cells (the process through which cancerous cells replicate themselves and grow excessively to form tumours). Effectively, they impair the growth of cancerous tumours, however the way in which flavanoids exert this effect is not yet well understood.

Evidence

Evidence regarding the effect of chocolate or flavanoid consumption on cancer risk is somewhat contradictory. While test tube/laboratory studies have shown that cocoa-derived flavanoids interrupt the replication of cancer cells, there is no evidence from studies of cocoa consumption and incidence of cancer amongst humans to indicate whether or not flavanoids exert the same effect in the human body.

For more information on cancer, including breast, prostate, kidney and stomach cancer, seeCancer: Overview.

Cognitive performance and chocolate

Proposed mechanism

The proposed mechanism through which increased chocolate intake improves cognitive performance is via increasing blood flow to the cerebral grey matter (grey matter in the brain which regulates sensory responses).

Evidence

Evidence suggests that elderly individuals who consume chocolate have better cognitive function than those who do not. A study of Norwegian 70-74 year olds reported that chocolate intake in the past year was associated with better performance on numerous cognitive tests. The best cognitive performance was achieved with consumption of 10 grams of chocolate per day.

Photoprotection (protection from light) and chocolate

Proposed mechanism

Photoprotection refers to protection from light. In the human body, the skin provides photoprotection by absorbing the sun's rays. This results in the production of free radical molecules (molecules with unpaired oxygen atoms which can break away and damage or alter other molecules and cells in the body). Free radical molecules can cause damage to skin cells and result in the growth of cancerous cells.

The properties of skin vary between individuals according to their genes (e.g. pigmentation of their skin) and the extent to which the skin is exposed to sunlight (e.g. use of sunscreen or a hat), and these factors influence the extent to which the skin is photoprotective. Nutritional intake is one factor affecting skin photoprotection and dietary antioxidants (including flavanols in cocoa) are thought to exert a photoprotective effect. The proposed mechanism by which they exert this effect is by reducing the sensitivity of skin cells to UV exposure.

Evidence

One study which compared the effect of UV-exposure on the skin of women who had consumed high and low flavanol cocoa drinks daily prior to UV exposure, reported increased photoprotection (reduced sunburn) and improved skin condition (greater blood flow to skin, increased skin density and hydration) amongst women who consumed the high flavanol cocoa drink.

General health and wellbeing and chocolate

One study of elderly European men found that those who preferred chocolate had better general health than those who preferred other types of confectionary. For example, men who preferred chocolate were significantly less likely to be lonely or depressed and more likely to feel happy and have plans for the future. However, the mechanisms by which chocolate preference improves wellbeing are not well understood.

Sexual health and chocolate

Chocolate has also been proposed to have an aphrodisiac effect (increase sexual desire) because it stimulates the release of serotonin (a mood regulating hormone which also regulates blood flow) and phenylethylamine (a stimulant which regulates mood). However, there is currently limited scientific evidence to support this theory.

Chocolate may also enhance sexual response in men and women (e.g. improve erectile function and vaginal lubrication) because chocolate consumption stimulates the release of nitric oxide which plays an important role in regulating sexual function. As mentioned above, nitric oxide regulates blow flow through the arteries, and the more nitric oxide released, the more blood that flows through the arteries. As erectile function depends on increased blood flow to the penis, the availability of nitric oxide can affect a man's ability to get an erection. Nitric oxide also plays a role in regulating the movement of smooth muscles, that is, muscles which expand and contract involuntarily. Smooth muscles in the genitals of men and women are involved in genital arousal and orgasm, and thus chocolate may also affect an individual's genital arousal and orgasmic ability. However, research studies are yet to be undertaken investigating the effect of eating chocolate on sexual response.

The health benefits without the chocolate

While there is a growing body of evidence that some nutritional components of chocolate have beneficial health effects, it is important to remember that consumption of other anti-oxidant containing foods (particularly fresh fruit and vegetables) also produces these beneficial effects and individuals consuming a healthy balanced diet can obtain sufficient antioxidants without adding chocolate.

There is a risk of weight gain (and associated cardiovascular ill-health which accompanies weight gain) from increasing chocolate consumption and so chocolate should be consumed with caution.

How much and which chocolate is best consumed?

Chocolate is an energy rich food which is high in fat and sugar and the National Health and Medical Research Council recommend that such foods are consumed in moderation.

People who enjoy consuming chocolate will benefit most from dark varieties of chocolate which have cocoa or cocoa liquor listed first (and before sugar) in the ingredients. Chocolate should be consumed in small quantities (e.g. 10-15 grams per day). It is also important to bear in mind that over consumption of chocolate is likely to lead to weight gain and obesity, due to its high energy content. Individuals who wish to consume chocolate may need to reduce their calorie intake from other components of their diet, or increase their physical activity to offset the energy gained from consuming chocolate.

Healthy chocolate recipes

A quick and easy low-fat slice packed with dates, walnuts and chocolate.

For more information, see Chocolate Date Slice.

Indulge in a deliciously low-fat dark chocolate brownie. Serve warm from the oven with fresh berries for a great dessert.

For more information, see Dark Chocolate Brownies.

References

1. Chocolate [online]. Deakin, ACT: Dietitians Association of Australia; 2008 [cited 19 March 2010]. Available from: URL link

2. Australian Confectionery Industry Profile [online]. Camberwell, VIC: Confectionery Manufacturers of Australasia; 2004 [cited 2010, March 1] Available from: URL link

3. Hachiya I. Discourse on a history of chocolate: Culture and science (Part 1). Foods Food Ingredients J Jpn. 2003;208(3):217-33. [Full text]

4. Vlachopoulos C, Alexopoulos N, Stefanadis C. Effect of dark chocolate on arterial function in healthy individuals: Cocoa instead of ambrosia? Curr Hypertens Rep. 2006;8(3):205-11. [Abstract]

5. Chocolate [online]. Chicago, IL: Field Museum; 2007 [cited 20 March 2010]. Available from: URL link

6. Australian food, supplement and nutrient database (AUSNUT) 2007 [online]. Barton, ACT: Food Standards Australia New Zealand; July 2008 [cited 11 November 2009]. Available from: URL link

7. Chocolate and your health: Guilty pleasure or terrific treat? HEALTHBeat [online]. Boston, MA: Harvard Medical School; 3 March 2009 [cited 19 March 2010]. Available from: URL link

8. Plotino G, Buono L, Grande NM, et al. Nonvital tooth bleaching: A review of the literature and clinical procedures. J Endod. 2008;34(4):394-407. [Abstract]

9. Traish A, Kim N. The physiological role of androgens in penile erection: regulation of corpus cavernosum structure and function. J Sex Med. 2005;2(6):759-70. [Abstract]

10. Janszky I, Mukamal KJ, Ljung R, et al. Chocolate consumption and mortality following a first acute myocardial infarction: The Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program. J Intern Med. 2009;266(3):248-57. [Abstract]

11. Hertog MG, Kromhout D, Aravanis C, et al. Flavonoid intake and long-term risk of coronary heart disease and cancer in the seven countries study. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155(4):381-6. [Abstract]

12. Strandberg TE, Strandberg AY, Pitkälä K, et al. Chocolate, well-being and health among elderly men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008;62(2):247-53. [Abstract]

13. Dietary guidelines for Australian adults [online]. Canberra, ACT: National Health and Medical Research Council; 10 April2003 [cited 3 March 2010]. Available from: URL link

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Chocolate and its effect on health - the good and bad | myVMC

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Chocolate is a food typically associated with pleasure and indulgence. It is a sugary food, high in fat and energy, which should be consumed in moderation. Many individuals consume chocolate as a treat or share chocolate at special occasions like birthdays and Christmas.

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 The confectionary industry in Australia, which monitors chocolate sales, reports that some 70% of confectionary is purchased on impulse and encourage sellers to display confectionary prominently to tempt customers. 